Biological-control
Guides
Abaris
ground beetles
Abaris is a genus of ground beetles (Carabidae) occurring exclusively in the Americas. The genus contains species recognized as biological control agents of agricultural pests, particularly in South American agro-ecosystems. Abaris basistriata, the most studied species, has been extensively investigated for its potential in integrated pest management programs. Laboratory studies demonstrate that substrate and diet significantly influence life cycle duration, survival rates, and reproductive output.
Abax parallelepipedus
Abax parallelepipedus is a ground beetle (Carabidae) native to Europe with an introduced population in North America. It is among the larger species in its genus and has been studied for its potential as a biological control agent of slugs in agricultural systems. Molecular evidence places this species in a distinct clade with A. fiorii, A. ovalis, and A. pyrenaeus, separate from the 'parallelus' group within the genus.
Acalymma
striped cucumber beetles, cucumber beetles
Acalymma is a genus of leaf beetles in the family Chrysomelidae comprising approximately 72 described species in the Western Hemisphere. The genus is primarily distributed in the New World, with most species occurring in North America including Mexico. Two species, A. vittatum (striped cucumber beetle) and A. trivittatum (western striped cucumber beetle), are major agricultural pests of cucurbit crops. Acalymma species are specialists on plants in the family Cucurbitaceae, with adults feeding on leaves, flowers, and fruit, and larvae feeding on roots.
Acanthepeira
Star-bellied Orb-web Spiders, Starbellied Orbweavers
Acanthepeira is a genus of orb-weaver spiders in the family Araneidae, first described by George Marx in 1883. The genus comprises five North American species, most notably Acanthepeira stellata, known for its distinctive star-shaped abdominal tubercles. These spiders are recognized for their unusual spiked abdomens that function as camouflage against predators. The genus ranges from southeastern Canada through the eastern and central United States to southern California.
Acanthocaudus
Acanthocaudus is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Aphidiinae. Species in this genus are known to parasitize aphids. The genus was established by Smith in 1944 and occurs in the Nearctic Region. Recent taxonomic work has described new species and resolved synonymies within the genus.
Acantholespesia comstocki
Acantholespesia comstocki is a tachinid fly species described by Williston in 1889. As a member of the bristle fly family Tachinidae, it functions as a parasitoid of lepidopteran larvae. Its known hosts include butterflies from three families: Hesperiidae (skippers), Megathymidae (giant skippers), and Pyralidae (snout moths). The species occurs in the United States.
Acantholyda erythrocephala
red-headed pine sawfly, pine false webworm
Acantholyda erythrocephala is a sawfly in the family Pamphiliidae, native to Europe and introduced to North America in 1925, where it became an invasive pest of pine trees. The species is commonly known as the red-headed pine sawfly or pine false webworm. Its larvae construct distinctive silken tubes for feeding and shelter, causing defoliation of host trees. The species has been the target of biological control efforts using parasitoid flies and viral agents.
Acanthoscelides
bean weevils
Acanthoscelides is a genus of bean weevils in the subfamily Bruchinae, native to the New World with highest diversity in Mexico. The genus contains approximately 300–340 described species with over 200 additional undescribed species. Historically functioning as a wastebasket taxon, species were transferred into this genus from other genera (primarily Bruchus) in 1946. Beetles in this genus are small seed predators that develop within legume seeds, with some species achieving worldwide pest status while others serve as biological control agents.
Acanthoscelides macrophthalmus
leucaena bruchine beetle, leucaena seed beetle
Acanthoscelides macrophthalmus is a seed-feeding beetle in the subfamily Bruchinae, native to the Neotropics and now widely distributed through human-mediated dispersal. The species is a specialist seed predator of Leucaena species, particularly the invasive weed Leucaena leucocephala, and has been introduced as a biological control agent in multiple regions. Adults are small beetles that oviposit on or near host seeds; larvae develop endophagously within seeds, passing through four distinct instars before emerging by cutting a circular exit window.
Acanthoscelides pallidipennis
Acanthoscelides pallidipennis is a leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, specifically within the seed beetle subfamily Bruchinae. Native to North America, it has been introduced to East Asia including Japan, where it was first recorded in 1997–1999. The species is a specialist seed predator of the introduced legume Amorpha fruticosa, achieving extremely high seed predation rates in its introduced range. It is subject to parasitism by Eupelmus wasps.
Acari
Mites and Ticks, mites, ticks
Acari is a subclass of arachnids containing mites and ticks. The group exhibits extraordinary diversity with fossil records dating to the early Devonian period. Recent phylogenetic analyses have challenged the monophyly of Acari, suggesting that the two main lineages—Parasitiformes (ticks and allies) and Acariformes (dust mites, spider mites, chiggers, and allies)—may not share a single common ancestor exclusive of other arachnids. This would render Acari a paraphyletic or polyphyletic grouping rather than a natural taxon. The traditional unifying character, the gnathosoma (a modified mouthpart region), has been shown to be absent or differently constructed in many species across both lineages.
Acemyini
Acemyini is a small, cosmopolitan tribe of tachinid flies comprising approximately seven genera. All members are parasitoids specializing on Orthoptera, specifically grasshoppers and their relatives in the families Acrididae and Eumastacidae. The tribe is distinguished by unique bristle arrangements on the scutellum and wing veins that separate it from other Tachinidae.
Acentropinae
China-mark Moths
Acentropinae is a subfamily of aquatic moths within the family Crambidae, comprising approximately 730 species in 78 genera. It represents the largest lineage of moths with at least one life stage adapted to aquatic environments. The subfamily includes two tribes: Argyractini and Acentropini (the latter including the former Nymphulinae). Larvae are aquatic and feed on submerged vegetation, while adults are terrestrial but associated with wetland habitats.
Aceratoneuromyia
Aceratoneuromyia is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae, subfamily Tetrastichinae. Species are primarily gregarious koinobiont endoparasitoids of Diptera, especially fruit flies (Tephritidae). The genus includes economically important biological control agents, notably A. indica, which has been used worldwide in field release programs against fruit fly pests. Recent taxonomic work has synonymized Trjapitzinichus under this genus and described three new species from China.
Aceria
gall mites, eriophyid mites, four-legged mites
Aceria is a large genus of eriophyid mites (family Eriophyidae) containing over 900 described species. These microscopic, worm-like arachnids are obligate plant parasites that induce distinctive plant growth abnormalities including galls, erinea, and witches' brooms. Some species are economically significant agricultural pests, while others have been deployed as biological control agents against invasive weeds. The genus exhibits extreme host specificity, with most species restricted to a single plant species or genus.
Aceria chondrillae
chondrilla gall mite, skeletonweed gall mite, rush skeletonweed gall mite
Aceria chondrillae is a gall-forming eriophyid mite specialized as a biological control agent for rush skeletonweed (Chondrilla juncea), an invasive herbaceous perennial. Native to the Mediterranean region and ranging from southeast Russia to Portugal, this deuterogynous mite induces leafy galls in host plant buds, causing stunting and reduced seed production. It was introduced to Australia in 1971 and has been released in North America for weed management. The mite exhibits high host specificity and completes its entire life cycle within galls, with populations declining markedly in winter and recovering rapidly in summer.
Aceria lantanae
Lantana Flower Gallmite
Aceria lantanae is a minute, worm-like gall mite in the family Eriophyidae, used as a biological control agent against the invasive weed Lantana camara. It forms characteristic flower galls on host inflorescences. Released in South Africa in 2007, it has established patchily with variable success. Its performance is determined primarily by host-plant variety rather than climatic factors, showing significant differential susceptibility across L. camara varieties.
Acerophagus
Acerophagus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, first described by Smith in 1880. Species in this genus are primary endoparasitoids of mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), with several species employed in classical and augmentative biological control programs worldwide. The genus includes notable species such as A. papayae, which has been successfully used to manage the invasive papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) across Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Members exhibit koinobiont development and variable reproductive strategies including arrhenotokous parthenogenesis.
Achrysocharoides
Achrysocharoides is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. The genus was erected by Girault in 1913 and includes species distributed across Europe, North America, and the Oriental region. Members are known for their specialized parasitism of leaf-mining moths in the family Gracillariidae, particularly Phyllonorycter species. The genus exhibits unusual reproductive strategies, including split sex broods where male and female offspring develop in separate host individuals—a trait rare among parasitoid wasps and virtually restricted to this genus.
Aclerdidae
Aclerdid Scales, Flat Grass Scales
Aclerdidae is a family of scale insects (superfamily Coccoidea) comprising five genera and approximately 58 species. Members are specialized herbivores primarily associated with grasses (Poaceae), where they inhabit leaf sheaths and feed on plant sap. The family exhibits highly derived morphology including leglessness, reduced antennae, and unique anal apparatus. Several species have become economically significant as pests of agricultural and wetland grasses, including the invasive roseau cane scale (Nipponaclerda biwakoensis) in North America and Aclerda takahashii on sugarcane.
Acmaeodera parkeri
Acmaeodera parkeri is a species of metallic wood-boring beetle in the family Buprestidae, described by Cazier in 1940. The species occurs in Central America and North America, with records from the southwestern United States and Mexico. Adults have been observed visiting flowers of several plant species, including Allionia incarnata (creeping four o'clock), Talinum whitei (White's flameflower), and Evolvulus arizonicus (Arizona blue-eyes).
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compressa
lantana bug, lantana treehopper, lantana stemsucking treehopper, lantana sap-sucking bug
Aconophora compressa is a treehopper (family Membracidae) native to Mexico, Central America, and Colombia. It was introduced to Australia in 1995 as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Lantana camara. The species is brown, up to 8 mm long, with a thorn-shaped body and produces copious honeydew. It has been documented to attack non-target plants, particularly fiddlewood (Citharexylum spinosum) in Australia, leading to its discontinuation as a biocontrol agent after 2001. It was also rejected for use in South Africa due to unacceptable risks to indigenous Lippia species.
treehopperbiological-controlinvasive-species-managementMembracidaephloem-feedermaternal-caregregarioushoneydew-producernon-target-effectsLantana-camaraMexicoAustraliaSouth-AfricaVerbenaceaeCitharexylum-spinosumLippiaAloysia-citrodorathermal-tolerancestem-suckingsap-feedingegg-guardinginstarsnymphal-developmentweed-biocontrolhost-range-expansionecological-risk-assessmentbiosecurityWalker-1851AconophoriniMembracinaeHemipteraAuchenorrhynchaCicadomorphaMembracoideaAcridomyia
Acridomyia is a genus of flies in the family Anthomyiidae, established by Stackelberg in 1929. The genus is native to Eurasia and contains parasitic species that attack grasshoppers (Acrididae). A. sacharovi has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for grasshopper populations in North America.
Acroclisoides
Acroclisoides is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Pteromalidae, established in 1915. Species within this genus are obligate hyperparasitoids that attack the pupal stage of scelionid primary parasitoids developing within pentatomid (stink bug) eggs. The genus has a broad geographic distribution spanning the Oriental, Afrotropical, Australian, and Holarctic regions. Acroclisoides sinicus, the most studied species, has recently expanded from Asia to Europe and North America, where it poses potential risks to biological control programs targeting invasive stink bugs such as Halyomorpha halys.
Acroclisoides sinicus
Acroclisoides sinicus is a small pteromalid wasp described from China in 1988. It is an obligate hyperparasitoid that exploits the pupal stage of scelionid primary parasitoids, particularly Trissolcus species, within pentatomid stink bug eggs. Laboratory studies demonstrate extreme host selectivity, with strong preference for Trissolcus mitsukurii over T. japonicus and no exploitation of eupelmid parasitoids. The species has recently expanded to Europe and North America, likely following pathways of its primary parasitoid hosts. Its presence raises concerns for biological control programs targeting invasive stink bugs like Halyomorpha halys.
Actia
Actia is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) in the tribe Siphonini. These flies are parasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, with species recorded from hosts including spruce budworm, black-headed budworm, and various noctuid moths. The genus contains at least eight Nearctic species, including four described relatively recently (A. dasymyia, A. dimorpha, A. radialis, A. sternalis). Species are grouped into three species groups based on morphological and phylogenetic affinities: autumnalis-group, lamia-group, and crassicornis-group.
Actia diffidens
Actia diffidens is a tachinid fly (family Tachinidae) described by Curran in 1933. It belongs to the autumnalis species group within the genus Actia. The species is a known parasitoid of tortricid moth larvae, specifically recorded as a parasite of Peronea variana (black-headed budworm) in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia. Its immature stages develop within a secondary integumental funnel—an ingrowth of the host body wall located on either side of the host larva's mesothorax. The species occurs across eastern and central North America.
Actia interrupta
Actia interrupta is a tachinid fly (Diptera: Tachinidae) described by Curran in 1933. It is an endoparasitoid of lepidopteran larvae, particularly species in the genus Choristoneura including the spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana), a major forest pest in North America. The species undergoes 2-4 generations per year depending on geographic location, with its phenology closely tied to host larval availability. Research indicates it competes with other parasitoids such as the ichneumonid Tranosema rostrale within shared hosts, and may have a competitive advantage in multiparasitism situations. It has been studied as a biological control agent and can be reared through manual inoculation of host larvae with first instar maggots.
Adaina simplicius
Three-dotted Plume Moth
A small plume moth (family Pterophoridae) with a wingspan of approximately 10 mm. Native to the Americas, ranging from the United States through Central and South America to the Caribbean. Introduced to South Africa for evaluation as a biological control agent against Eupatorium macrocephalum.
Adalia
ladybugs, lady beetles, ladybirds
Adalia is a genus of lady beetles (Coccinellidae) containing two species: A. bipunctata (two-spot ladybird) and A. decempunctata (ten-spot ladybird). These beetles are aphid predators found across the Palearctic region. Both species exhibit color pattern polymorphism and possess alkaloid chemical defenses. A. bipunctata is known to harbor multiple male-killing symbionts including Wolbachia, Rickettsia, and Spiroplasma, though symbiont phenotypes vary geographically.
Adalia bipunctata
Two-spotted Lady Beetle, Two-spot Ladybird, Two-spotted Ladybug
Adalia bipunctata is a small predatory ladybird beetle native to the Holarctic region, with populations in Europe, North America, and Central Asia. It is one of the most extensively studied ladybird species due to its complex color polymorphism and ecological interactions. The species exhibits remarkable variation in elytral coloration, ranging from the classic red-with-two-black-spots form to multiple melanistic variants. Populations show geographic variation in life history: European populations are typically multivoltine, while some introduced populations (e.g., Japan) exhibit univoltine cycles with extended adult inactivity. The species has declined significantly in parts of its native North American range but remains common in western and central Europe. It is frequently employed as a biological control agent against aphid pests in greenhouses and agricultural systems.
Adelencyrtus
Adelencyrtus is a genus of parasitic wasps in the family Encyrtidae, first described by Ashmead in 1900. The genus comprises species that are parasitoids of scale insects, particularly armored scales (Diaspididae). Members of this genus are small, typically 1-2 mm in length, with reduced wing venation characteristic of many Encyrtidae. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution with records from North America, Asia, and other regions. Species of Adelencyrtus have been documented as important biological control agents against scale insect pests in agricultural and horticultural systems.
Adelges tsugae
Hemlock Woolly Adelgid, HWA
Adelges tsugae, the hemlock woolly adelgid, is a small invasive sap-sucking insect native to East Asia. In eastern North America, it is a destructive pest of eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) and Carolina hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana), causing extensive tree mortality and threatening forest ecosystems. The insect is named for the white, woolly wax coating that covers its egg sacs and protects the insects beneath. It reproduces asexually via parthenogenesis in North America, producing two generations per year.
Adelgidae
adelgids, woolly conifer aphids, pine aphids, spruce aphids
Adelgidae is a small family of sap-sucking insects in the order Hemiptera, closely related to aphids. Members are commonly known as "woolly conifer aphids" due to their waxy secretions and exclusive association with conifer hosts in the family Pinaceae. The family includes some of the most destructive invasive forest pests in North America, notably the hemlock woolly adelgid (*Adelges tsugae*) and balsam woolly adelgid (*A. piceae*), which have caused widespread tree mortality. Adelgids exhibit complex, multigeneration life cycles that may include cyclical parthenogenesis, host alternation, and polymorphism.
Adialytus
A genus of aphid parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Aphidiinae. Species within this genus are solitary, koinobiont endoparasitoids of aphids (Aphididae), developing within living hosts. The genus is represented by four species in Europe, with records from Turkey, Ukraine, and Scandinavia. Members are of economic interest as potential biological control agents of pest aphids on crops and woody plants.
Adoxophyes
Summerfruit tortrix moths
Adoxophyes is a genus of tortricid moths in the tribe Archipini, established by Meyrick in 1881. The genus includes economically significant agricultural pests, most notably Adoxophyes orana (summerfruit tortrix), which damages fruit crops across Europe and Asia. Species in this genus are characterized by their polyvoltine life cycles, larval feeding on buds, leaves, and fruits of numerous host plants, and the use of sex pheromones for mate location. Several species have been introduced to new regions, causing significant damage to orchards and requiring integrated pest management.
Aenasius
Aenasius is a genus of solitary endoparasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae. Species within this genus are specialized parasitoids of mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), with documented hosts including the invasive cotton mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis. The genus has been extensively studied for its potential in biological control of agricultural pests, particularly in cotton-growing regions. Some species show remarkable developmental plasticity in response to temperature, enabling them to track their hosts across invaded ranges.
Aeolothrips
Banded Thrips
Aeolothrips is a genus of predatory thrips comprising over 80 described species. Members are characterized by distinctive banded forewings with alternating dark and light transverse stripes. Both adults and larvae are predatory, feeding on small invertebrates including other thrips, mites, aphids, and insect eggs. Some species are recognized as important native predators in agricultural ecosystems and have been evaluated for biological control programs against pest thrips such as Thrips tabaci.
Aeolothrips kuwanaii
banded thrips
Aeolothrips kuwanaii is a species of predatory thrips in the family Aeolothripidae, described by Moulton in 1907. It is native to western North America and is characterized by distinctive black-and-white banded wings. As a member of the Aeolothripidae, it is predatory on other small arthropods. The species has been recorded from Arizona, Nevada, Oregon, and Canada.
Afrida
Afrida is a genus of parasitic wasps in the family Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). The genus is represented in the University of California, Riverside (UCR) entomology collection, which holds one of the largest and most important Encyrtidae collections globally. Specimens of Afrida in this collection were sorted to genus level by J. Noyes in 1998 as part of a major reorganization effort. The UCR collection contains representatives of 261 valid encyrtid genera, with many undetermined specimens requiring further taxonomic study.
Agapeta
Agapeta is a genus of tortricid moths in the subfamily Tortricinae. The genus includes at least four described species, with A. zoegana (the knapweed root-borer moth) being the most extensively studied due to its use as a biological control agent for invasive knapweeds in North America. Larvae are root-feeding specialists, and the genus is native to Eurasia with some species introduced to North America for weed management.
Agapeta zoegana
sulphur knapweed moth, yellow-winged knapweed root moth, knapweed root moth
A small, bright yellow moth native to Eurasia, introduced to North America in the 1980s as a biological control agent for invasive knapweeds (Centaurea maculosa and C. diffusa). The larva is a root miner that tunnels through the root cortex, causing moderate to considerable damage to host plants. Adults are short-lived, with flight activity from May to August. The species has established populations in western North America and is compatible with other knapweed biocontrol agents.
Agasicles hygrophila
Alligatorweed Flea Beetle, Alligator Weed Flea Beetle
Agasicles hygrophila is a small leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, native to South America and widely introduced as a classical biological control agent for the invasive aquatic weed Alternanthera philoxeroides (alligator weed). It was the first insect studied for biological control of an aquatic weed. The beetle exhibits strict monophagy, feeding and reproducing exclusively on alligator weed. Both larvae and adults feed on leaves, causing defoliation that can kill dense weed mats and clear infested waterways. The species has been established in at least 30 countries including the United States, New Zealand, China, and Australia.
Agathidinae
agathidine wasps
Agathidinae is a large subfamily of braconid wasps comprising koinobiont endoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae. Members are distinguished by elongated facial structures in several genera, bright coloration in diurnal tropical species, and specialized mouthpart adaptations for nectar feeding. The subfamily is taxonomically complex, with phylogenetic studies revising tribal arrangements from 2 to 7 tribes. Species have been successfully employed in biological control programs against agricultural and forestry pests.
Agathidini
Agathidini is a tribe of braconid parasitoid wasps within the subfamily Agathidinae. Members are found primarily in Southeast Asia, with particular diversity in Thailand. The tribe has undergone significant taxonomic revision, with ten new genera described in 2017 to address previous issues of species being placed in 'dumping ground' genera. Females lay eggs inside early-stage caterpillars of various moths, with larvae developing internally and consuming the host before it pupates.
Agathis longipalpus
A small parasitoid wasp in the subfamily Agathidinae, characterized by an elongated face and long mouthparts. Adults are known to visit flowers to feed on nectar using these extended palps. Females are internal parasitoids of caterpillars, with larvae developing inside host larvae. The species is part of a group frequently noted for red and black coloration.
Ageniaspis
Ageniaspis is a genus of polyembryonic encyrtid parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae. The genus contains species that are important biological control agents, particularly Ageniaspis citricola, which has been widely introduced for classical biological control of the citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella) in multiple countries including the United States, Brazil, and Tunisia. Another species, Ageniaspis fuscicollis, is a parasitoid of the apple ermine moth (Yponomeuta malinellus). Species in this genus exhibit arrhenotokous parthenogenesis and are characterized by their ability to produce multiple offspring from single eggs through polyembryony.
Agenioideus
spider wasps
Agenioideus is a genus of spider wasps in the family Pompilidae, subfamily Pompilinae. The genus contains approximately 30 described species distributed across Europe, Asia, North America, South America, and Australia. Species are generally small, with females of A. humilis measuring 5.5–10.5 mm and males 4–9.5 mm. The genus gained notable attention when A. nigricornis was documented as the first pompilid wasp known to parasitize the highly venomous redback spider (Latrodectus hasselti) in Australia.
Agonopterix
flat-body moths
Agonopterix is a genus of small moths in the family Depressariidae, superfamily Gelechioidea. Species are commonly known as "flat-body moths" due to their characteristic flattened resting posture. The genus exhibits considerable cryptic diversity, particularly in Mediterranean and temperate regions, with many species distinguished by subtle differences in wing pattern and genitalia structure. Several species have been studied for their specialized host plant relationships, including some with potential as biological control agents.
Agonum elongatulum
Agonum elongatulum is a ground beetle in the family Carabidae, subfamily Platyninae. It occurs in North America, with records from Canada and the United States. Like other members of the genus Agonum, it is a predatory beetle. The species has been documented in turfgrass ecosystems, where it functions as part of the predatory arthropod community.