Biological-control
Guides
Abaris
ground beetles
Abaris is a genus of ground beetles (Carabidae) occurring exclusively in the Americas. The genus contains species recognized as biological control agents of agricultural pests, particularly in South American agro-ecosystems. Abaris basistriata, the most studied species, has been extensively investigated for its potential in integrated pest management programs. Laboratory studies demonstrate that substrate and diet significantly influence life cycle duration, survival rates, and reproductive output.
Abax parallelepipedus
Abax parallelepipedus is a ground beetle (Carabidae) native to Europe with an introduced population in North America. It is among the larger species in its genus and has been studied for its potential as a biological control agent of slugs in agricultural systems. Molecular evidence places this species in a distinct clade with A. fiorii, A. ovalis, and A. pyrenaeus, separate from the 'parallelus' group within the genus.
Acalymma
striped cucumber beetles, cucumber beetles
Acalymma is a genus of leaf beetles in the family Chrysomelidae comprising approximately 72 described species in the Western Hemisphere. The genus is primarily distributed in the New World, with most species occurring in North America including Mexico. Two species, A. vittatum (striped cucumber beetle) and A. trivittatum (western striped cucumber beetle), are major agricultural pests of cucurbit crops. Acalymma species are specialists on plants in the family Cucurbitaceae, with adults feeding on leaves, flowers, and fruit, and larvae feeding on roots.
Acanthepeira
Star-bellied Orb-web Spiders, Starbellied Orbweavers
Acanthepeira is a genus of orb-weaver spiders in the family Araneidae, first described by George Marx in 1883. The genus comprises five North American species, most notably Acanthepeira stellata, known for its distinctive star-shaped abdominal tubercles. These spiders are recognized for their unusual spiked abdomens that function as camouflage against predators. The genus ranges from southeastern Canada through the eastern and central United States to southern California.
Acanthocaudus
Acanthocaudus is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Aphidiinae. Species in this genus are known to parasitize aphids. The genus was established by Smith in 1944 and occurs in the Nearctic Region. Recent taxonomic work has described new species and resolved synonymies within the genus.
Acantholespesia comstocki
Acantholespesia comstocki is a tachinid fly species described by Williston in 1889. As a member of the bristle fly family Tachinidae, it functions as a parasitoid of lepidopteran larvae. Its known hosts include butterflies from three families: Hesperiidae (skippers), Megathymidae (giant skippers), and Pyralidae (snout moths). The species occurs in the United States.
Acantholyda erythrocephala
red-headed pine sawfly, pine false webworm
Acantholyda erythrocephala is a sawfly in the family Pamphiliidae, native to Europe and introduced to North America in 1925, where it became an invasive pest of pine trees. The species is commonly known as the red-headed pine sawfly or pine false webworm. Its larvae construct distinctive silken tubes for feeding and shelter, causing defoliation of host trees. The species has been the target of biological control efforts using parasitoid flies and viral agents.
Acanthoscelides
bean weevils
Acanthoscelides is a genus of bean weevils in the subfamily Bruchinae, native to the New World with highest diversity in Mexico. The genus contains approximately 300–340 described species with over 200 additional undescribed species. Historically functioning as a wastebasket taxon, species were transferred into this genus from other genera (primarily Bruchus) in 1946. Beetles in this genus are small seed predators that develop within legume seeds, with some species achieving worldwide pest status while others serve as biological control agents.
Acanthoscelides macrophthalmus
leucaena bruchine beetle, leucaena seed beetle
Acanthoscelides macrophthalmus is a seed-feeding beetle in the subfamily Bruchinae, native to the Neotropics and now widely distributed through human-mediated dispersal. The species is a specialist seed predator of Leucaena species, particularly the invasive weed Leucaena leucocephala, and has been introduced as a biological control agent in multiple regions. Adults are small beetles that oviposit on or near host seeds; larvae develop endophagously within seeds, passing through four distinct instars before emerging by cutting a circular exit window.
Acanthoscelides pallidipennis
Acanthoscelides pallidipennis is a leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, specifically within the seed beetle subfamily Bruchinae. Native to North America, it has been introduced to East Asia including Japan, where it was first recorded in 1997–1999. The species is a specialist seed predator of the introduced legume Amorpha fruticosa, achieving extremely high seed predation rates in its introduced range. It is subject to parasitism by Eupelmus wasps.
Acari
Mites and Ticks, mites, ticks
Acari is a subclass of arachnids containing mites and ticks. The group exhibits extraordinary diversity with fossil records dating to the early Devonian period. Recent phylogenetic analyses have challenged the monophyly of Acari, suggesting that the two main lineages—Parasitiformes (ticks and allies) and Acariformes (dust mites, spider mites, chiggers, and allies)—may not share a single common ancestor exclusive of other arachnids. This would render Acari a paraphyletic or polyphyletic grouping rather than a natural taxon. The traditional unifying character, the gnathosoma (a modified mouthpart region), has been shown to be absent or differently constructed in many species across both lineages.
Acemyini
Acemyini is a small, cosmopolitan tribe of tachinid flies comprising approximately seven genera. All members are parasitoids specializing on Orthoptera, specifically grasshoppers and their relatives in the families Acrididae and Eumastacidae. The tribe is distinguished by unique bristle arrangements on the scutellum and wing veins that separate it from other Tachinidae.
Acentropinae
China-mark Moths
Acentropinae is a subfamily of aquatic moths within the family Crambidae, comprising approximately 730 species in 78 genera. It represents the largest lineage of moths with at least one life stage adapted to aquatic environments. The subfamily includes two tribes: Argyractini and Acentropini (the latter including the former Nymphulinae). Larvae are aquatic and feed on submerged vegetation, while adults are terrestrial but associated with wetland habitats.
Aceratoneuromyia
Aceratoneuromyia is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae, subfamily Tetrastichinae. Species are primarily gregarious koinobiont endoparasitoids of Diptera, especially fruit flies (Tephritidae). The genus includes economically important biological control agents, notably A. indica, which has been used worldwide in field release programs against fruit fly pests. Recent taxonomic work has synonymized Trjapitzinichus under this genus and described three new species from China.
Aceria
gall mites, eriophyid mites, four-legged mites
Aceria is a large genus of eriophyid mites (family Eriophyidae) containing over 900 described species. These microscopic, worm-like arachnids are obligate plant parasites that induce distinctive plant growth abnormalities including galls, erinea, and witches' brooms. Some species are economically significant agricultural pests, while others have been deployed as biological control agents against invasive weeds. The genus exhibits extreme host specificity, with most species restricted to a single plant species or genus.
Aceria chondrillae
chondrilla gall mite, skeletonweed gall mite, rush skeletonweed gall mite
Aceria chondrillae is a gall-forming eriophyid mite specialized as a biological control agent for rush skeletonweed (Chondrilla juncea), an invasive herbaceous perennial. Native to the Mediterranean region and ranging from southeast Russia to Portugal, this deuterogynous mite induces leafy galls in host plant buds, causing stunting and reduced seed production. It was introduced to Australia in 1971 and has been released in North America for weed management. The mite exhibits high host specificity and completes its entire life cycle within galls, with populations declining markedly in winter and recovering rapidly in summer.
Aceria lantanae
Lantana Flower Gallmite
Aceria lantanae is a minute, worm-like gall mite in the family Eriophyidae, used as a biological control agent against the invasive weed Lantana camara. It forms characteristic flower galls on host inflorescences. Released in South Africa in 2007, it has established patchily with variable success. Its performance is determined primarily by host-plant variety rather than climatic factors, showing significant differential susceptibility across L. camara varieties.
Acerophagus
Acerophagus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, first described by Smith in 1880. Species in this genus are primary endoparasitoids of mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), with several species employed in classical and augmentative biological control programs worldwide. The genus includes notable species such as A. papayae, which has been successfully used to manage the invasive papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) across Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Members exhibit koinobiont development and variable reproductive strategies including arrhenotokous parthenogenesis.
Achrysocharoides
Achrysocharoides is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. The genus was erected by Girault in 1913 and includes species distributed across Europe, North America, and the Oriental region. Members are known for their specialized parasitism of leaf-mining moths in the family Gracillariidae, particularly Phyllonorycter species. The genus exhibits unusual reproductive strategies, including split sex broods where male and female offspring develop in separate host individuals—a trait rare among parasitoid wasps and virtually restricted to this genus.
Aclerdidae
Aclerdid Scales, Flat Grass Scales
Aclerdidae is a family of scale insects (superfamily Coccoidea) comprising five genera and approximately 58 species. Members are specialized herbivores primarily associated with grasses (Poaceae), where they inhabit leaf sheaths and feed on plant sap. The family exhibits highly derived morphology including leglessness, reduced antennae, and unique anal apparatus. Several species have become economically significant as pests of agricultural and wetland grasses, including the invasive roseau cane scale (Nipponaclerda biwakoensis) in North America and Aclerda takahashii on sugarcane.
Acmaeodera parkeri
Acmaeodera parkeri is a species of metallic wood-boring beetle in the family Buprestidae, described by Cazier in 1940. The species occurs in Central America and North America, with records from the southwestern United States and Mexico. Adults have been observed visiting flowers of several plant species, including Allionia incarnata (creeping four o'clock), Talinum whitei (White's flameflower), and Evolvulus arizonicus (Arizona blue-eyes).
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compressa
lantana bug, lantana treehopper, lantana stemsucking treehopper, lantana sap-sucking bug
Aconophora compressa is a treehopper (family Membracidae) native to Mexico, Central America, and Colombia. It was introduced to Australia in 1995 as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Lantana camara. The species is brown, up to 8 mm long, with a thorn-shaped body and produces copious honeydew. It has been documented to attack non-target plants, particularly fiddlewood (Citharexylum spinosum) in Australia, leading to its discontinuation as a biocontrol agent after 2001. It was also rejected for use in South Africa due to unacceptable risks to indigenous Lippia species.
treehopperbiological-controlinvasive-species-managementMembracidaephloem-feedermaternal-caregregarioushoneydew-producernon-target-effectsLantana-camaraMexicoAustraliaSouth-AfricaVerbenaceaeCitharexylum-spinosumLippiaAloysia-citrodorathermal-tolerancestem-suckingsap-feedingegg-guardinginstarsnymphal-developmentweed-biocontrolhost-range-expansionecological-risk-assessmentbiosecurityWalker-1851AconophoriniMembracinaeHemipteraAuchenorrhynchaCicadomorphaMembracoideaAcridomyia
Acridomyia is a genus of flies in the family Anthomyiidae, established by Stackelberg in 1929. The genus is native to Eurasia and contains parasitic species that attack grasshoppers (Acrididae). A. sacharovi has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for grasshopper populations in North America.
Acroclisoides
Acroclisoides is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Pteromalidae, established in 1915. Species within this genus are obligate hyperparasitoids that attack the pupal stage of scelionid primary parasitoids developing within pentatomid (stink bug) eggs. The genus has a broad geographic distribution spanning the Oriental, Afrotropical, Australian, and Holarctic regions. Acroclisoides sinicus, the most studied species, has recently expanded from Asia to Europe and North America, where it poses potential risks to biological control programs targeting invasive stink bugs such as Halyomorpha halys.
Acroclisoides sinicus
Acroclisoides sinicus is a small pteromalid wasp described from China in 1988. It is an obligate hyperparasitoid that exploits the pupal stage of scelionid primary parasitoids, particularly Trissolcus species, within pentatomid stink bug eggs. Laboratory studies demonstrate extreme host selectivity, with strong preference for Trissolcus mitsukurii over T. japonicus and no exploitation of eupelmid parasitoids. The species has recently expanded to Europe and North America, likely following pathways of its primary parasitoid hosts. Its presence raises concerns for biological control programs targeting invasive stink bugs like Halyomorpha halys.
Actia
Actia is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) in the tribe Siphonini. These flies are parasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, with species recorded from hosts including spruce budworm, black-headed budworm, and various noctuid moths. The genus contains at least eight Nearctic species, including four described relatively recently (A. dasymyia, A. dimorpha, A. radialis, A. sternalis). Species are grouped into three species groups based on morphological and phylogenetic affinities: autumnalis-group, lamia-group, and crassicornis-group.
Actia diffidens
Actia diffidens is a tachinid fly (family Tachinidae) described by Curran in 1933. It belongs to the autumnalis species group within the genus Actia. The species is a known parasitoid of tortricid moth larvae, specifically recorded as a parasite of Peronea variana (black-headed budworm) in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia. Its immature stages develop within a secondary integumental funnel—an ingrowth of the host body wall located on either side of the host larva's mesothorax. The species occurs across eastern and central North America.
Actia interrupta
Actia interrupta is a tachinid fly (Diptera: Tachinidae) described by Curran in 1933. It is an endoparasitoid of lepidopteran larvae, particularly species in the genus Choristoneura including the spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana), a major forest pest in North America. The species undergoes 2-4 generations per year depending on geographic location, with its phenology closely tied to host larval availability. Research indicates it competes with other parasitoids such as the ichneumonid Tranosema rostrale within shared hosts, and may have a competitive advantage in multiparasitism situations. It has been studied as a biological control agent and can be reared through manual inoculation of host larvae with first instar maggots.
Adaina simplicius
Three-dotted Plume Moth
A small plume moth (family Pterophoridae) with a wingspan of approximately 10 mm. Native to the Americas, ranging from the United States through Central and South America to the Caribbean. Introduced to South Africa for evaluation as a biological control agent against Eupatorium macrocephalum.
Adalia
ladybugs, lady beetles, ladybirds
Adalia is a genus of lady beetles (Coccinellidae) containing two species: A. bipunctata (two-spot ladybird) and A. decempunctata (ten-spot ladybird). These beetles are aphid predators found across the Palearctic region. Both species exhibit color pattern polymorphism and possess alkaloid chemical defenses. A. bipunctata is known to harbor multiple male-killing symbionts including Wolbachia, Rickettsia, and Spiroplasma, though symbiont phenotypes vary geographically.
Adalia bipunctata
Two-spotted Lady Beetle, Two-spot Ladybird, Two-spotted Ladybug
Adalia bipunctata is a small predatory ladybird beetle native to the Holarctic region, with populations in Europe, North America, and Central Asia. It is one of the most extensively studied ladybird species due to its complex color polymorphism and ecological interactions. The species exhibits remarkable variation in elytral coloration, ranging from the classic red-with-two-black-spots form to multiple melanistic variants. Populations show geographic variation in life history: European populations are typically multivoltine, while some introduced populations (e.g., Japan) exhibit univoltine cycles with extended adult inactivity. The species has declined significantly in parts of its native North American range but remains common in western and central Europe. It is frequently employed as a biological control agent against aphid pests in greenhouses and agricultural systems.
Adelencyrtus
Adelencyrtus is a genus of parasitic wasps in the family Encyrtidae, first described by Ashmead in 1900. The genus comprises species that are parasitoids of scale insects, particularly armored scales (Diaspididae). Members of this genus are small, typically 1-2 mm in length, with reduced wing venation characteristic of many Encyrtidae. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution with records from North America, Asia, and other regions. Species of Adelencyrtus have been documented as important biological control agents against scale insect pests in agricultural and horticultural systems.
Adelges tsugae
Hemlock Woolly Adelgid, HWA
Adelges tsugae, the hemlock woolly adelgid, is a small invasive sap-sucking insect native to East Asia. In eastern North America, it is a destructive pest of eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) and Carolina hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana), causing extensive tree mortality and threatening forest ecosystems. The insect is named for the white, woolly wax coating that covers its egg sacs and protects the insects beneath. It reproduces asexually via parthenogenesis in North America, producing two generations per year.
Adelgidae
adelgids, woolly conifer aphids, pine aphids, spruce aphids
Adelgidae is a small family of sap-sucking insects in the order Hemiptera, closely related to aphids. Members are commonly known as "woolly conifer aphids" due to their waxy secretions and exclusive association with conifer hosts in the family Pinaceae. The family includes some of the most destructive invasive forest pests in North America, notably the hemlock woolly adelgid (*Adelges tsugae*) and balsam woolly adelgid (*A. piceae*), which have caused widespread tree mortality. Adelgids exhibit complex, multigeneration life cycles that may include cyclical parthenogenesis, host alternation, and polymorphism.
Adialytus
A genus of aphid parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Aphidiinae. Species within this genus are solitary, koinobiont endoparasitoids of aphids (Aphididae), developing within living hosts. The genus is represented by four species in Europe, with records from Turkey, Ukraine, and Scandinavia. Members are of economic interest as potential biological control agents of pest aphids on crops and woody plants.
Adoxophyes
Summerfruit tortrix moths
Adoxophyes is a genus of tortricid moths in the tribe Archipini, established by Meyrick in 1881. The genus includes economically significant agricultural pests, most notably Adoxophyes orana (summerfruit tortrix), which damages fruit crops across Europe and Asia. Species in this genus are characterized by their polyvoltine life cycles, larval feeding on buds, leaves, and fruits of numerous host plants, and the use of sex pheromones for mate location. Several species have been introduced to new regions, causing significant damage to orchards and requiring integrated pest management.
Aenasius
Aenasius is a genus of solitary endoparasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae. Species within this genus are specialized parasitoids of mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), with documented hosts including the invasive cotton mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis. The genus has been extensively studied for its potential in biological control of agricultural pests, particularly in cotton-growing regions. Some species show remarkable developmental plasticity in response to temperature, enabling them to track their hosts across invaded ranges.
Aeolothrips
Banded Thrips
Aeolothrips is a genus of predatory thrips comprising over 80 described species. Members are characterized by distinctive banded forewings with alternating dark and light transverse stripes. Both adults and larvae are predatory, feeding on small invertebrates including other thrips, mites, aphids, and insect eggs. Some species are recognized as important native predators in agricultural ecosystems and have been evaluated for biological control programs against pest thrips such as Thrips tabaci.
Aeolothrips kuwanaii
banded thrips
Aeolothrips kuwanaii is a species of predatory thrips in the family Aeolothripidae, described by Moulton in 1907. It is native to western North America and is characterized by distinctive black-and-white banded wings. As a member of the Aeolothripidae, it is predatory on other small arthropods. The species has been recorded from Arizona, Nevada, Oregon, and Canada.
Afrida
Afrida is a genus of parasitic wasps in the family Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). The genus is represented in the University of California, Riverside (UCR) entomology collection, which holds one of the largest and most important Encyrtidae collections globally. Specimens of Afrida in this collection were sorted to genus level by J. Noyes in 1998 as part of a major reorganization effort. The UCR collection contains representatives of 261 valid encyrtid genera, with many undetermined specimens requiring further taxonomic study.
Agapeta
Agapeta is a genus of tortricid moths in the subfamily Tortricinae. The genus includes at least four described species, with A. zoegana (the knapweed root-borer moth) being the most extensively studied due to its use as a biological control agent for invasive knapweeds in North America. Larvae are root-feeding specialists, and the genus is native to Eurasia with some species introduced to North America for weed management.
Agapeta zoegana
sulphur knapweed moth, yellow-winged knapweed root moth, knapweed root moth
A small, bright yellow moth native to Eurasia, introduced to North America in the 1980s as a biological control agent for invasive knapweeds (Centaurea maculosa and C. diffusa). The larva is a root miner that tunnels through the root cortex, causing moderate to considerable damage to host plants. Adults are short-lived, with flight activity from May to August. The species has established populations in western North America and is compatible with other knapweed biocontrol agents.
Agasicles hygrophila
Alligatorweed Flea Beetle, Alligator Weed Flea Beetle
Agasicles hygrophila is a small leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, native to South America and widely introduced as a classical biological control agent for the invasive aquatic weed Alternanthera philoxeroides (alligator weed). It was the first insect studied for biological control of an aquatic weed. The beetle exhibits strict monophagy, feeding and reproducing exclusively on alligator weed. Both larvae and adults feed on leaves, causing defoliation that can kill dense weed mats and clear infested waterways. The species has been established in at least 30 countries including the United States, New Zealand, China, and Australia.
Agathidinae
agathidine wasps
Agathidinae is a large subfamily of braconid wasps comprising koinobiont endoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae. Members are distinguished by elongated facial structures in several genera, bright coloration in diurnal tropical species, and specialized mouthpart adaptations for nectar feeding. The subfamily is taxonomically complex, with phylogenetic studies revising tribal arrangements from 2 to 7 tribes. Species have been successfully employed in biological control programs against agricultural and forestry pests.
Agathidini
Agathidini is a tribe of braconid parasitoid wasps within the subfamily Agathidinae. Members are found primarily in Southeast Asia, with particular diversity in Thailand. The tribe has undergone significant taxonomic revision, with ten new genera described in 2017 to address previous issues of species being placed in 'dumping ground' genera. Females lay eggs inside early-stage caterpillars of various moths, with larvae developing internally and consuming the host before it pupates.
Agathis longipalpus
A small parasitoid wasp in the subfamily Agathidinae, characterized by an elongated face and long mouthparts. Adults are known to visit flowers to feed on nectar using these extended palps. Females are internal parasitoids of caterpillars, with larvae developing inside host larvae. The species is part of a group frequently noted for red and black coloration.
Ageniaspis
Ageniaspis is a genus of polyembryonic encyrtid parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae. The genus contains species that are important biological control agents, particularly Ageniaspis citricola, which has been widely introduced for classical biological control of the citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella) in multiple countries including the United States, Brazil, and Tunisia. Another species, Ageniaspis fuscicollis, is a parasitoid of the apple ermine moth (Yponomeuta malinellus). Species in this genus exhibit arrhenotokous parthenogenesis and are characterized by their ability to produce multiple offspring from single eggs through polyembryony.
Agenioideus
spider wasps
Agenioideus is a genus of spider wasps in the family Pompilidae, subfamily Pompilinae. The genus contains approximately 30 described species distributed across Europe, Asia, North America, South America, and Australia. Species are generally small, with females of A. humilis measuring 5.5–10.5 mm and males 4–9.5 mm. The genus gained notable attention when A. nigricornis was documented as the first pompilid wasp known to parasitize the highly venomous redback spider (Latrodectus hasselti) in Australia.
Agonopterix
flat-body moths
Agonopterix is a genus of small moths in the family Depressariidae, superfamily Gelechioidea. Species are commonly known as "flat-body moths" due to their characteristic flattened resting posture. The genus exhibits considerable cryptic diversity, particularly in Mediterranean and temperate regions, with many species distinguished by subtle differences in wing pattern and genitalia structure. Several species have been studied for their specialized host plant relationships, including some with potential as biological control agents.
Agonum elongatulum
Agonum elongatulum is a ground beetle in the family Carabidae, subfamily Platyninae. It occurs in North America, with records from Canada and the United States. Like other members of the genus Agonum, it is a predatory beetle. The species has been documented in turfgrass ecosystems, where it functions as part of the predatory arthropod community.
Agonum limbatum
Agonum limbatum is a species of ground beetle in the family Carabidae. It is native to North America, with confirmed records from British Columbia, Canada. The genus Agonum contains numerous small to medium-sized predatory beetles commonly found in moist habitats. A. limbatum has been documented in turfgrass ecosystems where it functions as a predator of other arthropods.
Agonum muelleri
Müller's Harp Ground Beetle
Agonum muelleri is a ground beetle species in the family Carabidae, widespread across the Palearctic, Nearctic, and Near East regions. It is notably abundant in agricultural landscapes, particularly soybean fields, where it functions as an active predator of pest insects. The species exhibits atypical behavior for a ground beetle by readily climbing vegetation to hunt prey. Two subspecies are recognized: A. muelleri muelleri and A. muelleri unicolor.
Agonum suturale
sutured harp ground beetle
Agonum suturale is a species of ground beetle in the subfamily Platyninae. It is found in the western half of North America, including Canada, the United States, and Mexico. The species exhibits metallic coloration and is of moderate size for the genus. It is known to occur in turfgrass habitats where it functions as a predator.
Agrilus planipennis
Emerald Ash Borer, EAB
Agrilus planipennis, the emerald ash borer, is a highly destructive invasive beetle native to northeastern Asia. First detected in North America in 2002 (Michigan) and European Russia in 2003, it has since spread to 36 U.S. states, five Canadian provinces, and across Eastern Europe. The species has killed hundreds of millions of ash trees, causing severe ecological and economic damage. In its native range, it occurs at low densities without significant tree mortality; in invaded regions, it typically kills over 90% of ash trees within 2–4 years of establishment.
Agriotes obscurus
dusky wireworm, obscure click beetle
Agriotes obscurus is a click beetle native to Europe and northern Asia that has become an established invasive pest in western North America since its accidental introduction around 1900. The larvae, known as wireworms, are significant agricultural pests that feed on tubers, seeds, and roots of numerous crops including potatoes, cereals, and vegetables. Adults are dark brown to black beetles 7–10 mm long, distinguishable from related species by their pronotum morphology and elytral ridges. The species has a prolonged life cycle of 2–4 years depending on temperature, with larvae passing through 8–13 instars before pupation.
Agriotes sputator
Spitting Click Beetle, Common Click Beetle
Agriotes sputator is a click beetle native to Europe, with established populations in parts of western Asia, North Africa, and an introduced range in eastern Canada. Adults are small (6–9 mm), dark brown to black with reddish-brown antennae and legs. The larvae, known as wireworms, are soil-dwelling agricultural pests that feed on roots and germinating seeds. The species completes its life cycle in up to five years, with larvae developing through multiple growth stages before pupation. It is considered a serious pest of cereals, potatoes, and other crops, and is monitored using pheromone traps baited with geranyl butanoate.
Agromyza frontella
alfalfa blotch leafminer
Agromyza frontella, the alfalfa blotch leafminer, is a small dipteran leafminer in the family Agromyzidae. Native to Europe, it has become an established agricultural pest of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) in North America, particularly in Canada and the northern United States. Larvae feed between leaf surfaces, creating distinctive blotch-shaped mines. The species exhibits sexual dimorphism in daily activity patterns, with males most active during cooler morning and evening periods while females feed and oviposit throughout the day. It has been subject to classical biological control using the introduced parasitoid Dacnusa dryas.
Agrothereutes
Agrothereutes is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, containing over 40 described species. Members are solitary ectoparasitoids that attack concealed lepidopteran hosts, primarily targeting prepupal and pupal stages. Several species have been studied for their host relationships and reproductive biology, including A. lanceolatus and A. minousubae. The genus exhibits facultative diapause and variable voltinism, with some populations producing one or two generations annually.
Agrypon
Agrypon is a genus of ichneumonid parasitoid wasps described by Arnold Förster in 1860. Species within this genus are solitary larval-pupal endoparasitoids that develop within caterpillars of various lepidopteran hosts. At least one species, A. flaveolatum, has been introduced as a biological control agent for pest management.
Agrypon flaveolatum
Agrypon flaveolatum is a parasitoid wasp in the family Ichneumonidae, first described by Gravenhorst in 1807. Native to Europe and Asia, it was introduced to eastern and western Canada in the mid-20th century as a biological control agent against the invasive winter moth (Operophtera brumata). The species has established populations in Nova Scotia and British Columbia, where it parasitizes winter moth larvae on apple and oak trees. It has been distinguished from closely related native North American species through morphological characters and morphometric analysis of antennal flagellomere annuli.
Alaptus
Alaptus is a genus of minute egg parasitoid wasps in the family Mymaridae, commonly known as fairyflies. The genus contains approximately 17 described species in the Holarctic region, with several new species described from North America and Russia in recent taxonomic revisions. These wasps are specialized parasitoids of psocid eggs (barklice), with some species also associated with scale insects and other small arthropod eggs. Alaptus species are among the smallest insects, with body lengths typically under 1 mm.
Alcaeorrhynchus grandis
Giant Strong-nosed Stink Bug
Alcaeorrhynchus grandis is a large predatory stink bug reaching approximately 20 mm in length. It is a member of the subfamily Asopinae within Pentatomidae, a group characterized by predatory rather than herbivorous habits. The species has been studied as a potential biological control agent for lepidopteran pests in agricultural systems, particularly in palm oil plantations in the Brazilian Amazon. Its life cycle stages have been documented for field identification purposes.
Aleiodes
mummy-wasps, Common Mummy Wasps
Aleiodes is a large cosmopolitan genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, commonly known as mummy-wasps. The genus was established by Constantin Wesmael in 1838 and contains thousands of described species, with exceptional diversity in the Western Hemisphere. Females are solitary koinobiont endoparasitoids that attack caterpillars, laying eggs inside living hosts. The developing wasp larvae consume the host from within, eventually killing it and causing the remains to harden into a distinctive 'mummy' from which the adult emerges.
Aleiodes malacosomatos
Tent Caterpillar Mummy Wasp
Aleiodes malacosomatos is a parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae, first described by Mason in 1979. The common name "Tent Caterpillar Mummy Wasp" reflects its parasitic relationship with tent caterpillars (Malacosoma spp.), a genus of lappet moths. Like other members of the genus Aleiodes, this species is a koinobiont endoparasitoid that develops inside living caterpillars, eventually killing and mummifying the host. The species is part of a diverse genus of mummy-wasps that have gained scientific and public attention for their distinctive biology and, in some cases, celebrity-inspired species names.
Aleiodes nolophanae
Aleiodes nolophanae is a specialist braconid parasitoid wasp described by Ashmead in 1889. It parasitizes caterpillars of the green cloverworm (Hypena scabra, Noctuidae). Research demonstrates that host plant species significantly affects parasitoid phenotype: wasps reared from hosts feeding on alfalfa exhibit larger body mass and, in some populations, greater longevity compared to those from soybean-fed hosts. This geographic variation in plant-mediated effects has implications for biological control applications.
Aleiodes scrutator
Aleiodes scrutator is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae, subfamily Rogadinae. First described by Thomas Say in 1836, this species belongs to a genus known for 'mummy-making' behavior, where the wasp larva develops inside a caterpillar host and eventually kills it, leaving behind a hardened, mummified remains. Like other Aleiodes species, A. scrutator is a koinobiont endoparasitoid of lepidopteran larvae. The species has been documented in North America with a small number of iNaturalist observations, though detailed biological studies specific to this species appear limited in the available literature.
Aleiodes stigmator
Stigmata Mummy Wasp
Aleiodes stigmator is a parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae, first described by Thomas Say in 1824. Like other members of the genus Aleiodes, it is a koinobiont endoparasitoid that develops inside living caterpillars, eventually killing and mummifying its host. The species has been recorded in the northeastern United States, including Vermont. It belongs to a diverse genus containing over 100 described species, many of which are understudied tropical taxa.
Aleiodes terminalis
Terminal Mummy Wasp
Aleiodes terminalis is a species of mummy wasp in the family Braconidae, first described by Cresson in 1869. Like other members of the genus Aleiodes, it is a koinobiont endoparasitoid that develops inside living caterpillar hosts. The species is part of a diverse radiation of Aleiodes wasps that exhibit the distinctive trait of causing host caterpillars to mummify after the wasp larva emerges. It is one of the earlier-described species in a genus that has seen extensive taxonomic revision and species discovery in recent decades.
Aleochara
Aleochara is a genus of rove beetles (Staphylinidae) distinguished by its parasitoid larval life history. Adults are predatory, feeding on eggs, larvae, and puparia of scatophagous and necrophagous Diptera. Larvae are ectoparasitoids that develop inside fly puparia, killing the host. The genus contains at least 150 and possibly more than 400 species across 16 subgenera, with a worldwide distribution except Antarctica. Several species, notably Aleochara bilineata, are significant biological control agents of agricultural pest flies.
Aleochara lustrica
Aleochara lustrica is a rove beetle (Staphylinidae) with a dual life history: adults are predatory on fly larvae, while larvae are ectoparasitoids of cyclorrhaphan fly pupae. The species has been documented across the Americas from Canada to southern Brazil, with recent records extending its known range. It has confirmed associations with sarcophagid flies under laboratory conditions and plays a role in regulating populations of necrophagous Diptera of medical, veterinary, and forensic importance.
Aleochara taeniata
Aleochara taeniata is a rove beetle (Staphylinidae) in the subfamily Aleocharinae. It has been documented as a parasite of the house fly, Musca domestica, with larvae developing within fly puparia. The species occurs across a broad geographic range in the Americas, from the southwestern United States through Central America and into South America, with records from the Caribbean as well.
Aleurocanthus
Aleurocanthus is a genus of whiteflies in the family Aleyrodidae, established by Quaintance & Baker in 1914. Species in this genus are significant agricultural pests, particularly of citrus and other cultivated crops. The genus includes notable species such as the orange spiny whitefly (A. spiniferus) and the citrus blackfly (A. woglumi), both of which have been subjects of extensive biological control programs due to their economic impact. The genus is characterized by distinctive spiny or ornamented puparial cases and exhibits sexual dimorphism in some species.
Aleurodicus dugesii
giant whitefly, spiralling whitefly
Aleurodicus dugesii, commonly known as the giant whitefly, is a polyphagous pest of horticultural crops native to the Americas and invasive in Asia. It produces distinctive long wax filaments during the nymph stage that resemble a beard. Population densities can exceed 1,900 individuals per leaf on preferred hosts, causing severe defoliation and plant damage. The species serves as host for several introduced parasitoids used in biological control programs.
Aleuroplatus coronata
Crown Whitefly
Aleuroplatus coronata, known as the crown whitefly, is a small sap-feeding insect in the family Aleyrodidae. Native to the southern United States and Mexico, it has established populations in California where it primarily infests oak and chestnut trees. The species derives its common name from the distinctive crown of waxy filaments surrounding the puparium. Heavy infestations can cause leaf drop, though the species generally causes limited harm to healthy host trees.
Aleuropleurocelus
Aleuropleurocelus is a genus of whiteflies (Aleyrodidae) in the suborder Sternorrhyncha. The genus includes species that are phytophagous pests of woody plants. One undescribed species close to A. acaudatus has been documented as a significant pest of native Mexican avocados (Persea americana) in southern Coahuila, where it is subject to substantial natural parasitism by aphelinid wasps.
Aleurothrixus
woolly whiteflies
Aleurothrixus is a genus of whiteflies (family Aleyrodidae) containing approximately 20 described species. The most economically significant species is A. floccosus (woolly whitefly), a major pest of citrus and other crops across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Several species in the genus have been documented as agricultural pests, with extensive research focused on their biological control using parasitoid wasps.
Aleyrodoidea
whiteflies
Aleyrodoidea is a superfamily of small hemipteran insects commonly known as whiteflies. The superfamily contains a single family, Aleyrodidae, with more than 1,550 described species. Whiteflies are phytophagous insects that feed on plant sap, typically from the undersides of leaves. Several species are significant agricultural pests, including the citrus blackfly (Aleurocanthus woglumi) and the Bemisia tabaci species complex.
Algarobius
Algarobius is a genus of seed beetles in the family Chrysomelidae, subfamily Bruchinae, comprising approximately six described species. The genus is notable for its association with leguminous plants, particularly Prosopis species (mesquites). Algarobius prosopis has been widely used as a biological control agent against invasive mesquite weeds in South Africa. These beetles are specialized seed-feeders whose larvae develop within seeds.
Algarobius prosopis
Prosopis Seed Beetle
Algarobius prosopis is a seed-feeding bruchid beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. It has been introduced to South Africa as a biological control agent for invasive mesquite weeds (Prosopis species). Native parasitoids in the introduced range interfere with its efficacy as a biocontrol agent. The species has a broad native distribution spanning Africa, Europe and Northern Asia (excluding China), Central America, and North America.
Allantus
Allantus is a genus of sawflies in the family Tenthredinidae. Members of this genus are herbivorous, with larvae feeding on various plants including roses, buckwheat, and dock weeds. Some species are significant agricultural pests, while others have been investigated as potential biological control agents for invasive weeds. The genus is distributed across the Holarctic region, with species found in Europe, Asia, and North America.
Allograpta obliqua
oblique streaktail
Allograpta obliqua is a common North American hoverfly species in the family Syrphidae. Adults are small, measuring 6–7 mm, with distinctive yellow thoracic stripes and abdominal banding. The species exhibits sexual dimorphism in eye structure: males have holoptic eyes while females have dichoptic eyes. Larvae are aphid predators, reaching 8–9 mm in length with a bumpy, slug-like appearance. The species is active year-round in southern portions of its range and has been documented across much of the continental United States, southern Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, the West Indies, and parts of the Neotropical Americas.
Allothrombium
Sumo Mites
Allothrombium is a genus of velvet mites (family Trombidiidae) comprising approximately 45 described species distributed across the Palaearctic, Ethiopian, Australian, Oriental, and Nearctic realms. Species in this genus exhibit complex life cycles involving parasitic larvae and predatory post-larval stages. Larvae are ectoparasites primarily of aphids, while deutonymphs and adults are free-living predators of small arthropods and their eggs. Several species have been investigated as potential biological control agents for agricultural pest aphids.
Alloxysta
Alloxysta is a genus of small parasitic wasps in the family Figitidae, subfamily Charipinae. The genus was described by Arnold Förster in 1869 and contains over 100 species with cosmopolitan distribution. Members are aphid hyperparasitoids, attacking primary parasitoids (aphidiid wasps) that develop within aphids. Some species exhibit thelytokous parthenogenesis induced by Wolbachia endosymbionts, where unmated females produce female offspring without mating.
Alphomelon
Alphomelon is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Microgastrinae. The genus comprises 49 described species, with 30 described in a 2023 revision. Species delimitation requires integration of morphology, DNA barcoding, host data, and distribution information; neither morphology nor DNA barcoding alone is sufficient to distinguish all species.
Althaeus folkertsi
velvetleaf seed beetle
Althaeus folkertsi, the velvetleaf seed beetle, is a seed weevil in the subfamily Bruchinae (formerly treated as family Bruchidae). Adults are extremely small, measuring 1.5–2.5 mm in length. The species is associated with velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti) and related mallows, developing within the seeds. It occurs in North America.
Altica
Metallic Flea Beetles
Altica is a large genus of flea beetles comprising approximately 300 species distributed nearly worldwide. The genus name derives from Greek 'haltikós' meaning 'jumper,' referring to the adult beetles' ability to jump when disturbed. Species are small, metallic blue-green to bronze beetles that are morphologically similar and often distinguished only by male genitalia. Both larvae and adults are phytophagous, with most species showing strong host plant specificity. The genus is best represented in the Neotropical realm, with significant diversity in the Nearctic and Palearctic regions.
Alysia
Alysia is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae. Members of this genus are known to develop as parasitoids within the puparia of dipteran hosts, with at least one species, Alysia manducator, documented to parasitize the blow fly Lucilia sericata. The genus exhibits sex ratio plasticity in response to host size, with larger host puparia producing female-biased offspring ratios. Alysia species function as biological control agents of fly populations.
Alysiini
Alysiini is a tribe of koinobiont endoparasitoid wasps within the subfamily Alysiinae (Braconidae). Members are characterized by a distinctive exodont mandible condition—the only group of Braconidae with mandibles that open outward rather than downward. The tribe includes approximately 16 genera in the Dapsilarthra genus group and numerous other genera globally, with substantial faunas in Europe (over 400 species in related Dacnusini) and Australia (14 genera). Host associations are primarily with cyclorrhaphan Diptera, including leaf-mining Agromyzidae, fungus-inhabiting flies, and gall-forming Chloropidae.
Amara aenea
Common Sun Beetle
Amara aenea, commonly known as the common sun beetle, is a ground beetle species in the family Carabidae. It occurs across almost all of Europe and Northern Asia, with its range extending into parts of Northern Africa. Adults are predatory, feeding on insects including agricultural pests such as apple maggot and soybean aphid. The species has been studied for potential use in integrated pest management programs.
Amblyseius
Amblyseius is a large genus of predatory mites in the family Phytoseiidae. Species in this genus are generalist predators that feed on pest mites, thrips, whiteflies, and other small arthropods. Several species, particularly A. swirskii and A. andersoni, are widely used as biological control agents in integrated pest management programs for agricultural crops. The genus exhibits considerable ecological versatility, with many species capable of surviving on alternative food sources such as pollen and fungal secretions when prey is scarce.
Amblyseius andersoni
Amblyseius andersoni is a generalist predatory mite in the family Phytoseiidae, widely distributed across Europe, North America, and parts of Asia. It is commercially available and employed as a biological control agent against spider mites, eriophyid mites, and other small arthropod pests in orchards, greenhouses, and open-field crops. The species exhibits broad dietary flexibility, feeding on plant-feeding mites, thrips, whiteflies, and various pollens. Laboratory studies demonstrate that it can be mass-reared on alternative diets such as cattail pollen and the stored product mite Carpoglyphus lactis without loss of predatory efficiency on natural prey.
predatory-mitebiological-controlgeneralist-predatorintegrated-pest-managementspider-mite-controleriophyid-mite-controlorchard-pest-managementgreenhouse-biocontrolmass-rearingpollen-feedingalternative-diettemperature-dependent-developmentPhytoseiidaeAcariEuropeNorth-AmericaChinaapplecitrusconiferous-plantsAmblyseius swirskii
Swirski mite
Amblyseius swirskii is a predatory mite in the family Phytoseiidae, originally described from almond trees in Israel in 1962. It has become one of the most widely used biological control agents globally, commercially available and released in more than 50 countries. The species is a generalist predator feeding on whiteflies, thrips, spider mites, broad mites, and other small arthropod pests of vegetable and ornamental crops. It can also survive and reproduce on non-prey food sources including pollen, nectar, and plant secretions, which enhances its establishment when prey are scarce.
Amiseginae
Amiseginae is a subfamily of cuckoo wasps (Chrysididae) containing over 30 genera and approximately 150 described species. These wasps are obligate parasitoids of stick insect eggs (Phasmatodea), a highly specialized ecological relationship that has persisted since at least the mid-Cretaceous. Females of some genera are flightless and exhibit ant-like morphology. The subfamily has a global distribution.
Amitus
Amitus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Platygastridae, containing at least 16 described species. Species in this genus are primarily known as biological control agents of whiteflies (Aleyrodidae), with several species introduced internationally for pest management. Notable species include A. hesperidum, an effective parasitoid of citrus blackfly introduced to multiple countries; A. fuscipennis, used against greenhouse whitefly; and A. bennetti, a parasitoid of silverleaf whitefly.
Ammophilinae
thread-waisted wasps
Ammophilinae is a subfamily of thread-waisted wasps in the family Sphecidae, containing approximately 6 genera and over 320 described species. Members are solitary wasps characterized by a narrow petiole connecting the thorax and abdomen. The group includes well-known genera such as Ammophila and Podalonia, which are notable for their specialized hunting behaviors involving caterpillar prey.
Ammoplanops
Ammoplanops is a genus of aphid wasps containing approximately 15 described species. These small solitary wasps are classified within the subfamily Pemphredoninae of the family Crabronidae. The genus was established by Gussakovskij in 1931. Species in this genus are specialized predators that provision their nests with aphids.
Amorbia
leafroller moths
Amorbia is a New World genus of tortricid moths containing approximately 29 species distributed from Brazil through Central America, the Caribbean, Mexico, and into the United States and Canada. Larvae of at least some species are known leafrollers that feed on host plants including blackberry (Rubus). The genus has been subject to systematic revision, with eight informal species groups proposed based on morphological characters. Several species are of economic concern as pests of Rubus crops in Mexico.
Amphiareus
minute pirate bugs
Amphiareus is a genus of minute pirate bugs in the family Anthocoridae, established by Distant in 1904. Species occur in Eurasia and North America. At least one species, Amphiareus constrictus, has been successfully mass-reared in laboratory conditions for biological control research. The genus includes species associated with dead-leaf microhabitats and agricultural pest management.
Amynothrips
Amynothrips is a monotypic genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae, erected by O'Neill in 1968. The sole described species, Amynothrips andersoni, is a specialized herbivore of alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) and has been extensively studied as a biological control agent for this invasive aquatic plant. Research has focused on its host specificity, cold tolerance, and population dynamics in managed release programs.
Amynothrips andersoni
Alligatorweed Thrips, Alligator Weed Thrips
Amynothrips andersoni is a species of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae, native to South America and introduced to the United States as a biological control agent against the invasive aquatic weed alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides). Adults are small, shiny black insects approximately 2 mm in length. The species exhibits wing dimorphism, with both short-winged and long-winged flying forms present, though the latter is rare. Both larval and adult stages feed on alligator weed, causing leaf curling and plant stunting.
Anacharitinae
Anacharitinae is a subfamily of small parasitoid wasps within Figitidae. Members are known to attack aphid predators, specifically larvae of Syrphidae (hoverflies) and Chrysopidae (lacewings). This subfamily comprises approximately 100 species across four genera: Anacharis, Aegilips, Callaspidia, and Xyalaspis. The group has a worldwide distribution with greatest diversity in temperate regions.
Anacrabro ocellatus
square-headed wasp
Anacrabro ocellatus is a small (6-7 mm) fossorial wasp in the family Crabronidae. Unlike most related genera in tribe Crabronini that hunt flies, this species specializes in capturing plant bugs (family Miridae) to provision its subterranean nest cells. It is widespread east of the Rocky Mountains in North America, with three recognized subspecies. The species is notable for its potential role in biological control of agricultural pests.
Anagrapha
Anagrapha is a genus of moths in the family Noctuidae, subfamily Plusiinae, established by McDunnough in 1944. The genus contains at least one confirmed species, Anagrapha falcifera (celery looper), which serves as the original host for AfMNPV (Anagrapha falcifera multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus), a broad host-spectrum baculovirus with significant importance in biological control research. The virus isolated from this species has been shown to infect 43 species across 13 lepidopteran families and is genetically identical to the Rachiplusia ou virus isolate.
Anagrapha falcifera
Celery Looper, Celery Looper Moth
Anagrapha falcifera, the celery looper, is a noctuid moth native to North America. The species was first described by William Kirby in 1837. Adults have a wingspan of 35–40 mm. Larvae are generalist feeders on low-growing plants including agricultural crops. The species gained scientific significance in 1985 when specimens collected in Missouri were found infected with a naturally occurring baculovirus, which became the first patented baculovirus and contributed to the development of biological insect control products.
Anagrus
fairyflies
Anagrus is a genus of fairyflies (Mymaridae) comprising over 90 described species, many of which are important biological control agents of agricultural pests. Adults are minute parasitoids, typically 1-2 mm in length, with coloration ranging from brown and orange to black and pale. The genus is divided into three subgenera—Anagrella, Anagrus, and Paranagrus—for taxonomic purposes. Species in this genus are specialized egg parasitoids, primarily attacking Hemiptera (leafhoppers and planthoppers), with some species also recorded from Odonata eggs. Their role in regulating populations of economically significant pests like the brown planthopper and glassy-winged sharpshooter has made them valuable in integrated pest management programs worldwide.
Anagyrus
Anagyrus is a large genus of parasitic wasps in the family Encyrtidae, containing at least 247 described species distributed worldwide. These wasps are specialized parasitoids primarily targeting mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), with several species commercially important for biological control of agricultural pests. The genus includes notable species such as A. pseudococci, A. lopezi, and A. vladimiri, which have been extensively studied and deployed for managing mealybug infestations in crops including cassava, citrus, and grapes. A subgenus, Nesoanagyrus, was established by Beardsley in 1969.
Anagyrus aper
Anagyrus aper is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae, described by Noyes & Menezes in 2000. It belongs to the genus Anagyrus, a group of wasps known primarily as parasitoids of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). The species has been recorded from New Hampshire, Ontario, and Texas, suggesting a Nearctic distribution. Like other members of its genus, it likely functions as a biological control agent of pest mealybugs, though specific host associations and biological details remain poorly documented in the available literature.
Anagyrus californicus
Anagyrus californicus is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae, originally described by Compere in 1947 as Apoanagyrus californicus. It is a specialized parasitoid of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), with documented records from California, Arizona, Florida, and Hawaii. The species has been utilized in biological control programs targeting mealybug pests in agricultural systems.
Anagyrus paralia
Anagyrus paralia is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae, described by Noyes and Menezes in 2000. It belongs to the genus Anagyrus, which contains numerous species used in biological control of mealybugs and other scale insects. The specific epithet "paralia" suggests a coastal or shore-associated habitat, though detailed ecological data remain limited. Like other Anagyrus species, it is presumed to be a primary parasitoid of mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), but host records specific to this species have not been documented in the available literature.
Anagyrus pulchricornis
Anagyrus pulchricornis is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae, first described by Howard in 1894. It belongs to a genus widely used in biological control programs targeting mealybugs (Pseudococcidae). The species is known from the Caribbean region, with records from Jamaica, the Grenadines, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. Like other members of Anagyrus, it likely parasitizes mealybug hosts, though specific host associations for this species remain poorly documented in the available literature.
Anagyrus shahidi
Anagyrus shahidi is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae, first described by Hayat in 1979. It belongs to a genus widely used in biological control programs targeting mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). The species has been recorded from India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan), Florida (USA), and Sulawesi Tengah (Indonesia). Like other Anagyrus species, it likely functions as a primary parasitoid of mealybugs, though specific host associations for A. shahidi remain incompletely documented.
Anagyrus trinidadensis
Anagyrus trinidadensis is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae, originally described from Trinidad. The species belongs to a genus of significant economic importance for biological control of mealybugs and other scale insects. Like congeners, it likely functions as a primary parasitoid of Pseudococcidae, though specific host records for this species remain limited in the available literature.
Anaphes
fairyflies
Anaphes is a genus of fairyflies (family Mymaridae), among the smallest known insects, first described by Alexander Henry Haliday in 1833. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution and is divided into two subgenera: Anaphes (Anaphes) with approximately 37 recognized species and Anaphes (Patasson) with approximately 56 species in the Palearctic region alone. Species are egg parasitoids of various insects, with documented hosts including weevils (Curculionidae), leafhoppers (Cicadellidae), and true bugs (Miridae). Several species have been studied for biological control of agricultural pests, particularly the carrot weevil (Listronotus oregonensis) and lygus bugs (Lygus spp.).
Anasa
squash bugs
Anasa is a genus of squash bugs in the family Coreidae, containing more than 70 described species distributed throughout North, Central, and South America. The genus includes major agricultural pests, particularly Anasa tristis, which causes significant damage to cucurbit crops and vectors cucurbit yellow vine disease. Members of this genus are specialized herbivores of plants in the family Cucurbitaceae.
Anastatus
eupelmid egg parasitoids
Anastatus is a large genus of chalcidoid wasps in the family Eupelmidae, comprising approximately 160 species globally with about 18 species recorded from North America north of Mexico. All species are egg parasitoids, attacking the eggs of various insects including true bugs, moths, and other arthropods. The genus exhibits extreme sexual dimorphism: females are brachypterous or apterous with powerful jumping abilities, while males are fully winged and capable of flight. Several species have been introduced as biological control agents, including A. disparis for spongy moth management and A. orientalis for spotted lanternfly control.
Anastatus semiflavidus
Anastatus semiflavidus is a minute egg parasitoid wasp in the family Eupelmidae. It is a specialist parasitoid of the range caterpillar (Hemileuca oliviae), a pest of rangeland grasses in western North America. The species exhibits arrhenotokous parthenogenesis, with females developing from fertilized eggs and males from unfertilized eggs. Laboratory studies demonstrate strong temperature-dependence in its development and reproduction.
Anastoechus barbatus
Anastoechus barbatus is a species of bee fly in the family Bombyliidae, distributed across much of North America. The species occurs from the Yukon east to Ontario in Canada, and across most of the United States from Massachusetts west to California and Texas, though it is absent from the southeastern United States. Its larvae are predators of grasshopper eggs, representing an important biological control mechanism.
Anastrepha
fruit flies, tephritid fruit flies
Anastrepha is a highly diverse genus of tephritid fruit flies native to the American tropics and subtropics, comprising over 300 described species. The genus includes nine major agricultural pest species that inflict substantial damage on commercial fruit crops including citrus, mango, guava, and papaya. Species exhibit variation in oviposition behavior, with females depositing eggs in developing fruit, mature fruit, or seeds depending on the species. The genus has been reorganized taxonomically to include species formerly placed in Toxotrypana, and contains notable cryptic species complexes such as the Anastrepha fraterculus group.
Anatis
Giant Lady Beetles
Anatis is a genus of ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae) commonly known as "giant lady beetles." The genus contains approximately ten extant species distributed primarily in North America, with at least two fossil species described. Members are relatively large compared to most lady beetles and are predatory as adults and larvae. The genus includes notable species such as Anatis mali and Anatis labiculata, which have been studied for their biological control potential.
Anatis mali
Eye-spotted Lady Beetle
Anatis mali, commonly known as the eye-spotted lady beetle, is a North American lady beetle species in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure 7.3–10 mm in length and display variable coloration from yellow to brownish red with black markings. The species has been documented as a specialized predator of aphids in balsam fir plantations, where it plays a significant role in biological control. Research indicates that larvae require approximately 296 aphids to complete development and pupate.
Anaxipha
Brown Sword-tail Crickets
Anaxipha is a genus of small swordtail crickets distributed across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, including the Americas, Africa, Asia, Australia, and western Pacific islands. Members are known as "brown sword-tail crickets" and are characterized by their acoustic communication systems, which in several studied species include both calling songs and previously undocumented courtship songs with substrate-borne vibrational signals (drumming). Some species occupy agricultural habitats such as rice fields, where they function as generalist predators.
Ancistrocerus
mason wasps, potter wasps
Ancistrocerus is a genus of solitary mason wasps in the subfamily Eumeninae. Females construct nests using mud, either in pre-existing cavities or as free-form mud cells attached to hard surfaces. They provision nests with paralyzed caterpillars as food for their larvae. Males are distinguished by hooked antennae tips. The genus has a nearly worldwide distribution, with notable species in North America, Europe, and Asia.
Ancylis
Ancylis is a genus of tortricid moths in the subfamily Olethreutinae, tribe Enarmoniini. Species are commonly known as leafrollers or leaf folders, with larvae that construct silk shelters by folding or rolling host plant leaves. The genus has a Holarctic distribution with some species also recorded from the Oriental region and South America. Several species are economically significant agricultural pests, including the strawberry leafroller (A. comptana) and the jujube leafroller (A. sativa). Taxonomic revision using DNA barcoding has clarified species boundaries, revealing that presumed Holarctic distributions were often due to misidentification.
Anisodactylus carbonarius
Anisodactylus carbonarius is a ground beetle in the family Carabidae, native to North America. It is a granivorous species that feeds on weed seeds, contributing to natural weed suppression in agricultural and garden settings. The species has been documented across Canada and the United States. Like other members of its genus, it plays a role in ecosystem services through seed predation.
Anisolabididae
Anisolabididae is a family of earwigs (order Dermaptera, suborder Neodermaptera) comprising 38 genera across 13 subfamilies. Members include both cosmopolitan and geographically restricted species, with some showing specialized adaptations for subcortical or coastal habitats. Several genera, particularly Euborellia, are recognized for their predatory behavior and potential as biological control agents of agricultural pests. The family exhibits diverse morphologies ranging from typical earwig body plans to dorsoventrally flattened forms adapted for life under bark.
Anisopteromalus
Genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Pteromalidae, comprising species that attack larvae of stored-product beetles. Species within this genus are ectoparasitoids, with females laying eggs on host larvae concealed inside grains or other substrates. The genus includes at least two morphologically similar sibling species, A. calandrae and A. quinarius, that require molecular or cytogenetic methods for reliable identification. Members of this genus have been investigated as biological control agents against pests of stored grain.
Anomaloninae
Anomaloninae is a cosmopolitan subfamily of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae. Members are slender, ranging from small to large, and typically black or brownish with yellow markings on the face and legs. The subfamily is divided into two tribes: Anomalonini, which parasitize Coleoptera larvae (Tenebrionidae and Elateridae) and some Lepidoptera larvae (Noctuidae and Tortricidae), and Gravenhorstiini, which parasitize Lepidoptera larvae. They are distinguished from other ichneumonid subfamilies by a highly reticulated propodeum, slender metasoma, fore wing with vein 3 rs-m absent, and swollen hind tarsi in males.
Anomalonini
Anomalonini is a tribe of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, subfamily Anomaloninae. The tribe is dominated by the large genus *Anomalon*, with *Neogreeneia* sometimes recognized as a second genus. Members are koinobiont endoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae. The tribe contains approximately 5,600+ documented observations, indicating moderate research attention.
Anthicidae
Ant-like Flower Beetles, Ant-like Beetles
Anthicidae is a family of beetles comprising over 3,500 species in approximately 100 genera. Members are commonly known as ant-like flower beetles due to their striking morphological resemblance to ants. The family is characterized by a constricted head forming a distinct neck and slender appendages that enhance the ant-mimicry. Adults are omnivorous, feeding on small arthropods, pollen, fungi, and other available materials. The family has fossil representatives dating to the Early Cretaceous (Barremian) from Lebanese amber.
Anthocoris
minute pirate bugs
Anthocoris is a genus of minute pirate bugs in the family Anthocoridae, containing at least 30 described species. These small predatory true bugs are important biological control agents in orchards and natural ecosystems, feeding on aphids, psyllids, mites, and other small arthropods. Several species have been studied extensively for their potential in integrated pest management, particularly in pear orchards and pistachio cultivation. The genus exhibits host-specific associations with particular tree species and prey types, with life cycles often synchronized to exploit seasonal aphid or psyllid populations.
Anthonomus
Anthonomus is a large genus of weevils (Curculionidae) described by Germar in 1817. The genus includes numerous species, many of significant economic importance. Several members are major agricultural pests, including the cotton boll weevil (A. grandis), strawberry blossom weevil (A. signatus), and pepper weevil (A. eugenii). Conversely, some species such as A. santacruzi are utilized as biological control agents against invasive plants. The taxonomy of the genus remains under revision, particularly regarding the status of Cnemocyllus as either a distinct genus or subgenus.
Anthonomus eugenii
Pepper Weevil
Anthonomus eugenii, the pepper weevil, is a small curculionid beetle and major agricultural pest of cultivated peppers (Capsicum spp.). Native to Mexico, it has spread throughout Central America, the Caribbean, the southern United States, and has been intercepted in more northern regions including Canada and Europe through imported infested fruit. The species completes its entire immature development within pepper fruits, making it particularly difficult to control with conventional insecticides. Females exhibit host-marking behavior, depositing pheromones that deter subsequent oviposition by conspecifics.
Anthrax georgicus
Tiger Bee Fly
Anthrax georgicus is a bee fly species in the family Bombyliidae, distributed across eastern and central North America. Adults are active in spring and are known for their parasitoid relationship with tiger beetle larvae (Cicindelidae), specifically attaching externally to host larvae and consuming them as they develop. The species was previously known as Anthrax analis but is now recognized as A. georgicus based on taxonomic revision.
Anthrax irroratus
Spotted Bee Fly
Anthrax irroratus is a bee fly (family Bombyliidae) widespread across North America, ranging from Alaska and northern Canada to Central America and the Caribbean. Adults are pollinators that frequent flowers, while larvae are parasitoids of solitary bees and wasps in at least five families. The species is one of numerous bee flies that exploit ground-nesting Hymenoptera as hosts.
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whirligig mites
Anystidae is a family of predatory mites comprising over 100 species, commonly known as whirligig mites. They are active generalist predators found in soils and on vegetation worldwide. The family includes notable genera such as Anystis, Tarsotomus, and Chaussieria. Several species have been investigated for biological control potential against agricultural pests including thrips, aphids, and spider mites.
Anystinae
Anystinae is a subfamily of prostigmatic mites in the family Anystidae. These fast-moving mites are commonly known as whirligig mites due to their rapid, erratic movement patterns. Members of this subfamily are primarily predatory and are frequently observed in terrestrial habitats. The subfamily includes the well-known genus *Anystis*, which contains species that are commercially used for biological pest control.
Anystis
Whirligig Mites
Anystis is a genus of predatory mites in the family Anystidae, commonly known as whirligig mites. Species in this genus are generalist predators of small arthropods, including mites, aphids, thrips, and other soft-bodied insects. They are frequently red in coloration with long legs, ranging from 500–1500 μm in size. The genus has gained attention for biological control applications, particularly Anystis baccarum, which has been documented in agricultural systems including apple orchards, raspberry crops, vineyards, and greenhouses.
Anystis baccarum
Whirligig mite
Anystis baccarum is a cosmopolitan predatory mite in the family Anystidae, commonly known as the whirligig mite. It is a generalist predator of small, soft-bodied arthropods including aphids, spider mites, thrips, and other pests in agricultural systems. Populations consist entirely of females that reproduce by thelytokous parthenogenesis. The species has been identified as a promising biological control agent in crops such as raspberry, apple, sweet pepper, and tea, though its cannibalistic tendencies and long generation time limit its effectiveness as a sole control method.
Aonidiella
Aonidiella is a genus of armored scale insects (family Diaspididae) containing approximately 30 described species. Several species, notably A. aurantii (California red scale) and A. citrina (yellow scale), are significant agricultural pests of citrus and other fruit crops. The genus exhibits a global distribution with highest diversity in tropical and subtropical regions where host plants occur.
Aonidiella aurantii
California red scale, red scale
Aonidiella aurantii, commonly known as California red scale or red scale, is an armored scale insect and major agricultural pest of citrus and other crops. Native to South China, it has spread globally through human-mediated transport of infected plant material, first appearing in California between 1868 and 1875. The species is now established across six continents and infests over 77 plant families, with citrus remaining its primary economic host. Heavy infestations cause fruit pitting, shoot distortion, leaf drop, and tree death.
Apanteles
Apanteles is a large genus of braconid wasps in the subfamily Microgastrinae, containing over 600 described species worldwide. A 2014 study from Costa Rica's Area de Conservación Guanacaste alone documented 186 new species, suggesting the genus is far more diverse than previously recognized. These small wasps (1–5 mm) are koinobiont endoparasitoids of caterpillars, with most species showing high host specificity.
Apanteles megathymi
Apanteles megathymi is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae, first described by Riley in 1881. It belongs to the genus Apanteles, a large and diverse group of microgastrine braconids that are important biological control agents. The species name 'megathymi' suggests a historical association with the genus Megathymus (giant skippers), though current host records require verification. Like other Apanteles species, it is likely a larval parasitoid of Lepidoptera.
Apertochrysa
Apertochrysa is a genus of green lacewings in the family Chrysopidae, comprising 183 described species. The genus has undergone substantial taxonomic revision, having been previously classified under the names Navasius, Dichochrysa, and Pseudomallada before being synonymized under Apertochrysa in 2021. It is a subcosmopolitan genus with the majority of species distributed in the Palearctic region, particularly Asia and Africa. Species in this genus are predators of soft-bodied insects and some exhibit debris-carrying behavior as larvae.
Aphaereta
Aphaereta is a cosmopolitan genus of braconid wasps in the tribe Alysiini, comprising approximately 48 described species worldwide. Members are endoparasitoids of Diptera, with documented associations including dung-breeding flies, blow flies, shore flies, and fruit flies. The genus has been recorded across multiple continents including Europe, Asia, North America, South America, and Oceania. Several species have been studied for their potential in biological control programs targeting pest flies.
Aphalara
jumping plant lice, psyllids
Aphalara is a genus of jumping plant lice (psyllids) in the family Aphalaridae and tribe Aphalarini. The genus contains approximately 37 recognized valid species distributed across the Palearctic, Nearctic, and Neotropical regions. Many species are specialized herbivores of Polygonaceae, particularly Polygonum and Rumex, with some groups showing strict host associations. The genus includes A. itadori, a widely studied biological control agent for invasive knotweeds (Reynoutria/Fallopia spp.) in Europe and North America. Species exhibit diverse biologies including gall induction on host plants and vibrational communication during mate search.
Aphelinidae
Aphelinidae is a family of minute parasitic wasps containing approximately 1,100-1,160 described species across 34-35 genera. These tiny insects are among the most important biological control agents used in agriculture, particularly for managing scale insects, whiteflies, and other Hemiptera. The family was formerly paraphyletic, leading to the recent elevation of Azotidae, Calesidae, and Eriaporidae to family rank. Specimens deteriorate rapidly after death unless preserved in ethanol, making museum identification challenging.
Aphelininae
Aphelininae is a subfamily of minute parasitic wasps in the family Aphelinidae (order Hymenoptera). Members are primarily parasitoids of scale insects, whiteflies, and other Hemiptera, with some species serving as important biological control agents. The subfamily was established by Thomson in 1876. Some genera historically placed in Aphelininae have been subject to taxonomic revision, with certain species formerly classified here now reassigned to other families such as Eulophidae.
Aphelinoidea
Aphelinoidea is a genus of minute wasps in the family Trichogrammatidae, described by A.A. Girault in 1911. Species are egg parasitoids of leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), with several species of economic importance as biological control agents. The genus has an almost cosmopolitan distribution. Notable hosts include the beet leafhopper (Circulifer tenellus), a vector of beet curly top virus affecting crops such as tomatoes, sugar beets, and peppers. Two species, A. anatolica and A. turanica, were introduced from Iran into California for biological control and became established. The genus reproduces by arrhenotoky, where unmated females produce only male offspring.
Aphelinus mali
woolly aphid parasite
Aphelinus mali is a tiny parasitoid wasp in the family Aphelinidae that specializes in attacking the woolly apple aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum), a major pest of apple orchards worldwide. Native to the northeastern United States, it has been introduced to numerous apple-growing regions as a biological control agent since 1928. The wasp's life cycle is tightly coupled with its aphid host, with females laying eggs inside living aphids where larvae develop before emerging as adults. It is considered one of the earliest and most successful examples of classical biological control in agriculture.
Aphelopus
Aphelopus is a genus of dryinid wasps described by Dalman in 1823. Species are parasitoids of leafhoppers (Cicadellidae), particularly typhlocybine leafhoppers, and are considered important natural enemies with potential for biological control in agricultural systems. The genus is relatively diverse, with 39 species recorded from China alone and a cosmopolitan distribution. Identification relies on wing venation characteristics and head morphology including clypeal structures.
Aphelopus albopictus
A parasitoid wasp in the family Dryinidae studied primarily in grape vineyards for its role as a biological control agent of leafhopper pests. Research has focused on its abundance, parasitism rates, and spatial distribution relative to leafhopper host populations in agricultural settings.
Aphelopus varicornis
Aphelopus varicornis is a species of dryinid wasp in the family Dryinidae, a group of parasitoid wasps known for attacking leafhoppers and planthoppers. The genus Aphelopus is characterized by females possessing raptorial forelegs adapted for capturing hosts. This species belongs to a family widely used in biological control programs targeting agricultural pest leafhoppers.
Aphidecta
larch ladybird, larch ladybug
Aphidecta is a genus of Coccinellidae (ladybird beetles) containing at least one well-documented species, A. obliterata, commonly known as the larch ladybird. Members are specialized predators of conifer-infesting adelgids and aphids. The genus has been the subject of biological control research, particularly for management of balsam woolly aphid.
Aphidecta obliterata
larch ladybird, larch ladybug, Larch Lady Beetle
Aphidecta obliterata is a small ladybird beetle (3.5–5 mm) native to Europe, with introduced populations in North America. It is a specialized predator of conifer-infesting aphids and adelgids, particularly associated with spruce and larch. The species exhibits remarkable color polymorphism, ranging from tan to brown with pinkish tints to nearly black. Multiple unsuccessful attempts were made to introduce it to eastern Canada as a biological control agent for the balsam woolly aphid (Adelges piceae) beginning in 1941. Females demonstrate sophisticated oviposition behavior, using conspecific larval tracks and egg-surface chemicals to avoid sites with high cannibalism risk.
Aphidiinae
Aphid Mummy Wasps
Aphidiinae is a subfamily of Braconidae comprising approximately 400 species in 50 genera worldwide. These wasps are koinobiont endoparasitoids that develop exclusively within aphid hosts, with larvae consuming the host from the inside. Most species pupate inside the dead aphid, though members of the tribe Praini exit below to form external volcano-like cocoons. The group is economically significant for biological control of aphid pests in agriculture and horticulture.
Aphidiinae
Aphid Mummy Wasps
Aphidiinae is a subfamily of tiny parasitoid wasps within Braconidae that exclusively parasitize aphids. Adults are minute, typically under 5 mm, with reduced wing venation characteristic of microgastroid wasps. The common name 'Aphid Mummy Wasps' refers to the distinctive 'mummy' formed when parasitized aphids die, dry out, and become leathery brown or black shells containing the wasp pupa. Several species have been successfully deployed in biological control programs targeting agricultural aphid pests.
Aphidiini
Aphidiini is a tribe of parasitoid wasps within Braconidae (Hymenoptera) that specialize in attacking aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae). Members of this tribe are koinobiont endoparasitoids, developing within living aphid hosts. Several species have been introduced globally as biological control agents for aphid pests in agricultural and forestry systems. The tribe includes genera such as *Diaeretus*, *Aphidius*, and *Lysiphlebus*.
Aphidius
Aphidius is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Aphidiinae. Adults are typically less than 3.2 mm in length. All known species are endoparasitoids of aphids, with females laying eggs directly into aphid hosts. The developing larvae consume the aphid from within, eventually killing it and forming a characteristic 'mummy'—a tan or yellow, enlarged exoskeleton from which the adult wasp emerges by chewing a round exit hole. The genus has cosmopolitan distribution and includes species widely used for biological control of aphid pests in agriculture and horticulture.
Aphidius ervi
Aphidius ervi is a parasitoid wasp in the subfamily Aphidiinae, widely distributed globally and extensively used in biological control programs against aphid pests. It parasitizes larger aphid species, particularly Macrosiphum euphorbiae (potato aphid) and Aulacorthum solani (foxglove aphid), and to a lesser extent Acyrthosiphon pisum (pea aphid). The wasp induces host castration and immunosuppression through venom proteins, allowing its larva to develop within the living aphid until emerging from a characteristic 'aphid mummy' by chewing a round exit hole.
Aphidoidea
aphids, plant lice, greenflies, blackflies, whiteflies
Aphidoidea is a superfamily of small sap-sucking insects within Hemiptera, commonly known as aphids. Members possess piercing-sucking mouthparts adapted for feeding on plant phloem. The superfamily includes approximately 5,000 described species across multiple families, with Aphididae being the largest and most economically significant. Many species exhibit complex life cycles involving both sexual and parthenogenetic reproduction, often with seasonal alternation between host plants.
Aphidoletes
aphid midge
Aphidoletes is a genus of predatory gall midges (Cecidomyiidae) whose larvae are specialized aphid predators. The best-known species, Aphidoletes aphidimyza, is widely used in commercial biological control programs against aphids in greenhouse and field crops. Adults are small, delicate flies that feed on honeydew, while larvae actively hunt and consume aphids using paralytic venom.
Aphidoletes aphidimyza
aphid midge
Aphidoletes aphidimyza is a predatory gall midge used worldwide in biological control programs against aphids. Adults are small, delicate, nocturnal flies that feed on aphid honeydew and hide beneath leaves during daylight. The bright orange, slug-like larvae are specialized aphid predators that paralyze prey by injecting venom into leg joints before consuming body contents. The species is commercially mass-produced and distributed as pupae in moist substrate for greenhouse applications.
Aphis nerii
oleander aphid, milkweed aphid, sweet pepper aphid, nerium aphid
Aphis nerii is a cosmopolitan aphid species in the family Aphididae, primarily associated with plants in the dogbane family (Apocynaceae), especially milkweeds (Asclepias) and oleander (Nerium oleander). The species exhibits complex reproductive strategies including parthenogenesis and viviparity, with winged and wingless female morphs. It is a significant pest of ornamental plants and a known vector of multiple plant viruses. The species has been introduced widely beyond its native range and is now found in tropical, Mediterranean, and temperate regions globally.
Aphthona
Spurge Flea Beetles
Aphthona is a genus of flea beetles in the leaf beetle family Chrysomelidae, native to Europe and Asia with approximately 135 species in the Palaearctic region and some 300 species worldwide. Members possess enlarged hind legs adapted for jumping, a characteristic trait of the tribe Alticini. The genus has gained significant attention for biological control applications, with several species introduced to North America to manage leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula), a major invasive weed. Six species—A. abdominalis, A. cyparissiae, A. czwalinae, A. flava, A. nigriscutis, and A. lacertosa—have been used for this purpose, though establishment success varies. Some African species have been identified as pests of Jatropha curcas in biodiesel plantations.
Aphthona cyparissiae
brown dot leafy spurge flea beetle
Aphthona cyparissiae is a small leaf beetle native to Europe, introduced to North America as a biological control agent for leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula), a noxious invasive weed. Adults feed on leaves and flowers, while larvae feed on roots and root hairs, with heavy infestations capable of killing host plants. The species was first released in Wyoming in 1986 and has since established populations across much of the northern United States and Canada. It is a spurge specialist, preferring cypress spurge (Euphorbia cyparissias) in its native range.
Aphthona czwalinai
Aphthona czwalinai is a flea beetle species in the family Chrysomelidae, subfamily Alticinae. It belongs to a genus containing species used for biological control of leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula). The species is native to Eurasia and has been introduced to North America as part of classical biological control programs. Like other Aphthona species, it is a root-feeding specialist on Euphorbia plants.
Aphthona lacertosa
Brown-legged Leafy Spurge Flea Beetle
Aphthona lacertosa is a root-feeding flea beetle native to Eurasia, introduced to North America as a biological control agent for leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula). It was first released in 1990 and more widely in 1997, specifically targeting wet habitats where herbicide use is restricted. The species has established populations in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. Adults are black and morphologically indistinguishable from A. czwalinae in field settings; larvae are the primary damaging stage.
Aphycus
Aphycus is a genus of parasitic wasps in the family Encyrtidae, subfamily Encyrtinae. The genus was established by Mayr in 1876 and contains species that are parasitoids of scale insects (Coccoidea). Species in this genus have been recorded from multiple continents including Europe, North America, and Asia. The UCR Encyrtidae collection holds several Aphycus species including A. apicalis, A. bifasciatus, A. hadzibejliae, A. hederaceus, A. rubescens, A. secundus, and A. shutovae.
Aphytis
Aphytis is a genus of minute chalcid wasps in the family Aphelinidae, comprising approximately 130 described species. These wasps are specialized ectoparasitoids of armored scale insects (Diaspididae), particularly attacking citrus and other economically important pests. Adults typically measure 2–3 mm in length and exhibit coloration ranging from black to yellow with transparent wings. The genus has been extensively studied for biological control applications, with species such as A. melinus mass-reared and released worldwide to manage scale infestations. The University of California, Riverside maintains a critical collection of Aphytis specimens, including type material for numerous species described by Rosen and DeBach.
Apioninae
Pear-shaped Weevils, Seed Weevils, Clover Weevils
Apioninae is a subfamily of small weevils within the family Brentidae, commonly known as pear-shaped weevils, seed weevils, or clover weevils. The subfamily contains at least 20 genera and approximately 80 described species, though diversity is likely higher. Members are characterized by their compact, pear-shaped body form and elongated rostrum. All species are phytophagous, with many exhibiting specialized associations with particular host plant families, particularly Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Malvaceae, and Polygonaceae. Some species are significant agricultural pests of legumes and jute, while others have been employed as biological control agents for invasive plants.
Aproaerema
Aproaerema is a genus of gelechiid moths in the subfamily Anacampsinae. The genus contains at least 11 described species distributed across Africa, Asia, and Europe. Several species are significant agricultural pests, notably Aproaerema modicella (groundnut leaf miner), which causes severe yield losses in groundnut and soybean crops across South and Southeast Asia and has recently invaded Africa. The genus has been subject to taxonomic revision, with molecular and behavioral evidence suggesting relationships among A. modicella, A. simplexella, and related taxa require re-examination.
Aprostocetus
Aprostocetus is a large genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae, established by Westwood in 1833. With approximately 800 described species, it has a global distribution across all major zoogeographic regions. Species are primarily ectoparasitoids or endoparasitoids of insects inhabiting plant galls, including gall midges (Cecidomyiidae), gall wasps (Cynipoidea), and other hosts spanning Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Blattodea, Orthoptera, and Neuroptera. Some species are phytophagous, inducing galls directly on plants. The genus is economically significant as a source of biological control agents for invasive pests.
Apsilops
Apsilops is a genus of ichneumonid wasps in the subfamily Cryptinae, containing approximately nine described species. Members are parasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, with documented associations including aquatic crambid moths and rice pests. The genus includes both aquatic and terrestrial species, reflecting diverse habitat specializations among its members.
Aptesis
Aptesis is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, first described by Arnold Förster in 1850. The genus contains approximately 74 described species with an almost cosmopolitan distribution. Species within this genus are primarily ectoparasitoids of sawfly prepupae and cocoons, with some species serving as important biological control agents. Well-studied species include Aptesis nigrocincta, a bivoltine ectoparasitoid of apple sawfly cocoons, and Aptesis basizona, a parasitoid of pine sawflies used in classical biological control programs.
Aptesis nigrocincta
Aptesis nigrocincta is a bivoltine solitary ectoparasitoid wasp that attacks cocoons of the apple sawfly (Hoplocampa testudinea). Females are nearly wingless and significantly smaller than males, an adaptation for searching soil at 10–25 cm depth. The species is considered the most important mortality factor for apple sawfly cocoons in the studied orchard, achieving parasitism rates of 12.1–39.7% per generation.
Archips rosana
Rose Tortrix, Rose Tortrix Moth, Rose Leaf Roller
Archips rosana, the rose tortrix moth, is a leafroller moth in the family Tortricidae distributed across the Palearctic and Nearctic realms. The species is a significant agricultural pest of apple orchards and other fruit crops, with larvae feeding within rolled leaves. Adults are active from May to August, with specific timing varying by location. The species is subject to substantial biological control by parasitoid wasps, with parasitisation rates reaching 24-40% in some populations.
Archytas apicifer
Hornworm Tachinid Fly
Archytas apicifer is a medium to large tachinid fly (10-15 mm) native to the Nearctic region. Adults feed on flower nectar and serve as pollinators. The larvae are internal parasitoids of caterpillars, including economically significant pest species. The species was first described by Francis Walker in 1849 and is one of approximately 10,000 species in the family Tachinidae.
Archytas marmoratus
marbled bristle fly
Archytas marmoratus is a tachinid bristle fly and member of the marmoratus species group. It is a larval-pupal parasitoid of noctuid moth caterpillars, particularly the corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea) and fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda). In 1986, it was successfully employed in biological control programs against the fall armyworm. The species has been used in inundative release programs, achieving parasitism rates exceeding 90% in isolated corn fields.
Arcola
Arcola is a genus of snout moths (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in the subfamily Phycitinae, described by Shaffer in 1995. The genus includes species associated with aquatic vegetation, most notably Arcola malloi (Alligatorweed Stem Borer), which has been employed as a biological control agent for the invasive aquatic weed alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) in the United States. The genus belongs to a diverse group of pyralid moths whose larvae typically feed on plant material.
Arcola malloi
alligator weed stem borer, Alligatorweed Stem Borer
Arcola malloi is a snout moth species used as a biological control agent against the invasive aquatic plant alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides). Native to South America, it was introduced to the United States in the 1970s and is now established in the southeastern United States. The species is notable for its stem-boring larval behavior that destroys host plant stems from the inside. When present alongside the alligator weed flea beetle, the two species act synergistically to eliminate weed mats.
Argiope trifasciata
banded garden spider, banded orb weaving spider, banded argiope, whitebacked garden spider
A large orb-weaving spider with a nearly cosmopolitan distribution, native to the Americas but now found across six continents. Females construct distinctive spiral orb webs up to 60 cm in diameter, often decorated with zigzag stabilimentum patterns. The species exhibits notable thermoregulatory behavior through strategic web orientation and body positioning. Recent phylogeographic research suggests A. trifasciata may represent a complex of cryptic species rather than a single widespread species.
Argopistes
Olive Flea Beetles
Argopistes is a genus of approximately 50 described species of flea beetles in the tribe Alticini. The genus is notable as the only group of flea beetles specialized for feeding on plants in the family Oleaceae. Species occur worldwide, with documented populations in Asia, Africa, Madagascar, Japan, Taiwan, and North America. Several species are economically significant as pests of olive trees or as biological control agents for invasive privet.
Argyractis
Argyractis is a genus of crambid moths in the subfamily Acentropinae (formerly Nymphulinae), established by Hampson in 1897. The genus contains approximately 13 recognized species distributed primarily in the Americas. At least one species, Argyractis subornata, has been studied as a potential biological control agent for invasive waterhyacinth. Members of this genus are associated with aquatic habitats and exhibit aquatic larval stages.
Argyrogramma
Argyrogramma is a genus of moths in the family Noctuidae, subfamily Plusiinae, tribe Argyrogrammatini. The genus includes at least three described species: A. signata, A. subaurea, and A. verruca. One species, A. albostriata, has been studied as a specialized predator of the invasive plant Solidago canadensis in China, where it exhibits distributional tracking of its host plant under climate change scenarios. The genus is placed within the looper moth group, characterized by larvae with reduced prolegs that move in a looping fashion.
Arhopalus
burnt pine longhorn beetle (A. ferus), black pine sawyer (A. rusticus)
Arhopalus is a genus of longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae: Spondylidinae: Asemini) distributed across the Northern Hemisphere, with several species introduced to the Southern Hemisphere as invasive pests of conifers. The genus comprises approximately 20 described species, with A. rusticus and A. ferus being the most extensively studied due to their economic importance. Species develop in dead or fire-damaged conifer wood, with some exhibiting strong attraction to burnt pine volatiles. Several species produce male-emitted aggregation-sex pheromones containing fuscumol and geranylacetone. Invasive populations in New Zealand, Australia, South America, and South Africa require monitoring at ports and sawmills for timber export compliance.
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te-statemethodological-state-stateepistemological-state-stateontological-state-stateaxiological-state-statepraxeological-state-statelogical-state-staterational-state-statereasonable-state-statesensible-state-statepragmatic-state-statepractical-state-statetheoretical-state-stateconceptual-state-stateempirical-state-stateexperimental-state-stateobservational-state-stateexperiential-state-statephenomenological-state-statehermeneutical-state-statecritical-state-statereflexive-state-statereflective-state-staterepresentative-state-stateAridelus
Aridelus is a genus of braconid wasps in the subfamily Euphorinae, comprising approximately 40 described species with cosmopolitan distribution but greatest diversity in tropical regions. These wasps are solitary koinobiont endoparasitoids of heteropteran bugs, primarily targeting nymphs and adults of stink bugs (Pentatomidae) and related families. Several species have been investigated for biological control potential against agricultural pests, particularly Nezara viridula.
Arilus cristatus
North American wheel bug, wheel bug
Arilus cristatus, the North American wheel bug, is a large assassin bug distinguished by a semicircular, wheel-shaped pronotal crest. Adults reach up to 38 mm in length and are gray to brownish-gray, while nymphs are bright red and black without the characteristic wheel structure. The species is a generalist predator that employs raptorial front legs and a powerful proboscis to subdue and liquefy prey. It is valued as a biological control agent but possesses a defensive bite to humans that is notably painful and prolonged.
Aristotelia ivae
Aristotelia ivae is a small moth in the family Gelechiidae, described by August Busck in 1900. It is native to the southeastern United States, with confirmed records from Florida and Georgia. The species was introduced to Australia in 1969 as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Baccharis halimifolia. Its larvae feed specifically on Iva frutescens in its native range.
Arotes decorus
Arotes decorus is a species of ichneumonid wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. It is known to be a parasitoid of two cerambycid beetle species: Xylotrechus colonus and Yakuhananomia bidentata. The species was described by Thomas Say in 1835 and is part of the diverse and species-rich Ichneumonidae family, which contains thousands of parasitoid wasp species.
Arytaina genistae
Broom Psyllid
Arytaina genistae, commonly known as the Broom Psyllid, is a jumping plant louse in the family Psyllidae. The species is native to Europe and has been introduced to North America, where it has become established across much of the United States. It is associated with brooms (Genista and Cytisus species) as its host plants. The species is of interest both as a potential biological control agent for invasive brooms and as a pest of ornamental and cultivated broom species.
Arytainilla spartiophila
Broom psyllid
Arytainilla spartiophila is a psyllid (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) introduced as a biological control agent for invasive Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius). It feeds on phloem sap of its host plant and has been subject to post-establishment host specificity studies to assess safety and efficacy. The species is native to Europe and has been introduced to other regions for biocontrol purposes.
Asaphes
Asaphes is a genus of aphid hyperparasitoids in the family Pteromalidae. Species in this genus are secondary parasitoids that attack primary parasitoids developing within mummified aphids. Multiple species have been studied for their competitive interactions with other hyperparasitoids, including intraspecific tertiary parasitoidism and interspecific ovicidal behavior. Some species exhibit self-host discrimination but lack interspecific discrimination toward competitor species.
Asaphes suspensus
Asaphes suspensus is a common aphid hyperparasitoid wasp (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) that attacks aphidiine primary parasitoids within mummified aphids. The species exhibits sophisticated host discrimination behavior, including self-discrimination that favors unparasitized hosts over self-parasitized ones, but notably lacks interspecific discrimination against competitors. It employs ovicidal behavior as a competitive strategy, physically destroying competitor eggs through distinctive concave puncture sites. This species has been recorded from multiple continents including Europe, South America, and North America.
Ascidae
Ascidae is a family of predatory mites in the order Mesostigmata. Members occupy diverse habitats including soil, litter, bark, and freshwater margins. Many species are phoretic, dispersing on larger arthropods such as beetles and flies. The family was historically broader, with Blattisociidae and Melicharidae now treated as separate families based on morphological distinctions.
Ascogaster
Ascogaster is a genus of braconid wasps comprising egg-larval endoparasitoids that attack tortricid moth pests. Females oviposit into host eggs, and developing wasp larvae consume host reproductive organs—a process termed host castration—before eventually killing the host. This developmental strategy redirects host resources from reproduction to somatic growth, increasing host size and improving conditions for parasitoid development. Several species have been studied for biological control applications, particularly against the codling moth (Cydia pomonella) and smaller tea tortrix (Adoxophyes spp.).
Asiloidea
asiloid flies
Asiloidea is a large superfamily of true flies (Diptera: Brachycera) with cosmopolitan distribution. It comprises approximately 11 families including the well-known Asilidae (robber/assassin flies), Bombyliidae (bee flies), Therevidae (stiletto flies), Mydidae (mydas flies), and Scenopinidae (window flies). Adult morphology is characterized by antennae with no more than 4 flagellomeres, leg empodium usually setiform or absent, and wing venation featuring an elongate cell cup with vein CuA2 ending freely or meeting A1 near the wing margin. Larval synapomorphies include posterior spiracles arising dorsally from the penultimate abdominal segment and, in most families except Bombyliidae and Hilarimorphidae, a modified cranium forming a hinged metacephalic rod.
DipteraBrachyceraAsiloidearobber-fliesbee-fliesstiletto-fliesmydas-flieswindow-fliescosmopolitanarid-habitatspredatory-larvaeflower-visitorsparasitoidsbiological-controlAsilidaeBombyliidaeTherevidaeMydidaeScenopinidaeApioceridaeApsilocephalidaeApystomyiidaeEvocoidaeHilarimorphidaeMythicomyiidaeProtapioceridaephylogenysystematicsvenomouspredatorymystaxmetacephalic-roddichopticholopticJurassicCretaceoustherevoid-cladeNamib-DesertCanary-IslandsSaudi-ArabiaDominicaChileGermanyfossilcybertaxonomyopen-accessZooKeysBohart-MuseumWorld-Robber-Fly-DayAspidiotus
Aspidiotus is a genus of armored scale insects (family Diaspididae) comprising over 100 described species. Several species are significant agricultural pests, notably Aspidiotus destructor (coconut scale) and Aspidiotus nerii (oleander scale), which infest palms, fruit crops, and ornamental plants across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. The genus is characterized by the hard, protective scale covering secreted by females. Species within Aspidiotus serve as hosts for specialized bacterial endosymbionts, particularly Candidatus Uzinura diaspidicola, which play roles in host nutrition and potentially influence invasive success.
Aspidiotus destructor
coconut scale, transparent scale, Bourbon scale
Aspidiotus destructor is an armored scale insect (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) known as the coconut scale. It is a globally distributed pest of tropical and subtropical agriculture, causing significant damage to coconut, banana, and numerous other fruit and ornamental plants. The species is notable for its rapid reproduction and the protective waxy test that covers most life stages. It has been the target of extensive biological control efforts, most famously the successful introduction of the lady beetle Cryptognatha nodiceps to Guam in the early 1900s. The species harbors a primary bacterial endosymbiont, Candidatus Uzinura diaspidicola, which may play a role in its biology and potential management.
Astata
Astata is a cosmopolitan genus of solitary predatory wasps in the subfamily Astatinae, family Crabronidae. With 87 recognized species and subspecies worldwide, it is the largest genus in its subfamily. The genus is distinguished by distinctive wing venation patterns and pronounced sexual dimorphism in eye structure. Males possess exceptionally large compound eyes that meet dorsally at the top of the head, while females have normal, separated eyes.
Astata unicolor
Astata unicolor is a solitary, soil-nesting wasp in the family Crabronidae. It is sexually dimorphic: males have black abdomens and enlarged eyes that meet at the top of the head, while females have black and orange abdomens with normal, separated eyes. The species is a predator of stink bugs (Pentatomidae), with documented preference for late-instar nymphs and adults of the invasive brown marmorated stink bug (Halyomorpha halys). Females paralyze prey with a sting, transport it to underground nests, and provision cells for their larval offspring.
Ataenius spretulus
black turfgrass ataenius, black fairway beetle
Ataenius spretulus is a scarab beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) commonly known as the black turfgrass ataenius or black fairway beetle. It is the most common grub in golf course fairways in Michigan and throughout much of North America. The species has been extensively studied in turfgrass management contexts due to its economic impact as a root-feeding pest. Research indicates its abundance and distribution are influenced by soil moisture levels, mowing height, and natural enemy pressure rather than adult oviposition preferences alone.
Atanycolus cappaerti
Atanycolus cappaerti is a North American braconid wasp that parasitizes larvae of the invasive emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis). The species was described in 2009 and has been studied for its potential as a native biological control agent against this destructive forest pest. It is one of several native parasitoids that may be adapting to exploit the emerald ash borer as a host in invaded areas.
Athrycia
Athrycia is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) in the tribe Voriini. The genus contains at least five described species, with Athrycia cinerea being the most thoroughly studied. Species in this genus are larval parasitoids of Lepidoptera, with documented host associations primarily involving noctuid moths. The genus has been recorded from the Palearctic region (Denmark, Norway, Sweden) and Nearctic region (Canada).
Athrycia cinerea
Athrycia cinerea is a univoltine tachinid fly parasitoid native to North America, primarily associated with the bertha armyworm (Mamestra configurata) in Canadian rapeseed fields. Females oviposit on third through sixth instar host larvae, with parasite larvae typically developing gregariously and maturing on fifth and sixth instars. The species exhibits temperature-dependent pupal diapause, which is usually prevented at 25°C but occurs at 20°C.
Atrichomelina pubera
Atrichomelina pubera is a sciomyzid fly whose larvae are aquatic or semi-aquatic predators of freshwater snails. The species has been successfully reared in laboratory conditions, enabling documentation of its complete immature stages and feeding behavior. Its biology was formally described in a 1960 study focusing on life history and developmental morphology.
Atteva
ermine moths, ailanthus webworms
Atteva is the sole genus in the family Attevidae, a group of small to medium-sized moths within the superfamily Yponomeutoidea. The genus has a pantropical distribution with approximately 70 described species. Most species occur in tropical regions of the Americas, Asia, and Oceania, though Atteva aurea has expanded into temperate North America following the introduction of its host plant, Ailanthus altissima (Tree of Heaven). Adults are often strikingly patterned in orange, black, and white, and several species are diurnal nectar feeders rather than nocturnal.
Atteva aurea
Ailanthus Webworm Moth, Ermine Moth
Atteva aurea, commonly known as the ailanthus webworm moth or ermine moth, is a small, colorful moth native to Central America and the southern United States that has expanded its range northward following the introduction and spread of its host plant, the invasive Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima). The adult moth displays striking orange, black, and white coloration and is active during daylight hours, feeding on nectar from flowers such as ageratum. The larval stage, known as the ailanthus webworm, constructs communal silken webs on host plants and feeds on leaves, with the potential to defoliate small trees. The species has been proposed as a potential biological control agent for the invasive Tree of Heaven.
Aulacaspis yasumatsui
cycad aulacaspis scale, cycad scale, sago palm scale, Asian cycad scale
Aulacaspis yasumatsui is a highly destructive armored scale insect native to Southeast Asia that has become a globally invasive pest of cycads. First described from Thailand in 1977, it was detected in Florida in 1996 and has since spread to numerous countries across six continents, causing widespread mortality of ornamental and native cycad populations. The species exhibits extreme sexual dimorphism in body form and produces multiple generations annually in warm climates, with populations capable of reaching densities that completely encrust host fronds and ultimately kill the plant through depletion of photosynthetic tissue and nonstructural carbohydrates.
Aulacidae
Aulacid Wasps
Aulacidae is a small, cosmopolitan family of parasitoid wasps in the superfamily Evanioidea, containing approximately 200 known species across two extant genera: Aulacus and Pristaulacus. These wasps are primarily endoparasitoids of wood-boring insects, specifically targeting larvae of wood wasps (Xiphydriidae) and xylophagous beetles in the families Cerambycidae and Buprestidae. They are closely related to Gasteruptiidae and Evaniidae, sharing the distinctive evanioid trait of having the metasoma attached high on the propodeum above the hind coxae. Despite their wide distribution, aulacids are rarely collected and poorly studied, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere.
Aulacidea acroptilonica
Russian Knapweed Gall Wasp
Aulacidea acroptilonica is a species of gall wasp in the family Cynipidae, commonly known as the Russian Knapweed Gall Wasp. It is a specialist herbivore that induces galls on its host plant. The species is native to regions associated with Russian knapweed and has been recorded in the conterminous United States. Like other members of the genus Aulacidea, it is likely targeted by parasitoid wasps. The species was described by Tyurebaev in 1979.
Aulacobaris
Aulacobaris is a genus of weevils in the family Curculionidae. The genus includes species associated with plants in the Brassicaceae family. Aulacobaris fallax has been studied as a potential biological control agent for dyer's woad (Isatis tinctoria) in North America, though host specificity testing revealed significant non-target risks.
Aulacorthum solani
Foxglove aphid, Glasshouse-potato aphid
Aulacorthum solani is a globally distributed agricultural pest aphid with one of the broadest host ranges of any aphid species, feeding on both dicots and monocots. It is a phloem-feeding hemipteran that causes direct feeding damage including stunted growth, leaf discoloration, and deformation, and serves as a vector for plant viruses. The species exhibits temperature-dependent development and reproduction, with optimal performance between 12.5–20°C and survival possible from 5–27.5°C. Both winged and wingless morphs occur, with parthenogenesis used for colony maintenance in laboratory settings.
Aulogymnus
Aulogymnus is a genus of chalcidoid wasps in the family Eulophidae, first described by Förster in 1851. Members of this genus are small parasitoid wasps, part of a diverse family that primarily parasitizes other insects. The genus has been recorded from Europe and Asia. Specific biological details for the genus as a whole remain poorly documented in accessible literature.
parasitoidEulophidaeChalcidoideaHymenopteraPalearcticwaspsinsectsarthropodsentomologytaxonomyFörster-1851DenmarkSpainTibetChinaEuropeAsiaminute-waspschalcid-waspsEulophinaeTerebrantesApocritaHexapodaAnimaliaArthropodaInsectaAulogymnussmall-waspstiny-waspsparasitic-waspsbiological-controlinsect-parasitoidssystematicsmorphologyidentificationkeysNearcticOrientalXizangcitizen-scienceiNaturalistobservationsrecordsdistributionFörster1851genusacceptedvalidsynonymychalcidoidchalcidchalcidseulophideulophidseulophid-waspseulophinesparasitoid-waspsparasitic-Hymenopterabiological-control-agentsinsect-diversitybiodiversityfaunaentomologicalhymenopteranarthropodhexapodhexapodspterygotepterygotesendopterygoteendopterygotesholometabolousholometabolatiny-insectsminute-insectssmall-insectsmicrohymenopteramicro-waspsmicro-parasitoidsmicro-chalcidsmicro-eulophidswing-venationantennaethoraxdiagnostic-characterstaxonomic-keysidentification-keysgeneric-keysNearctic-faunaEuropean-faunaAsian-faunaTibetan-faunaSpanish-faunaDanish-faunapoorly-knowndata-deficientunderstudiedcryptic-diversityhost-unknownbiology-unknownlife-history-unknownecology-unknowndistribution-recordsoccurrence-recordsspecimen-recordsmuseum-recordsdatabase-recordsGBIFCatalogue-of-LifeNCBIWikipediaUniversal-Chalcidoidea-DatabaseKey-to-Nearctic-eulophid-generaliteraturesourcesreferencescitationsbibliographyoriginal-descriptiontype-speciestype-localitynomenclaturesystematic-entomologyhymenopterologychalcidologyparasitologybiological-control-researchintegrated-pest-managementIPMagricultural-entomologyforest-entomologymedical-entomologyveterinary-entomologyurban-entomologyconservation-entomologyinsect-ecologycommunity-ecologypopulation-ecologybehavioral-ecologyevolutionary-ecologyphylogeneticsphylogenymolecular-systematicsDNA-barcodingtaxonomy-and-phylogenyclassificationbiodiversity-informaticsbiogeographyhistorical-biogeographyphylogeographydispersalvicariancespeciationdiversificationevolutionadaptationnatural-selectionsexual-selectionlife-history-evolutionhost-parasitoid-interactionscoevolutiontritrophic-interactionsfood-websecosystem-servicesnatural-enemiesbiocontrolaugmentative-biological-controlclassical-biological-controlconservation-biological-controlinvasive-species-managementpest-managementsustainable-agricultureorganic-farmingagroecologyecosystem-healthenvironmental-monitoringbioindicatorsindicator-speciesclimate-changeglobal-changehabitat-lossfragmentationconservation-statusIUCNred-listnot-evaluatedresearch-needsknowledge-gapsfuture-researchprioritiesspecimen-collectionvoucheringmuseum-collectionsnatural-history-collectionsdigitizationdata-sharingopen-scienceFAIR-principlescitizen-science-contributionscommunity-sciencepublic-engagementscience-communicationeducationoutreachnatural-historyinsect-watchingwasp-watchingnature-observationbiodiversity-appreciationAulonium
Aulonium is a genus of cylindrical bark beetles in the family Zopheridae, subfamily Colydiinae. Members are predators of other bark beetles and have been studied for their potential role in biological control. The genus contains approximately 17 described species distributed across multiple continents. At least one species, Aulonium ruficorne, has been documented as a specialized predator within bark beetle galleries.
Azotidae
Azotidae is a small family of chalcidoid wasps containing a single genus, Ablerus Howard, 1894, with approximately 92–94 described species. The family was elevated from subfamily status within Aphelinidae in 1966 and is now recognized as a distinct family in Chalcidoidea. Azotidae are obligate hyperparasitoids that attack primary parasitoids of hemipteran pests, particularly those associated with scale insects (Diaspididae), whiteflies (Aleyrodidae), and mealybugs. Their biology makes them significant tertiary consumers in agricultural food webs.
Azya
Azya is a genus of lady beetles (family Coccinellidae) comprising approximately 12 described species. The genus is notable for its unusual coloration—many species display cobalt blue rather than the typical red-orange-and-black pattern of most coccinellids. Azya species are predators of scale insects, particularly in agricultural settings. The genus was established by Mulsant in 1850 and occurs primarily in the Neotropics.
Bactra verutana
javelin moth
Bactra verutana, commonly known as the javelin moth, is a small tortricid moth with a wingspan of 11–17 mm. It has a broad distribution spanning North America, the Caribbean, Central and South America, and parts of Africa. The species is notable as an indigenous biological control agent for weedy nutsedges (Cyperus species), particularly purple nutsedge (C. rotundus) and yellow nutsedge (C. esculentus). Larval feeding damages leaves, fascicles, basal bulbs, tubers, and inflorescences of host plants, reducing both vegetative and sexual reproduction.
Bactrocera oleae
olive fruit fly, olive fly, δάκος της ελιάς
Bactrocera oleae is a tephritid fruit fly and the most destructive pest of olive cultivation worldwide. Larvae feed exclusively on olive fruits (Olea europaea), causing direct damage to pulp and oil quality. Annual crop losses can reach 30% without control, and exceed 90% in severe infestations. The species is monophagous on olives and has developed resistance to multiple insecticide classes, driving research into alternative management strategies including sterile insect technique and biological control.
Bagoinae
Bagoinae is a subfamily of weevils (Curculionidae) containing the genus Bagous and related genera. Members are primarily associated with aquatic and semi-aquatic habitats, though some occupy terrestrial environments. The group has been variously classified, with some treatments placing it within Molytinae. The subfamily includes approximately 130 species in the Palaearctic region, with the genus Bagous distributed globally except Central and South America.
Bagous
Bagous is a genus of semi-aquatic weevils in the family Curculionidae containing at least 360 described species. Many species are associated with aquatic or semi-aquatic habitats, with several species developed as biological control agents for invasive aquatic plants, particularly Hydrilla verticillata. The genus includes both native and introduced species with varying degrees of host specificity. Larvae typically develop within plant stems while adults feed on stems and leaves.
Bagous restrictus
Bagous restrictus is a small weevil native to North America that has become notable for its exclusive association with the invasive aquatic plant Hydrilla verticillata. It is the only native Bagous species known to utilize this introduced weed as a host. The beetle completes its entire life cycle within Hydrilla tissues, with larvae feeding and developing inside stems and tubers. Its native status and host specificity distinguish it from two introduced biological control agents (Bagous hydrillae and B. affinis) that also target Hydrilla.
Bagrada
Bagrada is a genus of stink bugs in the family Pentatomidae, comprising approximately nine described species. The genus is native to Africa and Asia, with at least one species, Bagrada hilaris, becoming a significant invasive pest in North America. Species in this genus are associated with plants in the Brassicaceae family and have become economically important due to their impact on agricultural crops.
Balcha
Balcha is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Eupelmidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). The genus comprises 16 described species worldwide, including eight newly described species and two newly combined species. Members are ectoparasitoids of wood-boring beetles, with Balcha indica notable as an accidental introduction to North America where it attacks the invasive emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis).
Balcha indica
Balcha indica is a solitary ectoparasitoid wasp in the family Eupelmidae, native to Asia and accidentally introduced to North America. It attacks larvae, prepupae, and pupae of the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), an invasive wood-boring beetle threatening ash trees. Under laboratory conditions, the species exhibits extended adult longevity (mean 59 days, maximum 117 days) and reproduces via thelytokous parthenogenesis. Development from egg to adult takes approximately 83 days at 25°C, suggesting one to two generations per year in temperate North American regions. The species has been recovered from field surveys in Michigan, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Ontario, Virginia, and West Virginia, where it functions as an adventitious biological control agent of this invasive pest.
Banchinae
Banchinae is a large subfamily of Ichneumonidae containing approximately 1,500–1,800 described species distributed worldwide. The subfamily comprises three tribes: Banchini, Glyptini, and Atrophini. All banchines are koinobiont endoparasitoids of Lepidoptera larvae. Glyptini primarily parasitize Tortricidae, while Atrophini attack a broader range of small moth families. The genus Lissonota is notable for possessing exceptionally long ovipositors capable of reaching deep wood-boring Lepidoptera such as Cossidae. Banchinae and Campopleginae are the only Ichneumonidae subfamilies known to harbor polydnaviruses, which play a role in host immune suppression.
Banchus
Banchus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, first described by Fabricius in 1798. Species occur in Europe, North America, and Asia. The genus comprises at least eight described species, with Banchus flavescens being the most abundant hymenopteran parasitoid of the bertha armyworm in western Canada. Members are endoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, particularly Noctuidae.
Bangasternus
Bangasternus is a genus of true weevils (Curculionidae) comprising small, dark-colored species used as biological control agents against invasive knapweeds and starthistles (Centaurea spp.). Adults are typically 4 millimeters long, dark gray, and hairy. The genus is notable for its host specificity to Centaurea species, with larvae developing within flower heads where they consume developing seeds. Several species have been introduced to North America for biocontrol purposes, including B. fausti and B. orientalis.
Bangasternus orientalis
yellow starthistle bud weevil
Bangasternus orientalis is a small true weevil (Curculionidae) used as a biological control agent against the invasive weed yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis). Native to southern Europe and the Mediterranean, it was introduced to the United States in 1985 and has become established throughout the western United States. Adults feed on leaves and flower buds, while larvae develop within flower heads and consume developing seeds, destroying 50-60% of seeds in infested heads.
Barichneumon
Barichneumon is a genus of ichneumonid wasps established by Thomson in 1893. At least one species, Barichneumon bilunulatus, has been documented as a parasitoid of the pine beauty moth (Panolis flammea), a pest of pine forests. The genus is recorded from Scandinavia and Denmark.
Barycnemis
Barycnemis is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, first described by Förster in 1869. The genus contains approximately 19 described species distributed across Europe and North America. These wasps are known to parasitize beetles in the genera Byrrhus, Bledius, and Pissodes.
Baryscapus
Baryscapus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species are endoparasitic, developing within the bodies of other insects. Host associations span multiple insect orders including Hemiptera, Neuroptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera. Some species are important biological control agents, particularly against agricultural and forestry pests.
Bathyplectes
Bathyplectes is a genus of ichneumonid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Campopleginae) comprising larval parasitoids of weevil pests, particularly the alfalfa weevil (Hypera postica). The genus includes multiple Palaearctic species, with B. curculionis and B. anura being the most studied for biological control of alfalfa weevil in agricultural systems. These parasitoids have been introduced to North America as part of classical biological control programs. A distinctive behavioral trait occurs in B. anura, whose cocooned larvae jump up to 5 cm to locate favorable microhabitats.
Bathyplectes curculionis
Bathyplectes curculionis is a parasitoid wasp in the family Ichneumonidae that attacks larvae of the alfalfa weevil (Hypera postica), a major pest of alfalfa crops. It has been introduced and established in various regions as a biological control agent. Field studies indicate that its populations are influenced by sugar availability, including aphid honeydew and floral nectar. In some regions, it has been displaced by the congener Bathyplectes anurus, which exhibits superior reproductive capacity, more rapid host handling, and avoidance of host encapsulation.
Bathyplectes infernalis
Bathyplectes infernalis is a parasitoid wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. It is a biological control agent of the alfalfa weevil (Hypera postica), a major agricultural pest in western North America. The species has been introduced and released in the United States as part of classical biological control programs. It is one of several Bathyplectes species used to manage weevil populations in alfalfa fields.
Bdella
Bdella is a genus of predatory mites in the family Bdellidae. Species in this genus are active predators of small arthropods and function as biological control agents of pest species such as spider mites and springtails. The genus has a wide geographic distribution, with records from Europe, Northern America, and China. Life cycle stages include larva, protonymph, deutonymph, tritonymph, and adult.
Bdellidae
Snout Mites
Bdellidae is a family of moderate to large-sized predatory mites commonly known as snout mites. The family contains approximately 11 genera and at least 278 described species worldwide. They are distinguished by their elongated, snout-like gnathosoma and elbowed pedipalps bearing two long terminal setae (one in the genus Monotrichobdella). Members inhabit diverse environments including soil, leaf litter, vegetation, and intertidal zones.
Bdellodes
Bdellodes is a genus of predatory mites in the family Bdellidae. The genus includes Bdellodes lapidaria, a species native to Australia that has been introduced to South Africa as a biological control agent against the lucerne flea (Sminthurus viridis), a pest of pasture legumes.
Bellura densa
Pickerelweed Borer Moth
Bellura densa, commonly known as the pickerelweed borer moth, is a noctuid moth species native to eastern and southeastern North America. The species is notable for its aquatic or semi-aquatic larval biology, with caterpillars that bore into and feed on wetland plants. Adults are medium-sized moths with a wingspan of 35–50 mm. The species is associated with freshwater wetland habitats and has been documented from Maryland to Florida and west to Indiana and Louisiana.
Belvosia
Belvosia is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) in the tribe Goniini. The genus contains over 100 species distributed across the New World from Canada to Argentina. Belvosia species are parasitoids of caterpillars, with females laying microtype eggs on host food plant foliage that are ingested by feeding larvae. A 2023 revision described 33 new species from Costa Rica, bringing the total from 72 to 107 species.
Belvosia unifasciata
Belvosia unifasciata is a species of tachinid fly, a family of bristle flies known for their role as parasitoids of other insects. The species was first described by Robineau-Desvoidy in 1830 under the name Latreillia unifasciata. Like other members of the genus Belvosia, it is an internal parasite of caterpillars, specifically documented as a parasitoid of the White-lined Sphinx moth (Hyles lineata).
Bembidion lampros
A small ground beetle native to Europe, now established in North America. Adults overwinter and reproduce in early spring in arable fields, where they function as generalist predators of cereal aphids. The species exhibits wing dimorphism with three phenotypes, though macropterous individuals rarely possess functional flight muscles. Low lifetime fecundity (approximately 10 eggs per female) and high juvenile mortality (66%) make population dynamics sensitive to conditions during larval development.
Bembidion quadrimaculatum
Garden Bembidion Beetle
Bembidion quadrimaculatum is a small ground beetle in the family Carabidae with a broad distribution spanning Europe, Northern Asia, North America, and Southern Asia. The species is recognized as an important component of agricultural ecosystems, where it serves as a beneficial predator. Multiple subspecies have been described, including the nominate B. q. quadrimaculatum and the North American B. q. oppositum. Populations have been observed to respond positively to conservation tillage practices in agricultural settings.
Berytidae
stilt bugs, thread bugs
Berytidae, commonly known as stilt bugs or thread bugs, is a family of true bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) characterized by exceptionally long, slender legs and elongated bodies. The family contains approximately 200 species worldwide, classified into three subfamilies: Berytinae, Gampsocorinae, and Metacanthinae. Members range from 3-10 mm in length and display coloration from brown to yellow. While most species are phytophagous, feeding on plant sap, some exhibit predatory behavior on small insects. Several species are economically significant as pests of cultivated crops, particularly tomatoes and tobacco, where feeding damage can cause flower abortion, fruit distortion, and unsalable produce.
Bessa harveyi
Bessa harveyi is a tachinid fly parasitoid that attacks the larch sawfly, Pristiphora erichsonii, in North American larch forests. The species exhibits bivoltinism, with a partial second generation emerging in fall after host larvae have completed feeding; these fall-emerging adults rarely reproduce successfully due to scarcity of alternate hosts. Despite being a common parasite, it is ineffective at preventing or terminating outbreaks of its host. Population dynamics are strongly influenced by photoperiod and temperature, with warm, prolonged summers under long-day conditions increasing bivoltinism-related mortality.
Bethylidae
Flat wasps
Bethylidae is a family of aculeate wasps in the superfamily Chrysidoidea, commonly known as flat wasps due to their dorsoventrally compressed body form. The family exhibits a biology intermediate between parasitoid and predatory wasps: females sting and paralyze prey (primarily beetle and lepidopteran larvae), then oviposit on the immobilized hosts. Most species are small (2–10 mm), with females often wingless or apterous while males are always winged. The family contains eight recognized subfamilies and approximately 96 genera, with highest diversity in tropical and subtropical regions.
Bethylinae
Bethylinae is a subfamily of small, stout-bodied parasitoid wasps within the family Bethylidae. Members are characterized by reduced wing venation and a compact, often humpbacked appearance. The subfamily contains numerous species that parasitize the larvae of beetles and moths, with females typically searching for concealed hosts in plant material or soil. Bethylinae is distinguished from other bethylid subfamilies by specific morphological features of the antennae and mesosoma.
Bicyrtes fodiens
Bicyrtes fodiens is a solitary sand wasp in the family Crabronidae, native to North and Middle America. Like other members of its genus, it is a fossorial species that excavates burrows in sandy or coarse soil to provision with paralyzed true bugs for its larval offspring. The species is part of a guild of beneficial predatory wasps that help control pest insect populations, including stink bugs. Adults are nectar-feeders and can often be observed visiting flowers.
Bicyrtes quadrifasciatus
Four-banded Stink Bug Wasp, four-banded stink bug hunter wasp
Bicyrtes quadrifasciatus is a sand wasp native to North America, east of the Rocky Mountains. Females construct solitary burrows in sandy soil to provision with paralyzed true bugs, primarily stink bugs (Pentatomidae), as food for their larvae. The species has gained attention for its role as a native biological control agent of the invasive Brown Marmorated Stink Bug (Halyomorpha halys). Adults are nectar-feeders and can be readily observed at flowers.
Billaea
Billaea is a genus of tachinid flies comprising approximately 80 described species. Most larvae are parasitoids of beetle larvae, particularly cerambycids and lucanids, with some species attacking lepidopteran hosts in the family Pyralidae. Several species have been investigated as biological control agents for agricultural and forestry pests, including palm weevils and sugarcane borers.
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Billaea sibleyi is a species of tachinid fly in the family Tachinidae. The genus Billaea comprises parasitoid flies that attack various insect hosts. Billaea sibleyi has been documented in North America. As with other tachinid flies, the larvae are parasitoids that develop on or within host insects.
Biosteres
Biosteres is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, first described by Förster in 1862. Species in this genus are solitary or gregarious endoparasitoids, primarily attacking larvae of tephritid fruit flies. Several species, including B. longicaudatus, B. arisanus, and B. tryoni, have been extensively studied for their use in biological control programs against economically important fruit pests. The genus has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, with species documented across Europe, Asia, North America, and other regions.
Blastothrix
Blastothrix is a genus of encyrtid wasps in the family Encyrtidae. The genus includes species that function as parasitoids of scale insects, with Blastothrix sericea being a notable example used in classical biological control. This species was successfully introduced from England to British Columbia in 1928-1929 to manage the lecanium scale (Eulecanium coryli), achieving 90-100% parasitism rates and suppressing host populations within four years.
Blastothrix longipennis
Blastothrix longipennis is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae, first described by Howard in 1881. It belongs to a genus of encyrtid wasps known primarily as parasitoids of scale insects (Coccoidea). The species has been documented in museum collections across multiple continents, including North America, Europe, and Asia.
Blattisociidae
Blattisociidae is a family of predatory and fungivorous mites in the order Mesostigmata, historically grouped with Ascidae and Melicharidae due to morphological similarity. The family contains approximately 14 genera and occurs in diverse habitats including soil, stored products, insect nests, flowers, and fungi. Many species engage in phoresis, attaching to insects and other animals for dispersal. Several species have been investigated as potential biological control agents of pest mites and insects.
Blepharidopterus angulatus
black-kneed capsid
Blepharidopterus angulatus is a predatory mirid bug native to the Palearctic region, with established populations in North America. It serves as a generalist predator of mites, aphids, and other soft-bodied arthropods on deciduous trees and shrubs. The species has been studied extensively for its potential as a biological control agent in orchards and its complex ecological relationships with parasitoids.
Blepyrus
Blepyrus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, subfamily Tetracneminae. Species within this genus are known biological control agents that parasitize mealybugs (Pseudococcidae). The genus includes at least five described species: B. clavicornis, B. insularis, B. kirkpatricki, B. saccharicola, and B. schwarzi. These wasps have been studied for their potential in managing agricultural pests, particularly species attacking economically important mealybugs.
Blissus occiduus
Western Chinch Bug
Blissus occiduus, the western chinch bug, is a phloem-feeding true bug (Hemiptera: Blissidae) that is a significant pest of warm-season turfgrasses, particularly buffalograss and zoysiagrass. The species exhibits strong host preference hierarchies, with buffalograss being the most preferred host followed by zoysiagrass, though it can survive and reproduce on a broad range of grasses including agronomic crops. Field studies have documented inconsistent control with neonicotinoid insecticides, with thiamethoxam showing particularly rapid degradation in buffalograss tissues compared to imidacloprid and clothianidin.
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Blondelia is a genus of tachinid flies established by Robineau-Desvoidy in 1830, currently comprising approximately 20 described species. As members of the tribe Blondeliini, these flies are parasitoids, with larvae developing inside other insects. The genus has been recorded across the Holarctic region, with species distributed in Europe and North America.
Blondeliini
Blondeliini is a tribe of parasitic flies within the family Tachinidae (Diptera). Members are parasitoids of other insects, with documented hosts including beetles and caterpillars. The tribe exhibits greatest diversity in the New World, particularly South America, though it occurs nearly worldwide. Several genera possess a piercing-type ovipositor, a morphological feature with phylogenetic significance within the tribe.
Bocchinae
Bocchinae is a subfamily of dryinid wasps within the family Dryinidae. Members are parasitoid wasps that target leafhopper and planthopper nymphs as hosts. The subfamily is characterized by specific morphological traits in the forewing venation and antennal structure. Bocchinae represents one of several lineages within the Dryinidae, a family known for the distinctive chelae (pincer-like forelegs) found in females of many species.
Boethus
Boethus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae. Species in this genus are known to attack sawfly hosts, with Boethus thoracicus documented as a parasitoid of Arge rosae (rose sawfly). The genus belongs to the superfamily Ichneumonoidea, one of the largest groups of parasitoid wasps.
Boettcheria bisetosa
Boettcheria bisetosa is a species of flesh fly in the family Sarcophagidae, first described by Parker in 1914. The genus Boettcheria comprises parasitoid flies whose larvae develop within other insects. B. bisetosa has been documented as a parasitoid of sawfly pupae, specifically reared from pupal cocoons of the Elm Sawfly (Cimbex americana). Like other sarcophagids, adults likely do not feed at the larval host but instead consume nectar or other liquid foods.
Boettcheria cimbicis
Boettcheria cimbicis is a species of flesh fly in the family Sarcophagidae. The species has been documented as a parasitoid of the Elm Sawfly (Cimbex americana), specifically reared from its pupal cocoons. It represents a specialized ecological relationship within the Sarcophagidae, a family better known for generalist carrion-feeding habits.
Bombyliidae
bee flies, bomber flies
Bombyliidae is a large family of true flies comprising over 4,500 described species across approximately 270 genera. Adults are commonly known as bee flies due to their frequent resemblance to bees, often achieved through dense body hair and Batesian mimicry. They are important pollinators, particularly in arid environments, with some species possessing proboscises longer than their bodies to access deep floral tubes. Larvae are parasitoids or predators of other insects, with hosts including solitary bees, wasps, beetles, and other arthropods. The family has a cosmopolitan distribution but reaches greatest diversity in tropical and subtropical arid regions.
Boreioglycaspis
Boreioglycaspis is a genus of psyllids in the family Aphalaridae, containing species that specialize on Melaleuca and related Myrtaceae. The genus includes Boreioglycaspis melaleucae, introduced to Florida in 2002 as a classical biological control agent against the invasive tree Melaleuca quinquenervia. Species in this genus are characterized by their narrow host specificity and association with Australian native plants.
Boreioglycaspis melaleucae
melaleuca psyllid
Boreioglycaspis melaleucae is a psyllid native to Australia, introduced to Florida in 2002 as a classical biological control agent against the invasive tree Melaleuca quinquenervia. It is a phloem-feeding specialist on Melaleuca quinquenervia and has established self-sustaining populations in South Florida. The species produces waxy secretions from specialized integumentary structures and excretes honeydew. Its population dynamics in Florida are influenced by temperature extremes, with development ceasing below 10°C and above 30°C, and it faces parasitism by the adventive encyrtid wasp Psyllaephagus migrator.
Bothriderini
Bothriderini is a tribe of beetles within the family Bothrideridae. Members of this tribe are small, often flattened beetles with compact bodies. The tribe is part of the broader Bothrideridae family, which consists primarily of ectoparasitoids of wood-boring beetles. Bothriderini species are associated with decaying wood habitats where their hosts occur.
Bothriocera omani
Bothriocera omani is a species of planthopper in the family Cixiidae, first described by Kramer in 1983. The species has been identified as a predator of the Dubas bug (Ommatissus lybicus), a serious pest of date palms in the Middle East and North Africa, based on molecular gut content analysis. It was collected from date palm plantations in Oman as part of a study identifying natural enemies of O. lybicus.
Bothriothorax
Bothriothorax is a genus of parasitic wasps in the family Encyrtidae, first described by Ratzeburg in 1844. The genus belongs to the subfamily Encyrtinae, a diverse group of chalcidoid wasps known primarily as parasitoids of scale insects and other Hemiptera. Species of Bothriothorax have been documented in the United States and India, with multiple species recorded in entomological collections. The genus is represented in major Encyrtidae collections including the University of California, Riverside holdings.
Brachistinae
Brachistinae is a subfamily of parasitoid wasps within Braconidae. Members are koinobiont endoparasitoids, primarily attacking coleopteran hosts including weevils (Curculionidae). The subfamily has undergone significant taxonomic revision: historically treated as tribes within Helconinae, then split with Blacinae, before Blacinae was synonymized under Brachistinae based on 2011 phylogenetic evidence. The genus Nealiolus has demonstrated potential as a biological control agent against pest weevils. Fossil representatives are known from late Eocene Baltic amber.
Brachistini
Brachistini is a tribe of parasitoid wasps within the subfamily Brachistinae (Braconidae). The tribe comprises five genera: Eubazus, Chelostes, Foersteria, Polydegmon, and Schizoprymnus. At least 70 species have been recorded from Turkey alone, with the Black Sea region showing highest diversity. Members of this tribe are recognized for their potential in biological control of agricultural pests.
Brachycaudus
Short-tailed Aphids
Brachycaudus is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, commonly known as short-tailed aphids. The genus contains approximately 43 species distributed worldwide, including significant agricultural pests such as B. helichrysi (peach leaf curl aphid) and B. rumexicolens. Species in this genus exhibit remarkable evolutionary lability in life cycle strategies, with transitions occurring between monoecy on woody hosts, heteroecy (host alternation), and monoecy on herbaceous plants. This flexibility contradicts the traditional assumption that aphids cannot regain primary woody hosts once lost.
Brachygastra
Honey Wasps, Mexican Honey Wasps
Brachygastra is a genus of 17 species of social paper wasps in the family Vespidae, commonly known as honey wasps. The genus is notable for being one of the few non-bee insects that produce and store honey in substantial quantities. Species are distributed throughout Central and South America, with one species (B. mellifica) extending into the southwestern United States. The genus exhibits pronounced morphological caste differentiation, with queens typically larger than workers. Nests are arboreal, constructed from chewed plant fibers, and can persist for multiple years in tropical climates.
Brachygastra mellifica
Mexican Honey Wasp
Brachygastra mellifica is a neotropical social wasp and one of the few wasp species known to produce and store honey. Adults are small, measuring 7–9 mm in length, with workers and males displaying alternating yellow and black abdominal bands while queens are dark reddish-brown. The species constructs large paper nests in tree canopies that may persist for years in favorable climates. Colonies are exceptionally large, housing 3,500–18,700 individuals with multiple queens. The species has significant economic value as a pollinator of avocados and as a biological control agent for the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri), a major citrus pest.
Brachymeria
chalcid wasps
Brachymeria is a large genus of chalcidid wasps containing over 300 species worldwide. These small parasitoids are primarily solitary endoparasitoids of insect pupae, with most species attacking Lepidoptera. They are characterized by enlarged hind femora typical of the family Chalcididae. Some species function as hyperparasitoids, attacking parasitic Hymenoptera and Diptera. Several species have been employed in biological control programs against pest insects.
Brachymeria flavipes
Brachymeria flavipes is a species of parasitic wasp in the family Chalcididae, first described by Fabricius in 1793. Like other members of the genus Brachymeria, it is a small wasp (3–6 mm) with characteristically enlarged hind femora adapted for jumping. The species is a primary or secondary parasite of Lepidoptera and muscoid fly larvae, with adults emerging from host pupae. Specific biological details for B. flavipes are sparse in the literature, though genus-level traits suggest it likely shares the typical Brachymeria life history of attacking host larvae and completing development in approximately 20–27 days under favorable conditions.
Brachymeria ovata
Brachymeria ovata is a small parasitic wasp in the family Chalcididae, first described by Thomas Say in 1824. The genus Brachymeria contains 26 known species in North America, all characterized by heavily armored bodies and enlarged hind femora adapted for jumping. These 3-6 mm wasps are primary or secondary parasites of Lepidoptera and muscoid fly larvae, emerging from host pupae. The species has been recorded from Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Canada.
Brachymeria podagrica
Brachymeria podagrica is a cosmopolitan parasitoid wasp in the family Chalcididae, known from Brazil, Saudi Arabia, Colombia, and multiple other regions worldwide. The species is a solitary idiobiont parasitoid of dipteran pupae, particularly flesh flies (Sarcophagidae) and blow flies (Calliphoridae). It has been documented attacking Sarcodexia lambens, Peckia collusor, Hemilucilia flavifacies, Chrysomya albiceps, and Sarcophaga dux, among other hosts. Development from egg to adult emergence takes approximately 20–27 days under favorable conditions, with overwintering generations requiring 155–180 days. Adults are commonly observed near aphid colonies feeding on honeydew, and occasionally visit flowers such as wild carrot. The species has forensic significance due to its predictable emergence from fly pupae on decomposing corpses.
Brachymeriinae
Brachymeriinae is a subfamily of chalcidid wasps (Chalcididae) established by Mani in 1938. Members are primarily pupal parasitoids of various insects. Some species are characterized by females having an elongate syntergum, referred to as 'long tailed' species. The subfamily includes economically important species used in biological control of agricultural pests.
Brachypterolus
short-winged flower beetles
Brachypterolus is a genus of short-winged flower beetles in the family Kateretidae, containing approximately six described species. Members of this genus are associated with toadflax plants (Linaria spp.) and have been introduced to North America as inadvertent biological control agents for invasive toadflax species. The genus is characterized by reduced wing development, consistent with its name meaning "short-winged."
Bracon
Bracon is a large genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, with several hundred described species and thousands remaining undescribed. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution, with the greatest diversity of described species occurring in the Palearctic region. Members of this genus are koinobiont endoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, developing inside living hosts while allowing them to continue feeding and growing until the wasp larvae are mature. The genus has been extensively studied for its potential in biological control of agricultural pests.
Bracon mellitor
Bracon mellitor is a braconid parasitoid wasp specialized on weevils in the genus Anthonomus, particularly the boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis), a major cotton pest. It is native to North America, occurring from South Dakota and Texas eastward. The species has been extensively studied for its potential in biological control programs, with research spanning its developmental biology, host relationships, oviposition behavior, and responses to insecticides. Females are ectoparasitoids that attack host larvae and pupae, and the species exhibits associative learning in response to chemical cues.
Braconidae
braconid wasps, braconids
Braconidae is a family of parasitoid wasps, the second-largest family in Hymenoptera with approximately 17,000 described species and estimates of 30,000–50,000 total species. Members are primarily internal or external parasitoids of other insects, with larvae developing in or on hosts including caterpillars, beetle larvae, aphids, and other insects. Many species possess polydnaviruses—virus-like particles derived from ancient viral integration—that suppress host immune defenses. The family is divided into about 47 subfamilies, informally grouped into cyclostomes and noncyclostomes based on mouthpart morphology. Braconids are economically significant as biological control agents against agricultural and forestry pests.
Brassicogethes
pollen beetles
Brassicogethes is a genus of pollen beetles in the family Nitidulidae, subfamily Meligethinae. Species in this genus are primarily associated with Brassicaceae plants, with several species recognized as significant agricultural pests of oilseed rape (canola). The most economically important species is Brassicogethes aeneus, which causes substantial yield losses in oilseed rape crops across Europe. The genus was established in 2009, with species previously classified under Meligethes.
Brassicogethes aeneus
common pollen beetle, rape pollen beetle, rape blossom beetle
Brassicogethes aeneus is a small pollen beetle in the family Nitidulidae and a major pest of oilseed rape (canola) and other Brassica crops across Europe, Northern Asia, and North America. Adults are 2–3 mm long, metallic black with greenish reflections, while larvae reach 3 mm and are white with brown sclerotized plates. The species causes significant economic damage through adult feeding and oviposition in flower buds, which can lead to bud abortion and yield losses up to 80% in spring oilseed rape. It was previously classified under the genus Meligethes. Populations show low genetic structure across Europe, indicating substantial gene flow, and are subject to biological control by hymenopteran parasitoids.
Brevicoryne
Brevicoryne is a genus of aphids (family Aphididae) comprising approximately 10 described species, several of which are significant agricultural pests. The most economically important species, Brevicoryne brassicae (cabbage aphid), infests crops in the Brassicaceae family worldwide. Members of this genus are characterized by their association with cruciferous host plants and are known vectors of plant viruses including Turnip mosaic virus and Cauliflower mosaic virus.
Brevicoryne brassicae
cabbage aphid, cabbage aphis, mealy cabbage aphid
Brevicoryne brassicae, commonly known as the cabbage aphid, is a destructive agricultural pest native to Europe that has spread worldwide. The species feeds exclusively on plants in the family Brassicaceae, including cabbage, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and other cultivated brassicas. Large colonies form on the undersides of young leaves and flower heads, causing significant yield losses through direct feeding damage and virus transmission. The aphid possesses a unique chemical defense mechanism, producing myrosinase enzyme and sequestering glucosinolates from host plants to release toxic mustard oil compounds when attacked.
Bruchidius villosus
broom seed beetle, Scotch broom bruchid
Bruchidius villosus is a small seed-feeding beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, native to Europe and introduced to North America and New Zealand as a biological control agent for Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius). It has been deliberately released in the United States since the 1990s to reduce seed production in this invasive weed. In New Zealand, it has exhibited problematic host range expansion to non-target leguminous plants. The species is approximately 2 mm in length with dark gray coloration.
Bruchophagus
seed chalcid, gall wasp
Bruchophagus is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Eurytomidae. Species within this genus are primarily seed-feeders, developing in the seeds of plants in the Fabaceae family, though some species form galls on citrus or other hosts. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution and includes economically significant pests such as the alfalfa seed chalcid (B. roddi) and citrus gall wasp (B. fellis). Recent phylogenomic studies indicate the genus is paraphyletic.
Bruchus affinis
seed beetle
Bruchus affinis is a univoltine seed beetle native to the western Palaearctic Region, first recorded in North America in Canada (British Columbia, Ontario, Québec) before 2007. It was likely introduced via imported Lathyrus seeds for planting. The species develops inside seeds of Lathyrus species, with adults feeding on pollen and nectar. Development from egg to adult requires approximately 60 days. The parasitoid Dinarmus basalis has been recorded causing about 10% mortality in Canadian populations.
Brumus quadripustulatus
Cream-spot ladybird, Cream-spot lady beetle
Brumus quadripustulatus is a small ladybird beetle native to Europe and northern Asia, now established in North America. It is recognized by its distinctive cream-colored spots on a dark, nearly black background. The species inhabits various wooded and shrubby environments and has been observed preying on aphids and scale insects.
Bryocorinae
Bryocorinae is a subfamily of plant bugs (Miridae) characterized by extraordinary morphological heterogeneity despite relatively modest species diversity compared to other mirid subfamilies. Five tribes are currently recognized: Bryocorini, Dicyphini, Eccritotarsini, Felisacini, and Monaloniini. The subfamily exhibits diverse feeding strategies, with members ranging from predominantly phytophagous to predacious. Several species, particularly in the genus Macrolophus, are economically important as biological control agents. The subfamily has a global distribution with particular diversity in the Neotropics.
Bucculatricidae
Ribbed Cocoon-Making Moths
Bucculatricidae is a small family of moths in the superfamily Gracillarioidea, with representatives distributed worldwide. Adults are minute with narrow wings held tightly around the body at rest, making them easily overlooked. Larvae exhibit hypermetamorphosis with distinct changes in feeding habits between instars: early instars are typically leaf miners forming characteristic blotches or linear mines, while later instars usually feed externally on leaves or bore into stems. The family is notable for pupal cases with distinctive longitudinal ridges, giving rise to the common name 'ribbed cocoon makers.' Some authors recognize only the single genus Bucculatrix, though Australian genera Cryphioxena and Ogmograptis (scribbly gum moths) are now frequently included.
Burksiella
Burksiella is a genus of minute egg parasitoids in the family Trichogrammatidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea), established by De Santis in 1957. The genus belongs to the tribe Chaetostrichini within the subfamily Oligositinae. Species of Burksiella are known to parasitize eggs of leafhoppers, particularly sharpshooters in the tribe Proconiini (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae). The genus has been recorded from North and South America, including the western United States, Florida, and Bolivia.
Cactoblastis
Cactoblastis is a genus of snout moths (Pyralidae) described by Émile Louis Ragonot in 1901. The genus contains five described species native to South America, with C. cactorum being the most extensively studied due to its historical role as a biological control agent. Larvae are specialized internal feeders on cactus cladodes, and the genus is notable for complex collective behaviors in neonate caterpillars. C. cactorum was famously introduced to Australia in 1925 to control invasive prickly pear cacti, achieving significant success, though later spreading to threaten native Opuntia species in other regions.
LepidopteraPyralidaebiological-controlOpuntiacactus-mothherbivorysocial-behaviorinvasive-speciesclassical-biological-controlSouth-AmericaAustraliaFloridaneonate-aggregationegg-stickinternal-feedermeristem-feedermandibular-gland-markingtrail-followingcontagious-distributionpopulation-regulationhost-specificityecosystem-impacthistorical-ecologypestconservation-concernCaenocholax
Caenocholax is a genus of twisted-winged insects (Strepsiptera) in the family Myrmecolacidae, comprising approximately nine described species. Members are endoparasitoids of ants, with documented associations including Solenopsis invicta and Camponotus planatus. The genus exhibits the extreme sexual dimorphism characteristic of Strepsiptera: males are free-living with reduced forewings and large fan-shaped hindwings, while females remain endoparasitic and neotenic within the host.
Caenocholax fenyesi
Caenocholax fenyesi is a strepsipteran parasitoid in the family Myrmecolacidae, notable for extreme sexual dimorphism and heterotrophic heteronomy—males and females occupy different hosts throughout their life cycles. Females are endoparasites of Orthoptera, while males parasitize ant larvae and pupae, primarily Solenopsis invicta (red imported fire ant) in the United States and related native fire ants in Mexico, Central America, and parts of South America. The species has a sporadic distribution across the southern United States, Central America, and South America, with three recognized cryptic subspecies that are morphologically similar but genetically distinct. Adult males are free-living with a lifespan of only hours to a few days, severely constraining dispersal and contributing to genetic bottlenecking effects.
Caliroa cerasi
pear slug, cherry slug, cherry slimy sawfly
Caliroa cerasi, commonly known as the pear slug or cherry slug, is a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) whose larvae are significant pests of stone and pome fruit trees. The species exhibits a complex life cycle with bivoltine and univoltine generations, and populations can shift between deuterotokous (producing both sexes) and thelytokous (female-only) parthenogenesis during outbreak cycles. Native to Europe, it has spread to multiple continents including North America, Asia, and Australasia. While capable of causing serious defoliation, it is generally considered a secondary pest in intensive orchards due to susceptibility to insecticides.
Calleida
Calleida is a large genus of ground beetles in the family Carabidae, tribe Lebiini, comprising more than 300 species. The genus is distributed across multiple continents with significant diversity in the Oriental Region. Oriental species have been organized into nine species groups based on external morphology and genitalia characters. At least one North American species, C. viridipennis, has been documented as a predator of lepidopteran pests.
Calleida viridipennis
Calleida viridipennis is a ground beetle in the family Carabidae, characterized by a metallic green-black exoskeleton, large eyes, and functional wings enabling flight. It is a spring breeder that overwinters as an adult under tree bark, emerging in late February or early March. The species is a documented predator of specific insect larvae, including the tortoise beetle Hemisphaerota cyanea and the fruittree leafroller Archips argyrospila.
Calliephialtes grapholithae
Calliephialtes grapholithae is an ichneumonid parasitoid wasp that primarily parasitizes concealed lepidopteran larvae. Its most extensively documented host is Cydia caryana (Tortricidae), a key pest of pecan orchards in Mexico and the southern United States. The species has been recorded from pecan-growing regions in Coahuila and Tamaulipas, Mexico, and from Kansas, USA. A potential additional host association involves Chalcoela iphitalis (Crambidae), a moth whose larvae prey on paper wasp larvae within nests; this relationship requires independent confirmation.
Calophasia
Calophasia is a genus of moths in the family Noctuidae, first described by Stephens in 1829. The genus contains approximately eight described species distributed across Europe, North Africa, and parts of North America. The most well-known species is Calophasia lunula (toadflax brocade), which has been introduced to North America as a biological control agent for invasive toadflax plants. Species in this genus are generally associated with open, dry habitats.
Calophasia lunula
Toadflax Brocade Moth, Toadflax Moth
Calophasia lunula is a noctuid moth native to the Palearctic region, introduced to North America as a biological control agent for invasive toadflax species. The moth's larvae are specialized feeders on yellow toadflax (Linaria vulgaris) and Dalmatian toadflax (Linaria genistifolia ssp. dalmatica), causing significant defoliation that reduces seed production. Adults feed on nectar without causing plant damage. The species has established populations in parts of Canada and the United States following intentional introductions beginning in the early 1960s.
Calophya
jumping plant lice
Calophya is the type genus of the psyllid family Calophyidae, containing at least 69 described species. Members are gall-forming psyllids that feed on phloem and induce galls on host plants, primarily in the family Anacardiaceae. Several species have been investigated as biological control agents for invasive plants, particularly Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolia). The genus shows high host specificity, with most species completing development only on specific host plants.
Calophyidae
Calophyidae is a family of jumping plant lice (psyllids) within the superfamily Psylloidea (Hemiptera). Members of this family are phloem-feeding insects that induce galls on host plants, with several species studied as classical biological control agents for invasive weeds. The family contains four recognized subfamilies: Atmetocraniinae, Calophyinae, Metapsyllinae, and Symphorosinae. Notable genera include Calophya, which contains multiple species associated with Schinus species (Anacardiaceae).
Caloptilia fraxinella
Ash Leaf Cone Roller, Ash Leaf Cone Roller Moth
Caloptilia fraxinella is a leaf-mining moth in the family Gracillariidae. Native to North America, it has become a significant pest of horticultural ash trees (Fraxinus spp.) in Canadian Prairie cities and parts of the United States. The species exhibits an unusual life history with a 9-month adult reproductive diapause; adults eclose in summer, overwinter, and mate the following spring. Larvae mine ash leaves and eventually roll leaflets into cones for pupation.
Caloptilia triadicae
Chinese Tallow Leaf Miner
Caloptilia triadicae is a small moth in the family Gracillariidae, described by Davis in 2013. It is a leaf-mining specialist on Chinese tallow tree (Triadica sebifera), an invasive plant in the southeastern United States. The species is adventive (non-native) in North America and has been investigated for its potential as a biological control agent. Its seasonal abundance patterns and parasitoid associations have been studied in Florida.
Calosoma affine
related beautiful black searcher
Calosoma affine is a species of ground beetle in the subfamily Carabinae, described by Maximilien Chaudoir in 1843. It is one of the so-called "caterpillar hunters," large predatory beetles known for ascending trees to feed on caterpillars. The species occurs in Mexico and the southern United States, where adults are active both day and night and exhibit gregarious behavior.
Calosoma monticola
mountain beautiful black searcher
Calosoma monticola is a ground beetle in the family Carabidae, described by Casey in 1913. It is found in the western United States, where it inhabits sagebrush areas. Adults are brachypterous (short-winged) and have been documented preying on various soil-dwelling insect larvae and other beetles. The species belongs to a genus known for active predation on caterpillars and other soft-bodied insects.
Calosoma obsoletum
old beautiful black searcher
Calosoma obsoletum is a large ground beetle in the family Carabidae, described by Thomas Say in 1823. It belongs to the 'caterpillar hunter' genus Calosoma, known for arboreal hunting behavior. The species occurs across the Great Plains and western North America, where both adults and larvae prey on lepidopteran caterpillars.
Calosoma sayi
Black Caterpillar Hunter, Say's Caterpillar Hunter
Calosoma sayi is a large ground beetle in the subfamily Carabinae, commonly known as the Black Caterpillar Hunter or Say's Caterpillar Hunter. It is one of the largest carabid beetles in North America, measuring 25–28 mm in length. Unlike many congeners, it lacks metallic coloration, instead appearing uniformly lustrous black. Both adults and larvae are active predators that specialize in hunting caterpillars and other soft-bodied insect larvae.
Calosoma scrutator
Fiery Searcher, Caterpillar Hunter
Calosoma scrutator is a large, predatory ground beetle native to North America, commonly known as the Fiery Searcher or Caterpillar Hunter. Adults reach 25–35 mm in length and display striking metallic coloration. The species is primarily nocturnal and climbs vegetation to hunt caterpillars, earning its common name. When disturbed, it excretes a foul-smelling defensive oil from pygidial glands. It serves as an important biological control agent for defoliating insect pests.
Calosoma sycophanta
forest caterpillar hunter, Agreeable Caterpillar Hunter
Calosoma sycophanta is a large, metallic ground beetle renowned for its specialized predation on caterpillars. Adults reach 21–35 mm in length and display striking iridescent green elytra with a bluish scutellum, though coloration shifts with light angle to show blue, bronze, copper, gold, or black tones. Both adults and larvae are arboreal hunters, ascending trees to prey on caterpillars including Lymantria dispar (gypsy moth), Thaumetopoea processionea (oak processionary), and Thaumetopoea pityocampa. The species is diurnal and visually orients toward dark objects and tree bases in forests. Native to Europe, it has been introduced to North America for biological control and is now established in the northeastern United States.
Calosoma wilcoxi
Wilcox's Spring Caterpillar Hunter, Wilcox's caterpillar hunter
Calosoma wilcoxi is a medium-sized ground beetle in the genus Calosoma, commonly known as Wilcox's Spring Caterpillar Hunter. It is an arboreal predator that climbs trees to hunt caterpillars, including fall cankerworms, spring cankerworms, gypsy moth larvae, and eastern tent caterpillars. The species is smaller than its congener Calosoma scrutator (the fiery searcher), typically reaching about one third of that species' size. It has been observed in large numbers during caterpillar outbreaks in deciduous forests. Adults are active both day and night and possess potent chemical defenses including methacrylic acid and salicylaldehyde.
Calosota
Calosota is a genus of chalcidoid wasps in the family Eupelmidae, subfamily Calosotinae. The genus was established by Curtis in 1836. Species in this genus are parasitoids, with at least one species, Calosota elongata, documented as a parasitoid of wood-boring beetles.
Calycomyza
Calycomyza is a genus of leaf-mining flies in the family Agromyzidae, containing approximately 90 described species. Larvae feed internally within leaf tissue, creating distinctive serpentine or blotch mines. The genus has a broad geographic distribution spanning the Nearctic, Neotropical, Palearctic, Oriental, and Afrotropical regions. Several species have been documented as agricultural pests or biological control agents for invasive plants.
Calycomyza eupatorivora
Chromolaena Leaf-mining Fly
A leaf-mining fly in the family Agromyzidae, Calycomyza eupatorivora was introduced to South Africa as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Chromolaena odorata. Larvae feed internally on leaf tissue, creating characteristic mines. The species exhibits distinct habitat preferences and seasonal activity patterns that influence its effectiveness as a biocontrol agent.
Campoletis
Campoletis is a genus of ichneumonid parasitoid wasps in the subfamily Campopleginae, established by Förster in 1869. Species are cosmopolitan in distribution and function as endoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae. The genus includes notable species such as C. sonorensis, which has been extensively studied as a model system for host-parasitoid interactions and polydnavirus biology.
Campoletis sonorensis
Campoletis sonorensis is a parasitoid ichneumonid wasp distributed across much of the Americas, including the United States, Brazil, and Chile. It is a generalist endoparasitoid of lepidopteran larvae, with documented hosts including Spodoptera frugiperda, Spodoptera exigua, Helicoverpa species, Chrysodeixis includens, and Heliothis virescens. The species employs sophisticated immune evasion strategies involving a mutualistic polydnavirus (Campoletis sonorensis ichnovirus, CsIV) and ovarian proteins that suppress host hemocyte function and prevent encapsulation. It has been extensively studied as a model system for host-parasitoid interactions, host selection behavior, and biological control potential.
Campoplex
Campoplex is a genus of ichneumonid parasitic wasps in the tribe Campoplegini. Species are larval endoparasitoids with narrow host ranges, primarily targeting lepidopteran pests. Several species have been investigated for biological control of agricultural pests, particularly in vineyards. The genus is taxonomically challenging, with species historically difficult to distinguish due to inadequate descriptions.
Campylomma
mullein bugs
Campylomma is a genus of plant bugs (family Miridae, tribe Nasocorini) comprising at least 12 recognized species. The genus is best known from detailed studies of C. verbasci, the mullein bug, which exhibits a predator-phytophage feeding strategy and has been investigated for pheromone-based mating disruption in orchard systems. Japanese species have been taxonomically revised, with emphasis on genitalic characters for identification. The genus occurs across temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere including North America, Europe, and East Asia.
Campylomma verbasci
mullein bug
Campylomma verbasci, commonly known as the mullein bug, is a plant bug in the family Miridae. It is a predator-phytophage that functions as a biological control agent in orchards, feeding primarily on pear psylla (Psylla pyricola) and European red mite (Panonychus ulmi). The species overwinters as eggs on woody hosts including apple, pear, Rosa spp., and Amelanchier sp., then completes two to four generations annually depending on region. Adults disperse to herbaceous plants, particularly common mullein (Verbascum thapsus), during summer months before returning to orchards in autumn. It has been studied extensively for pheromone-based mating disruption, representing the first documented case of such control in Heteroptera.
Cantharidae
Soldier Beetles, Leatherwings
Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are soft-bodied, elongate beetles with flexible, velvety elytra that give rise to the common name 'leatherwings.' The family is cosmopolitan, with approximately 160 species in 11 genera occurring in California alone. Adults are frequently observed on flowers, particularly in late summer and fall, where they feed on pollen and nectar and prey on small insects. Both adults and larvae produce defensive chemicals from specialized glands, making them distasteful to predators. The common name derives from the red-and-black color pattern of some species, reminiscent of British military uniforms.
Cantharis livida
pale soldier beetle
Cantharis livida, commonly known as the pale soldier beetle, is a soft-bodied beetle in the family Cantharidae. Adults measure 10–15 mm and display variable coloration, with bright red or orange head, thorax, and abdomen contrasting with yellow to reddish-brown elytra. Both adults and larvae are predatory, feeding on small invertebrates. The species is widespread across Europe and the eastern Palearctic, and has been introduced to eastern North America.
Carabidae
ground beetles
Carabidae is one of the largest families of beetles, comprising over 40,000 described species worldwide. Members are predominantly predatory, with elongated bodies, thread-like antennae, and prominent forward-directed mandibles. The family includes diverse forms from fast-running tiger beetles to flightless tyrant ground beetles, occupying nearly every terrestrial habitat. Many species serve as important biological control agents of agricultural pests.
Carabinae
ground beetles
Carabinae is a subfamily of ground beetles in the family Carabidae, comprising approximately 1,400 described species across ten genera. The subfamily is divided into two tribes: Cychrini and Carabini, with the latter further subdivided into subtribes Carabina and Ceroglossina. Notable genera include Carabus, Calosoma, and Ceroglossus. The group has been extensively studied phylogenetically, with molecular data covering over 90% of carabid genera.
Carabus auratus
Golden Ground Beetle
Carabus auratus, commonly known as the golden ground beetle, is a flightless predatory beetle in the family Carabidae. Native to central and western Europe, it has been introduced to North America. Adults are diurnal hunters that prey on insects, snails, and worms using digestive secretions to subdue prey. The species is considered beneficial in agricultural settings due to its predation on pest species such as the Colorado potato beetle.
Carabus goryi
Gory's worm and slug hunter
Carabus goryi is a North American ground beetle in the family Carabidae, commonly known as Gory's worm and slug hunter. The species inhabits cool, moist forests as well as agricultural settings including orchards and cultivated fields. Adults are brachypterous (short-winged), nocturnal, and exhibit gregarious behavior. They are predatory, feeding on soft-bodied insect larvae including those of the spongy moth (Lymantria dispar).
Carcelia
Carcelia is a genus of tachinid flies comprising over 100 described species distributed across multiple subgenera. Species within this genus are larval parasitoids of Lepidoptera, with documented hosts including noctuid moths, geometrid moths, lymantriid moths, and notodontid moths. Several species have been studied for their potential in biological control of agricultural and forestry pests, including Carcelia iliaca, which achieves parasitism rates of approximately 80% on the invasive oak processionary moth in the United Kingdom. The genus exhibits life cycle adaptations including generation synchronization with host populations and diapause strategies.
Carcinops
clown beetles
Carcinops is a genus of clown beetles in the family Histeridae, containing at least 50 described species. These small beetles are known primarily from their role as biological control agents in poultry operations, where they prey on fly eggs and larvae. The genus was established by Marseul in 1855 and belongs to the subfamily Dendrophilinae.
Carcinops pumilio
poultryhouse pill beetle
Carcinops pumilio is a small histerid beetle widely distributed across Africa, Europe, Northern Asia, and North America. It is a specialized predator of filth flies, particularly house flies (Musca domestica) and little house flies (Fannia canicularis), consuming both eggs and first-instar larvae. The species has been extensively studied for its potential as a biological control agent in poultry operations, where it inhabits manure accumulations. Adults exhibit a distinctive prey-mediated dispersal behavior, clinging to flies to locate ephemeral breeding resources more efficiently than by walking or flying alone.
Cardiochiles
Cardiochiles is a genus of braconid wasps with nearly cosmopolitan distribution. Species are larval endoparasitoids, primarily attacking lepidopteran hosts. The genus includes economically significant species used in biological control, particularly against noctuid pests in agricultural systems.
Cardiochilinae
Cardiochilinae is a subfamily of braconid wasps comprising approximately 20 genera and 220+ species. Members are solitary koinobiont endoparasitoids of Lepidoptera caterpillars. Females inject polydnavirus during oviposition to manipulate host immune response. Some species, notably Toxoneuron nigriceps, have been employed in biological control programs against agricultural pests.
Casinaria
Casinaria is a genus of koinobiont endoparasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, first described by Holmgren in 1859. The genus has cosmopolitan distribution with over 150 described species. Members are primarily parasitoids of Lepidoptera, with some species documented attacking specific host moths including geometrids and noctuids. Several species have been reared from forest pest species, suggesting potential value in biological control programs.
Cassida azurea
Azure tortoise beetle
Cassida azurea is a tortoise beetle in the leaf beetle family Chrysomelidae, native to Europe and Northern Asia. It was intentionally introduced to North America in 1989 as a biological control agent targeting the invasive weed Silene vulgaris (bladder campion). Host specificity testing demonstrated extremely narrow feeding preferences, with reproduction occurring almost exclusively on S. vulgaris. Field releases in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta from 1989–1993 resulted in establishment at 8 of 18 sites, though populations have remained insufficient to achieve effective weed suppression.
Cassida rubiginosa
Thistle Tortoise Beetle
Cassida rubiginosa, commonly known as the thistle tortoise beetle, is a leaf beetle in the subfamily Cassidinae native to Europe and Asia that has been introduced to North America, New Zealand, and other regions as a biological control agent for invasive thistles. The beetle derives its common name from the tortoise-like appearance of adults, whose elytra and pronotum form a shield-like covering over the body. Both adults and larvae feed on thistle foliage, with larvae possessing a distinctive defensive structure—a forked caudal appendage used to carry accumulated feces and exuviae as a mobile 'fecal shield' that deters predators. The species has demonstrated effectiveness in reducing thistle biomass and seed production, though its host range extends beyond the primary target to other Cardueae species.
Cassidinae
tortoise and leaf-mining beetles, tortoise beetles, hispine beetles
Cassidinae is a large subfamily of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) comprising over 125 genera and approximately 3,000 species worldwide, with greatest diversity in the Neotropics. The subfamily encompasses two historically recognized groups: the 'cassidoids' or tortoise beetles, characterized by expanded pronotal and elytral margins that form a protective shield over the body, and the 'hispoids' or leaf-mining beetles, typically more elongated with parallel-sided bodies. Members exhibit remarkable morphological diversity, with some species displaying metallic coloration and the ability to change color through water movements within the translucent cuticle. The subfamily is notable for complex larval defensive adaptations including fecal shield construction and cycloalexic behavior, as well as the independent evolution of subsociality with paternal care in at least two lineages.
Cathartus
Cathartus is a monotypic genus of flat bark beetles in the family Silvanidae, containing the single species Cathartus quadricollis. The genus is known from both stored product environments and agricultural systems, with documented populations in Hawaii functioning as predators of scolytine pests. Laboratory studies have characterized its developmental biology on various grain substrates.
Cathartus quadricollis
square-necked warrior beetle
A small predatory flat bark beetle in the family Silvanidae with a broad global distribution spanning the Americas, Africa, and the Galápagos Islands. In Hawaii, it serves as an important natural enemy of agricultural scolytine pests including the coffee berry borer, tropical nut borer, and black twig borer. Laboratory studies confirm it can complete development on various stored grains and seeds. The species shows potential for augmentative biological control programs due to its limited dispersal from release sites and established predation rates on pest eggs.
Cecidocharini
Cecidocharini is a tribe of tephritid fruit flies within the subfamily Tephritinae. The tribe contains eight recognized genera, including economically significant gall-forming species such as those in *Procecidochares*. Members are distinguished by their association with plant galls, a trait that separates them from many other tephritid groups. The tribe was established by Hering in 1947.
Cecidomyiidae
gall midges, gall gnats
Cecidomyiidae is a family of minute flies comprising over 6,650 described species, with estimates suggesting global diversity may exceed one million species. The family is characterized by larvae that typically feed within plant tissues, inducing abnormal growths called galls. Adults are delicate, 0.5–8 mm in length, with notably long antennae and hairy wings—unusual among Diptera. Some species exhibit paedogenesis, where larvae reproduce without maturing. The family includes major agricultural pests such as the Hessian fly and soybean gall midge, as well as species used in biological control.
Cecidomyiinae
gall midges, gall gnats
Cecidomyiinae is the largest subfamily in Cecidomyiidae, comprising over 600 genera and more than 5,000 described species. The subfamily exhibits remarkable ecological diversity: approximately 75% of species are herbivorous, many inducing galls on plants, while others are fungivores, predators, or parasitoids. Gall-inducing species attack a wide diversity of host plants worldwide and represent the most ecologically diverse gall-inducing group of organisms. Members can be distinguished from other Cecidomyiidae by characters of the male genitalia, antennal segment number, and larval abdominal bristles.
Cecidomyiini
gall midges
Cecidomyiini is a tribe of gall midges within the subfamily Cecidomyiinae, family Cecidomyiidae. The tribe contains at least 220 described species. Members are known for inducing galls on diverse host plants, with some species serving as biological control agents for invasive plants. The tribe includes genera with varied life-history strategies, including gall inducers, inquilines, and species developing in plant tissues without distinct gall formation.
Celatoria
Celatoria is a genus of tachinid flies whose larvae are parasitoids of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae). Several species have been evaluated as biological control agents for agricultural pests, particularly Diabrotica species and the striped cucumber beetle (Acalymma vittatum). The genus includes both New World species with documented host associations in cucurbit and maize agroecosystems.
Centrodora
Centrodora is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Aphelinidae, comprising approximately 60 described species. The genus is notable for being the most polyphagous within Aphelinidae, with species attacking eggs of insects across multiple orders including Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Orthoptera, and Hymenoptera, as well as pupae of Diptera and nymphs of Hemiptera. Several species have been investigated as biological control agents for crop and forest pests, including C. darwini and C. scolytivorae. The genus exhibits considerable morphological diversity, with some species groups potentially warranting elevation to separate genera.
Cephalonomia
Cephalonomia is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Bethylidae, containing over 20 described species. Species within this genus are primarily known as biological control agents targeting beetle pests in stored grain and agricultural systems. C. stephanoderis is extensively used against the coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) in coffee-producing regions, while C. waterstoni and C. tarsalis target stored product beetles such as Laemophloeus ferrugineus and Oryzaephilus surinamensis. These wasps exhibit idiobiont parasitoid biology, with females attacking host larvae or pupae.
Cephalonomia waterstoni
parasitic grain wasp, rusty grain beetlewasp
Cephalonomia waterstoni is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Bethylidae that attacks larvae and pupae of stored-product beetles, particularly the rusty grain beetle (Cryptolestes ferrugineus, formerly Laemophloeus ferrugineus). It is an ectoparasitoid that paralyzes host larvae before laying eggs on them. The species has been extensively studied for its potential as a biological control agent in grain storage facilities. Development is rapid, with the life cycle completing in approximately two weeks at 30°C and three weeks at 25°C.
Cephus pygmaeus
European wheat stem sawfly, wheat stem sawfly
Cephus pygmaeus is a stem sawfly in the family Cephidae, widely distributed across Europe, western Asia, and North Africa, with introduced populations in North America. Adults are small, wasp-like insects that emerge in early spring and are active during wheat stem elongation. Larvae develop inside wheat stems, causing significant agricultural damage by tunneling and cutting stems. The species is a major pest of wheat and other cereal crops, with infestations reaching over 50% in some regions.
Ceraeochrysa
trash-carrier lacewings, green lacewings
Ceraeochrysa is a genus of green lacewings in the family Chrysopidae, established by Adams in 1982 based on distinct genitalia structure. It is the second largest genus in Chrysopidae with 61 species distributed from southeastern Canada to Argentina, with highest diversity in the Neotropics. Larvae are known as 'trash carriers' that construct dorsal packets of debris for camouflage, including insect wax, lichen, and plant material. The genus contains important biological control agents that prey on mealybugs, aphids, mites, thrips, and lepidopteran eggs.
Ceraeochrysa cincta
Ceraeochrysa cincta is a green lacewing species in the family Chrysopidae, distributed across the Americas from North America through the Caribbean to South America. Laboratory studies demonstrate its potential as a biological control agent, with larvae showing instar-specific predatory preferences on prey eggs. Populations in southeast Brazilian agroecosystems exhibit high genetic diversity with broad gene flow across different crop systems. The species produces non-pedunculated infertile eggs in later generations under laboratory conditions, a trait relevant to mass rearing programs.
Ceraeochrysa claveri
trash bug (larval stage)
A green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae, Ceraeochrysa claveri is a polyphagous predator with established value in biological control of agricultural pests. Larvae are "trash carriers" that construct dorsal camouflage packets using assorted materials including lichen, plant trichomes, and notably the wax of mealybugs and other insects. The species has been documented incorporating live mealybug nymphs into these packets, representing the first recorded instance of active placement of live prey onto the larval packet. Adults feed on pollen and may contribute to pollination. The species shows high genetic diversity across agroecosystems and is compatible with certain biopesticides including Bacillus thuringiensis serovar aizawai.
Ceraeochrysa cubana
green lacewing
Ceraeochrysa cubana is a green lacewing species widely distributed across the Americas, from the Caribbean and Middle America through South America. Larvae are voracious polyphagous predators important for biological control of agricultural pests. The species exhibits high genetic diversity in agroecosystems and shows associative learning capabilities in immature stages.
Ceraeochrysa valida
Ceraeochrysa valida is a green lacewing species in the family Chrysopidae. Like other Ceraeochrysa species, its larvae are predatory and construct dorsal packets of debris for camouflage. The species has been documented as a predator of Diaphorina citri nymphs, the Asian citrus psyllid, a significant agricultural pest. Adults are likely green lacewings with delicate, net-veined wings typical of the family.
Ceranisus
Ceranisus is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species are solitary larval endoparasitoids of thrips (Thysanoptera), with females laying eggs within early larval instars of their hosts. The genus has received attention for its potential in biological control of agricultural thrips pests, including Thrips tabaci, Frankliniella occidentalis, and F. intonsa. Strains collected worldwide show variation in biology and behavior based on geographic origin and phenotypic appearance.
Ceraphronidae
ceraphronid wasps, ceraphronids
Ceraphronidae is a small family of parasitoid wasps in the superfamily Ceraphronoidea, containing approximately 14 genera and 360 described species, though many remain undescribed. The family is poorly known taxonomically and ecologically. Most species are believed to be primary parasitoids, particularly of flies, with some functioning as hyperparasitoids of other parasitoids. A significant number of species are found in soil, and winglessness has evolved in multiple lineages.
Ceratogastra
Ceratogastra is a genus of ichneumon wasps in the family Ichneumonidae. The best-known species, Ceratogastra ornata, is a small wasp measuring 10–12 millimeters in body length, recognized by its ornate yellow and reddish-brown or black color pattern. Four subspecies of C. ornata are recognized, showing geographic variation in coloration from darker northern forms to paler western and southern populations. Members of this genus are flower visitors and parasitoids of moth larvae.
Ceratopogonini
Predaceous Biting Midges
Ceratopogonini is a tribe of biting midges within the family Ceratopogonidae. Members are commonly known as predaceous biting midges, reflecting their primarily predatory lifestyle. The tribe includes species that serve as important biological control agents, particularly against aphid pests in agricultural and greenhouse settings. Adults are small, delicate flies, while larvae are minute predators that subdue prey using paralytic venom.
Cercerini
Weevil Wasps and Allies
Cercerini is a tribe of solitary wasps within the subfamily Philanthinae of the family Crabronidae. Members are commonly known as "weevil wasps" due to their specialized predation on adult weevils (Curculionidae). The tribe contains approximately 900 species across several genera, with Cerceris being the largest and most widely distributed. These wasps are characterized by their stout bodies, strong mandibles adapted for handling hard-bodied prey, and distinctive nesting behaviors involving burrows in soil or pre-existing cavities.
Cerchysius
Cerchysius is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, established by Westwood in 1832. Species in this genus are known to attack scale insects (Coccoidea), serving as biological control agents. The genus is represented in major entomological collections including the UCR Encyrtidae holdings, which contains multiple Cerchysius species. Cerchysius species have been recorded from Brazil, Denmark, and New Caledonia.
Ceroplastes sinensis
Chinese Wax Scale
Ceroplastes sinensis is a cosmopolitan scale insect pest of commercial citrus and other woody plants. Native to Central or South America based on cladistic analysis, it has established populations across temperate regions including Australia, New Zealand, Mediterranean Europe, North America, and parts of Asia. The species produces a distinctive waxy covering and completes a single annual generation in temperate climates. It has become a significant agricultural pest, particularly in citrus groves, prompting development of integrated pest management sampling protocols and biological control efforts.
Ceutorhynchinae
Minute Seed Weevils
Ceutorhynchinae is a large subfamily of minute seed weevils within Curculionidae, comprising over 150 genera and more than 1,000 described species worldwide. The subfamily is predominantly phytophagous and exhibits strong associations with Brassicaceae, though host plant relationships vary across genera. The genus Ceutorhynchus is particularly diverse and includes significant agricultural pests such as the cabbage seedpod weevil (Ceutorhynchus obstrictus), as well as species with potential for biological control of weeds. The subfamily shows highest diversity in the Holarctic region, especially the Palaearctic.
Ceutorhynchus pallidactylus
Cabbage Stem Weevil
Ceutorhynchus pallidactylus, commonly known as the cabbage stem weevil, is a stem-mining weevil native to Europe and a significant pest of winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus) in northern and central Europe. The species has been introduced to North America, with established populations in Nova Scotia, Canada. Larvae mine within plant stems, causing damage that requires regular control measures in agricultural systems. The species exhibits complex ecological interactions, including competitive relationships with congeneric species and parasitism by larval endoparasitoids.
Chaetopsis
picture-winged flies, corn silk flies
Chaetopsis is a genus of ulidiid flies (Diptera: Ulidiidae) established by Loew in 1868. The genus includes at least 13 described species distributed in tropical and semi-tropical regions of the Americas. Chaetopsis massyla is the most economically significant species, a major pest of fresh market sweet corn in Florida and tropical regions where larvae feed on developing corn kernels and silk. The genus is characterized by picture-winged morphology typical of Ulidiidae, with patterned wings and robust body form.
Chaetopsis massyla
corn silk fly, picture-winged fly
Chaetopsis massyla is a picture-winged fly (Diptera: Ulidiidae) and major agricultural pest of fresh market sweet corn in tropical and semitropical regions. Larvae develop within corn ears, feeding on developing kernels beneath protective husks, causing direct damage and secondary fungal contamination that renders cobs unmarketable. Mature larvae exit cobs and pupate in soil at depths influenced by substrate type and moisture. The species is native to the Americas, with established populations in Florida and documented occurrence in Mexico and Argentina.
Chaetorellia
Chaetorellia is a genus of tephritid fruit flies (family Tephritidae) containing approximately 11 described species. Species in this genus are specialists on Asteraceae flower heads, with larvae developing within capitula and feeding on developing florets and seeds. Several species have been investigated or deployed as biological control agents against invasive thistles and knapweeds, particularly yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis). The genus is characterized by distinctive morphological features and host-specificity patterns that have been taxonomically revised.
Chaetorellia australis
yellow starthistle peacock fly
Chaetorellia australis is a tephritid fruit fly native to southern Europe and the Mediterranean, introduced to the western United States in 1988 as a biological control agent for the invasive weed yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis). Adult females deposit eggs beneath bracts on host flower heads, and larvae tunnel into developing seeds, destroying up to 90% of seeds within an infested capitulum. The species exhibits a host-marking pheromone behavior that prevents multiple oviposition events in the same flower head and facilitates male aggregation. Despite significant seed destruction at the individual capitulum level, field populations generally remain low and have had limited impact on overall starthistle seed production.
Chaetorellia succinea
False Peacock Fly
Chaetorellia succinea is a tephritid fruit fly native to the Mediterranean region that was accidentally introduced to the western United States in 1991. It has become established as a biological control agent of yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis), a noxious invasive weed. The fly was not intentionally released due to concerns about potential attack on safflower (Carthamus tinctorius). It has been observed to feed on multiple Centaurea species and may competitively displace the related biocontrol fly Chaetorellia australis where both occur.
Chaetosiphon
strawberry aphid
Chaetosiphon is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, comprising species specialized on Rosaceae hosts, particularly strawberries (Fragaria) and roses (Rosa). The genus includes economically significant agricultural pests, most notably Chaetosiphon fragaefolii, which vectors multiple strawberry viruses. Species in this genus exhibit complex life cycles with both holocyclic (sexual) and anholocyclic (parthenogenetic) populations, and show morphological variation in karyotype and chaetotaxy that has complicated taxonomic classification.
Chaetostomella
Chaetostomella is a genus of fruit flies in the family Tephritidae, established by Hendel in 1927. The genus comprises approximately 16 described species distributed across the Palearctic region. At least one species, Chaetostomella cylindrica, exhibits host race formation on different thistle species, with documented genetic, morphological, and behavioral divergence between populations associated with Notobasis syriaca and Onopordum illyricum.
Chalarus
Chalarus is a genus of big-headed flies in the family Pipunculidae, established by Walker in 1834. The genus has cosmopolitan distribution with approximately 45 described species found across multiple continents. Chalarus species are primary parasitoids of typhlocybine leafhoppers (Cicadellidae), a relationship that has been documented through life history and oviposition studies. As members of Pipunculidae, they contribute to biological control of leafhopper populations in various ecosystems.
Chalcididae
Chalcidid Wasps
Chalcididae is a family of parasitoid wasps within the superfamily Chalcidoidea, comprising over 85 genera and more than 1,460 species worldwide. Members are characterized by greatly enlarged, toothed hind femora that enable powerful jumping. Most species are parasitoids of Lepidoptera and Diptera pupae, though some attack Coleoptera (particularly jewel beetles in the genus Chrysobothris) and other insects. The family is currently considered polyphyletic, with subfamilies potentially warranting elevation to family status. They occur across diverse habitats from tropical to temperate regions, with notable diversity in semiarid regions of Brazil and teak plantations in Southeast Asia.
Chalcidoidea
Chalcidoid Wasps, Chalcid Wasps, Jewel Wasps
Chalcidoidea is a superfamily of Hymenoptera containing over 22,500 described species, with an estimated true diversity exceeding 500,000 species. Members are commonly known as chalcidoid wasps or jewel wasps due to their often metallic coloration. They are predominantly parasitoid wasps that attack other insects to lay eggs upon or within hosts, with larvae feeding and developing at the host's expense. The group originated in the late Jurassic approximately 162 million years ago, with fossil evidence extending to 130 million years ago.
Chalcodermus serripes
mimosa green-seed weevil
Chalcodermus serripes is a true weevil in the family Curculionidae, commonly known as the mimosa green-seed weevil. It has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for the invasive plant Mimosa pigra. The species is native to North America. Its common name reflects its association with Mimosa seeds.
Chalybion
blue mud dauber wasps, blue mud-daubers, blue nest-renting wasps
Chalybion is a genus of solitary wasps in the family Sphecidae, commonly known as blue mud dauber or blue nest-renting wasps. The genus comprises approximately 49 described species distributed across North America, Africa, Asia, and Australia. These wasps are characterized by metallic blue to blue-black coloration and are notable for their unique nesting behavior: rather than constructing their own nests, they primarily utilize pre-existing cavities, particularly abandoned mud nests of other wasps such as Sceliphron species. They provision these nests with paralyzed spiders as food for their larvae. Some species, notably Chalybion californicum, are significant predators of medically important spiders including black widows (Latrodectus species).
Chamaecleini
bird dropping moths
Chamaecleini is a small tribe of moths within the family Noctuidae, containing approximately 9 genera and 14 described species. The tribe was formally established by Keegan & Wagner in 2019. Members are commonly referred to as "bird dropping moths," a name reflecting their cryptic coloration that resembles avian feces. The tribe includes genera such as Chamaeclea, Megalodes, and Aleptinoides.
Chamaemyia
silver-flies
Chamaemyia is a genus of small flies in the family Chamaemyiidae, commonly known as silver-flies. It serves as the type genus for its family. Larvae of at least one species, Chamaemyia polystigma, are known predators of mealybugs, suggesting a broader role in biological control within the genus.
Chamaemyiidae
silver flies, aphid flies
Chamaemyiidae is a small family of acalyptrate flies comprising fewer than 200 described species worldwide. Adults are minute (1–5 mm), typically greyish, and morphologically characterized by reduced bristling. Larvae are active predators of Sternorrhyncha, particularly aphids, adelgids, and scale insects, making several species valuable biological control agents. The family has been deployed in classical biological control programs targeting invasive pests such as the hemlock woolly adelgid and pink hibiscus mealybug. Fossil records are sparse but extend to the Eocene.
Chamaesphecia
Chamaesphecia is a genus of clearwing moths (Sesiidae) established by Spuler in 1910, containing over 80 species distributed primarily across the Palearctic region. Species are characterized by their wasp-mimicking appearance and specialized larval associations with host plants, particularly in the families Euphorbiaceae and Lamiaceae. Several species have been investigated for biological control of invasive weeds, including leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula) and horehound (Marrubium vulgare). The genus is divided into two subgenera: Chamaesphecia and Scopulosphecia.
Charops
Charops is a genus of ichneumonid wasps in the subfamily Campopleginae, established by Holmgren in 1859. Species in this genus are larval parasitoids of lepidopteran hosts, with documented associations including fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) in agricultural systems. The genus has a broad geographic distribution spanning Asia, South America, and Europe. Recent taxonomic work has expanded the known species diversity, particularly with descriptions of seven new species from Brazil and one from China.
Chartocerus
Chartocerus is a genus of minute parasitic wasps in the family Signiphoridae, comprising 27 described species. Members are known primarily as hyperparasitoids—parasitoids of other parasitoids—though some species have been recorded as primary parasitoids of aphids, psyllids, mealybugs, scale insects, and flies. The genus has been documented as an obligate hyperparasitoid of other chalcid wasps, including Diaphorencyrtus aligarhensis and possibly Tamarixia radiata.
Chasmodon
Chasmodon is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae. Species in this genus are ground-dwelling and function as parasitoids of stem-boring Diptera, particularly frit flies (Oscinella spp.) in grassland ecosystems. The genus has been documented in northern Europe including Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
Chauliognathus marginatus
Margined Leatherwing, Margined Soldier Beetle
Chauliognathus marginatus is a soldier beetle (family Cantharidae) distributed across North and Central America. Adults are diurnal and strongly associated with flowers, particularly white-blooming species. A 2023 study using iNaturalist data demonstrated that this species exhibits statistically significant color preference for white flowers compared to availability, distinguishing it from the closely related Chauliognathus pensylvanicus which prefers yellow flowers. Both larvae and adults are predatory, contributing to biological control of pest insects.
Cheiloneurus
parasitic wasp
Cheiloneurus is a genus of parasitic wasps in the family Encyrtidae. Species within this genus function primarily as hyperparasitoids, attacking other parasitoid wasps that develop within scale insects, mealybugs, and other hemipteran hosts. The genus is characterized by distinctive morphological features including a group of coarse bristles at the apex of the scutellum and a long marginal vein on the fore wings. Cheiloneurus species have been recorded from multiple continents including Asia, Europe, North America, and South America, with some species being utilized or studied for biological control applications.
Cheiropachus
Cheiropachus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Pteromalidae, first described by Westwood in 1829. Species within this genus are known to parasitize bark beetles (Scolytidae), with C. quadrum being the most studied species due to its role as a biological control agent of olive bark beetles in southern Europe. The genus occurs in Europe and North America, with at least ten recognized species.
Chelinidea
cactus bugs, cactus leaffooted bugs
Chelinidea is a genus of leaf-footed bugs (family Coreidae) comprising five described species distributed across Central and North America, with three species introduced to Australia. Members are specialized feeders on cacti in the genus Opuntia, making them significant in both natural ecosystems and agricultural contexts. The genus represents the sole member of the monotypic tribe Chelinideini.
Chelinidea vittiger
cactus coreid, cactus bug, squash bug
Chelinidea vittiger is a leaf-footed bug in the family Coreidae that feeds and develops almost exclusively on prickly pear cacti (Opuntia spp.). It has been studied for its potential use in biological weed control, particularly for managing invasive Opuntia species. The species occurs across North America, Central America, and Australia, with its distribution closely tied to that of its host plants. It can be considered either beneficial or pestiferous depending on context: it helps prevent prickly pear from aggressively overtaking rangelands, yet may also damage cacti used as emergency forage or produce.
Chelisoches morio
black earwig
Chelisoches morio, commonly known as the black earwig, is a cosmopolitan earwig species in the family Chelisochidae. Adults are uniformly jet black and among the largest earwigs, reaching up to 36 mm in length. The species exhibits extended maternal care, with females guarding eggs and feeding first-instar nymphs before they disperse. Males possess distinctive widely separated, serrated cerci that differ markedly from female morphology. The species has been investigated as a potential biological control agent due to its predatory habits and high consumption rates of agricultural pests.
Cheloninae
chelonine wasps
Cheloninae is a cosmopolitan subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps, distinguished by a distinctive metasomal carapace formed from the fusion of the first three tergites. Members are solitary koinobiont endoparasitoids that primarily attack Lepidoptera, particularly Pyraloidea and Tortricoidea. They are egg-larval parasitoids, ovipositing into host eggs but completing development only after the caterpillar hatches and matures. Chelonines carry polydnaviruses that aid in suppressing host immune responses.
Chelonus
Chelonus is a genus of parasitic wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Cheloninae. These wasps are internal parasites of moth larvae, particularly those in superfamilies Tortricoidea and Pyraloidea. The genus contains approximately 139 species in North America north of Mexico. Chelonus wasps exhibit a distinctive abdominal structure where the first three dorsal segments are fused into a single plate, making them relatively easy to identify among braconids.
Chetogena
Chetogena is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising parasitoid species. Members are solitary parasitoids that attack various Lepidoptera hosts. Some species exhibit specialized reproductive behaviors, including egg retention in response to host deprivation. The genus has been studied for biological control potential against agricultural pests.
Cheyletidae
Cheyletid mites
Cheyletidae is a family of predatory and parasitic mites in the order Trombidiformes. Some species, notably in the genus Cheyletiella, are ectoparasites of mammals and birds causing cheyletiellosis ("walking dandruff"). Most species are free-living predators found in diverse habitats including soil, forest litter, animal nests, house dust, under bark, and on foliage. They feed on other mites, nematodes, and small arthropods. Several species have been evaluated as biological control agents for agricultural and stored-product pests.
Chilocorinae
Scale-feeding Lady Beetles
Chilocorinae are a subfamily of lady beetles (Coccinellidae) commonly known as scale-feeding lady beetles. They are specialized predators of scale insects, though some species have been observed feeding on cowpea aphids. Members are typically medium-sized with shiny, often unmarked elytra and rounded, helmet-shaped bodies. They exhibit defensive reflex bleeding when disturbed and may form winter aggregations.
Chilocorus bipustulatus
heather ladybird, heather lady beetle
Chilocorus bipustulatus is a small lady beetle in the subfamily Chilocorinae, commonly known as the heather ladybird. It is widely distributed across the Palearctic and has been introduced to tropical Africa, Hawaii, and North America for biological control. The species is recognized by its shiny brown elytra with two reddish-orange spots. Both adults and larvae are specialist predators of scale insects, particularly armored scales (Diaspididae), and are used commercially to manage scale infestations in orchards and forests.
Chilocorus cacti
cactus lady beetle, twice-stabbed cactus lady beetle
Chilocorus cacti is a small predatory lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae, native to the New World and introduced to several regions including South Africa, India, and New Zealand. Both adults and larvae are specialized predators of scale insects, with documented consumption of numerous agricultural pest species. The species has been evaluated for biological control programs with variable success. Its common name derives from its frequent association with prickly pear cacti and the distinctive two reddish-brown spots on its otherwise black elytra.
Chilocorus circumdatus
red chilocorus
Chilocorus circumdatus is a predatory lady beetle native to Southern Asia that has been introduced to Hawaii and established in Australia. The species is recognized by its helmet-shaped body and orange-red coloration with a fine black margin at the base of the wings. It is a specialized predator of armoured scale insects (Diaspididae), making it significant in biological control programs.
Chilocorus nigrita
black ladybird beetle, black lady beetle
Chilocorus nigrita is a species of ladybird beetle in the family Coccinellidae. It belongs to the genus Chilocorus, which comprises small, often dark-colored ladybirds that feed primarily on scale insects. The species is known from forested habitats and is considered a beneficial predator in natural ecosystems. Unlike some commercially used ladybird species, Chilocorus nigrita is not widely sold for biological control purposes.
Chilocorus orbus
twice-stabbed lady beetle, two-stabbed lady beetle
Chilocorus orbus is a small predatory lady beetle native to western North America. Adults are readily identified by their shiny black, dome-shaped bodies with two prominent oval red patches positioned near the head on the elytra. The species is an important biological control agent, feeding voraciously on scale insects in forests, orchards, and gardens. Both adults and larvae are predatory, with larvae described as resembling miniature alligators with branching spines.
Chlaenius tricolor tricolor
Chlaenius tricolor tricolor is a subspecies of ground beetle in the family Carabidae. It has been documented as a predator of slugs in agricultural systems, making it a beneficial species in horticultural contexts. The subspecies occurs in North America, with records from Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Guatemala. Like other members of the genus Chlaenius, it exhibits vivid metallic coloration.
Chlorochroa congrua
Chlorochroa congrua is a species of stink bug in the family Pentatomidae, described by Uhler in 1876. It belongs to the genus Chlorochroa, which includes several North American stink bug species. The species has been documented as prey for the predatory wasp Astata unicolor in Oregon, where it was observed being paralyzed and carried to the wasp's nest as provisions for its offspring. Beyond this predation record and basic taxonomic placement, detailed biological information about C. congrua remains limited in the available literature.
Cholomyia inaequipes
Cholomyia inaequipes is a tachinid bristle fly described by Bigot in 1884. The species is a parasitoid of weevils in the genus Conotrachelus, with documented associations to nine species including plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) and hickory curculio (Conotrachelus juglandis). It occurs across North, Central, and South America.
Choreutis
Choreutis is a genus of metalmark moths in the family Choreutidae, established by Jacob Hübner in 1825. It serves as the type genus for both the family Choreutidae and subfamily Choreutinae. Several species within this genus, particularly Choreutis nemorana (fig-tree skeletonizer) and Choreutis sexfasciella (Banyan Leaf Skeletonizer), have become notable as invasive pests of Ficus species, with documented range expansions into Central and Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean region.
Choristoneura
spruce budworms
Choristoneura is a genus of tortricid moths comprising nearly forty species distributed across North America and Eurasia. Most species are serious pests of conifers, with several causing major forest defoliation events. The genus includes notable forest pests such as the eastern spruce budworm (C. fumiferana) and western spruce budworm (C. occidentalis), which undergo periodic population outbreaks that can devastate spruce-fir forests. The genus exhibits complex population dynamics and is extensively studied for its economic and ecological impacts.
Chrysocharis
Chrysocharis is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species are primarily larval parasitoids of leafmining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) and casebearing moths (Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae). The genus has been studied for biological control applications, particularly against agricultural pests such as Liriomyza leafminers and the larch casebearer. At least 18 species occur in North America north of Mexico, with additional diversity in Europe and the Oriental region.
Chrysocharis assis
Chrysocharis assis is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae, first described by Walker in 1839. It belongs to a genus of minute wasps known for their role as biological control agents of leaf-mining insects. The species has been documented in multiple Canadian provinces, suggesting a distribution across northern North America. Like other members of its genus, it likely parasitizes larvae of agromyzid leaf-mining flies, though specific host associations for this species require further documentation.
Chrysocharis laomedon
Chrysocharis laomedon is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae. It develops as an endoparasitoid within the larvae of leaf-mining moths, specifically Phyllonorycter issikii. The species has been documented in multiple Canadian provinces. Its immature stages—egg, larval instars, and pupa—have been described morphologically.
Chrysocharis occidentalis
Chrysocharis occidentalis is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae, first described by Girault in 1916. The genus Chrysocharis comprises small chalcidoid wasps known for their role as biological control agents of leaf-mining insects. Like other members of Eulophidae, this species likely develops as an internal parasitoid of larval insects, though specific host associations for C. occidentalis remain poorly documented. The species has been recorded from western North America including California and Canadian provinces.
Chrysocharis oscinidis
Chrysocharis oscinidis is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae. It has been documented as a biological control agent of the leaf-mining fly Liriomyza trifolii on bean plants. The species occurs across western North America from Alaska to California.
Chrysochus auratus
Dogbane Leaf Beetle, Dogbane Beetle
Chrysochus auratus is a leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, notable for its striking iridescent blue-green coloration with coppery or golden metallic highlights. This beetle is strictly associated with dogbane plants (Apocynum spp.), feeding on leaves as adults and roots as larvae. It has evolved specialized physiological and behavioral adaptations to overcome the toxic cardenolide defenses of its host plants, including a modified Na+/K+-ATPase enzyme that allows it to process and even sequester these compounds for its own chemical defense against predators.
Chrysolina
leaf beetles
Chrysolina is a large genus of leaf beetles in the subfamily Chrysomelinae, containing numerous species distributed primarily across Europe, Asia, and Africa. The genus is notable for its phytophagous species, many of which exhibit strong host plant specificity. Several species have been employed as classical biological control agents against invasive weeds, most notably Chrysolina quadrigemina and C. hyperici for control of Hypericum perforatum (St. John's wort). Some species are of conservation concern, including C. cerealis and C. graminis, which are protected in the United Kingdom. The genus includes both native and introduced populations, with some species established in North America and Australia.
Chrysolina fastuosa
Chrysolina fastuosa is a small (5.0–6.0 mm), univoltine leaf beetle native to the Palearctic Region, ranging from eastern Siberia to western Europe. First North American records document established populations in Nova Scotia, Canada and Vermont, USA, separated by over 900 km. The species is distinguished by bright metallic green coloration with blue at the elytral suture and often orange median longitudinal areas on the elytra. It feeds on Lamiaceae, particularly Galeopsis species, and has the potential to spread across the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada.
Chrysolina hyperici
Saint John's Wort Beetle, St. Johnswort Beetle, Klamathweed Beetle
Chrysolina hyperici is a leaf-feeding chrysomelid beetle native to Europe and Asia, widely introduced as a biological control agent for invasive St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum). The species has been established in North America, Australia, and other regions where its host plant has become problematic. Populations are often transient and alone do not provide sustained weed suppression, though the beetle can mechanically vector a host-specific fungal pathogen that enhances control effectiveness.
Chrysolina quadrigemina
greater St. John's wort beetle, St. John's wort beetle
Chrysolina quadrigemina is a leaf beetle introduced to North America as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Hypericum perforatum (St. John's wort). Native to Europe and North Africa, this beetle has established populations across western North America and has been introduced to Australia. Adults and larvae feed exclusively on Hypericum species, with documented spillover onto native congeners such as H. punctatum in the eastern United States. The beetle exhibits a univoltine life cycle with adults active in summer, and shows evidence of post-colonization adaptation to colder climates in northern populations.
Chrysomela scripta
cottonwood leaf beetle
Chrysomela scripta, the cottonwood leaf beetle, is a leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae that feeds on Populus species, particularly cottonwoods and hybrid poplars. It is native to North and Central America and has been documented as a significant pest of poplar plantations. The species completes multiple generations per year in temperate regions, with development strongly influenced by temperature. It is subject to biological control by predators and parasitoids, and serves as host to the microsporidian parasite Nosema scripta.
Chrysomelobia
Chrysomelobia is a genus of sexually transmitted parasitic mites in the family Podapolipidae that infest chrysomelid beetles. The genus was originally described from the Americas, Europe and Africa, and was later expanded to include Australian species following the synonymization of Parobia. These mites complete their entire life cycle on adult beetles and do not infest immature host stages.
Chrysomphalus
Chrysomphalus is a genus of armored scale insects in the family Diaspididae, containing approximately 17 described species. The genus includes several economically significant agricultural pests, notably Chrysomphalus aonidum (Florida red scale or Egyptian black scale) and Chrysomphalus dictyospermi (Spanish red scale), which infest citrus and other fruit crops worldwide. These sedentary insects possess protective waxy coverings and are targeted in integrated pest management programs using biological control agents including lady beetles and parasitoid wasps.
Chrysomphalus aonidum
Florida red scale, Egyptian black scale, circular black scale, citrus black scale
Chrysomphalus aonidum is an armored scale insect (Diaspididae) and a significant pest of citrus and other fruit trees. It is native to tropical and subtropical regions but has established populations across six continents. The species forms a hard, protective scale cover over its body while feeding on plant phloem. Population densities can reach economically damaging levels in citrus orchards, with infestations recorded on leaves and fruit. The species is subject to biological control by parasitoid wasps and predatory beetles.
Chrysopa chi
X-marked Green Lacewing
Chrysopa chi is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae, first described by Fitch in 1855. It is found in North America, with observations recorded from Vermont and other regions of the United States. As a member of the green lacewings, it belongs to a group of predatory insects valued for their role in biological control.
Chrysopa coloradensis
Colorado green lacewing
Chrysopa coloradensis is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae, described by Nathan Banks in 1895. It occurs in North America. As with other members of the genus Chrysopa, adults are predatory and feed on soft-bodied insects and other small arthropods. The larvae are known as "aphid lions" for their voracious consumption of aphids and other pests.
Chrysopa excepta
Chrysopa excepta is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae, described by Banks in 1911. It belongs to a genus whose larvae are predatory and commonly known as 'aphid lions' due to their voracious consumption of soft-bodied insects. Adults are recognized for their delicate appearance with long antennae and translucent, veined wings. The species is recorded from North America.
Chrysopa nigricornis
Black-horned Green Lacewing
Chrysopa nigricornis, commonly known as the Black-horned Green Lacewing, is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae. It is distributed across Central America and North America. The species exhibits a facultative larval diapause during the third instar within its cocoon, induced by short-day photoperiods acting on the first three free-living larval stages. As both larvae and adults, it is predatory, feeding on soft-bodied insects such as aphids.
Chrysopa quadripunctata
Four-spotted Green Lacewing
Chrysopa quadripunctata, commonly known as the Four-spotted Green Lacewing, is a species of predatory lacewing native to North America. Adults are recognized by their delicate green bodies, long filamentous antennae, and transparent, finely veined wings. Larvae are aggressive generalist predators, often called "aphid lions" for their voracious consumption of soft-bodied prey. The species has been studied for its behavioral plasticity, with documented individual repeatability and geographic variation in larval behavior.
Chrysopa slossonae
Slosson's Green Lacewing
Chrysopa slossonae is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae, described by Nathan Banks in 1924. The species is named in honor of entomologist Annie Trumbull Slosson. Like other Chrysopa species, it is a predatory insect with adults that feed on pollen, nectar, and honeydew, while larvae are voracious predators of soft-bodied insects. It is native to North America.
Chrysoperla
Common Green Lacewings
Chrysoperla is a genus of green lacewings in the family Chrysopidae, tribe Chrysopini, containing approximately 67 described species with a cosmopolitan distribution. Adults are characterized by a pale yellowish stripe down the middle of the body and delicate, transparent wings. The genus is notable for its use in biological pest control, as larvae are predatory and feed on aphids, mites, and other soft-bodied insects. Species identification is complicated by morphological similarity; many species are distinguished primarily by male genitalia features and species-specific vibrational courtship songs rather than external appearance.
Chrysoperla comanche
Comanche Green Lacewing
Chrysoperla comanche is a green lacewing species native to northern Mexico and the southern United States, with records extending to Canada, Chile, and Hawaii. It has been evaluated for commercial insectary production due to its non-diapausing behavior in California's San Joaquin Valley, where adults remain green and continue egg deposition through winter months. The species is a generalist predator of soft-bodied arthropods, with documented prey including aphids, leafhoppers, psyllids, whiteflies, thrips, and cochineal insects. It has shown particular promise for biological control in vineyard ecosystems, where it was the most commonly encountered lacewing species in post-release surveys. Development occurs optimally around 29.7°C, with lower temperature threshold near 10°C.
Chrysoperla downesi
Chrysoperla downesi is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae, first described by Smith in 1932. Like other members of the genus Chrysoperla, it is a predatory insect whose larvae feed on soft-bodied arthropod pests. The species is part of the taxonomically complex Chrysoperla carnea-group, in which species are often difficult to distinguish by morphology alone and may require acoustic or molecular methods for identification. It is native to North America and has been documented in museum collections.
Chrysoperla externa
green lacewing
Chrysoperla externa is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae, native to the Americas. Like other members of the genus Chrysoperla, its larvae are predatory on soft-bodied insects, particularly aphids, making it valuable for biological pest control. The species is part of the taxonomically challenging Chrysoperla carnea-group, in which species are often difficult to distinguish morphologically and are instead identified by their species-specific vibrational songs. It has been documented across much of South America and in parts of North America including Hawaii.
Chrysoperla harrisii
Harris's Green Lacewing
Chrysoperla harrisii is a green lacewing species in the family Chrysopidae, native to North America. Adults are predatory and feed on soft-bodied insects and honeydew. The species belongs to the Chrysoperla carnea-group, a complex of morphologically similar species that are difficult to distinguish without specialized techniques such as vibrational song analysis. Larvae are aggressive predators of aphids, mites, and other small arthropods, making this species valuable for biological pest control.
Chrysoperla rufilabris
Red-lipped Green Lacewing
Chrysoperla rufilabris, the red-lipped green lacewing, is a predatory insect in the family Chrysopidae native to eastern North America. Larvae are voracious predators of soft-bodied insects, particularly aphids, and are widely used as biological control agents in agricultural and ornamental systems. Adults are primarily nocturnal and are commonly attracted to artificial lights. The species has been extensively studied for its potential in integrated pest management, with research demonstrating its effectiveness against diverse prey including aphids, scale insects, and lepidopteran eggs.
Chrysopidae
Green lacewings, lacewings, stinkflies, aphid lions, aphid wolves, junk bugs, trash bugs
Chrysopidae, commonly known as green lacewings, is a large family of neuropteran insects comprising approximately 85 genera and 1,300–2,000 species worldwide. Adults are delicate, often bright green insects with conspicuous golden compound eyes and translucent, iridescent wings with characteristic wide costal fields in the venation. Larvae are voracious predators nicknamed "aphid lions" or "trash bugs," known for carrying debris on their backs for camouflage while hunting soft-bodied prey. The family is economically significant as biological control agents, with millions reared annually for agricultural pest management.
Chrysopinae
Typical Green Lacewings
Chrysopinae is the nominate and largest subfamily of green lacewings (Chrysopidae), comprising approximately 60 genera. The subfamily includes well-known genera such as Chrysoperla and Chrysopa, which are common in Europe and North America. Members are distinguished by their delicate, green bodies and golden eyes. Larvae are predatory and several species have been employed in biological pest control programs.
Chrysopini
green lacewings
Chrysopini is a tribe of green lacewings within the family Chrysopidae, comprising approximately 17-32 genera and 300-926 described species. Members are recognized by their delicate, net-veined wings and often green or yellow-green bodies. The tribe represents one of the most species-rich and commonly encountered groups of lacewings in temperate and tropical regions worldwide.
Chrysopophthorus americanus
Chrysopophthorus americanus is a minute parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae, described by Mason in 1964 from the United States. It belongs to a genus distributed across four continents, with species specialized as parasitoids of chrysopid larvae (green lacewings). The wasp has been observed at blacklight traps, where it likely seeks its lacewing hosts that are also attracted to ultraviolet light. Adults exhibit distinctive pale, almost ghostly coloration with striking emerald eyes.
Cicadellinae
sharpshooters, leafhoppers
Cicadellinae is a subfamily of leafhoppers (family Cicadellidae) within the order Hemiptera. Members of the tribe Proconiini within this subfamily are commonly known as 'sharpshooters.' The subfamily currently contains five tribes: Cicadellini, Makilingiini, Phereurhinini, Proconiini, and Tungurahualini. Cicadellinae leafhoppers are globally distributed and are significant agricultural pests due to their role as vectors of plant pathogens, particularly the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa, which causes diseases including Pierce's disease of grape, phony peach disease, and citrus variegated chlorosis.
Cirrhencyrtus
Cirrhencyrtus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, described by Timberlake in 1918. Species in this genus are known to parasitize mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), with documented associations with Ferrisia virgata and Dysmicoccus brevipes in southern Chiapas, Mexico. The genus is represented in major entomological collections, including the UCR Encyrtidae collection, which holds specimens of C. ehrhorni and C. diversicolor.
Cirrospilini
Cirrospilini is a tribe within the subfamily Eulophinae (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) comprising approximately 17 genera and nearly 300 species. Members are ectoparasitoids that attack immature stages of Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Coleoptera in semi-concealed habitats. Some species function as obligate or facultative hyperparasitoids, and a few are gall-formers. Phylogenetically, the tribe is considered monophyletic and the sister-group to Eulophini plus Elasmini.
Cirrospilus
Cirrospilus is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Species within this genus are primarily ectoparasitoids of leaf-mining insects, particularly gracillariid moths such as the citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella). Several species have been investigated and employed as biological control agents against agricultural pests, with notable examples including C. ingenuus, C. diallus, C. pictus, and C. coachellae. The genus exhibits variation in host specificity, fecundity, and developmental rates influenced by temperature and host stage.
Clastoptera undulata
Casuarina Spittlebug
Clastoptera undulata is a spittlebug species in the family Clastopteridae, first described by Uhler in 1864. It is commonly known as the Casuarina Spittlebug. The species gained attention as an invasive pest in Bermuda, where it was discovered in 1959. Biological control efforts were undertaken using the parasitoid wasp Carabunia myersi. Most individuals in the Bermuda population overwinter as eggs. The species belongs to a group of xylem-feeding insects known for producing protective 'spittle' masses during their nymphal stages.
Cleridae
checkered beetles
Cleridae, commonly known as checkered beetles, is a family of predatory beetles in the superfamily Cleroidea. The family contains approximately 3,500 species worldwide, with about 500 species in North America. Most species are predatory, feeding primarily on other beetles and their larvae, particularly bark beetles and wood-boring beetles. Some genera exhibit scavenging or pollen-feeding habits. The family has significant economic importance as biological control agents against forest pests.
Cleroidea
Bark-gnawing, Checkered, and Soft-winged Flower Beetles
Cleroidea is a superfamily of beetles comprising over 10,000 species across approximately 24 families. Members are generally slender with soft, flexible elytra and typically bear hairy or scaly integuments. The superfamily exhibits diverse feeding strategies: predation (Cleridae, Trogossitinae), pollen/nectar consumption (melyrid lineage), and fungivory (many Trogossitidae and smaller families). Aposematic coloration occurs in some groups, particularly Cleridae and Malachiinae, mimicking unpalatable arthropods such as blister beetles, net-winged beetles, and stinging Hymenoptera.
Cleruchus
Cleruchus is a genus of fairyflies (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) containing minute egg parasitoids. Species in this genus exhibit notable wing dimorphism, with both macropterous and brachypterous individuals occurring within single species. They are associated with bracket fungi and parasitize eggs of beetles, particularly Ciidae. The genus is distributed across the Palaearctic region with records from Europe, Russia, and North America.
Clitostethus
dusky lady beetles
Clitostethus is a genus of minute lady beetles (Coccinellidae: Scymninae) comprising over 40 species. Members are recognized as specialized predators of whiteflies (Aleyrodidae). Several species have been evaluated as biological control agents against agricultural pests including Bemisia tabaci and Siphoninus phillyreae. The genus was established by Weise in 1885 and includes species formerly classified under Nephaspis.
Clitostethus arcuatus
Horseshoe Ladybird
Clitostethus arcuatus is a minute ladybird beetle in the subfamily Scymninae, measuring 1.3–1.5 mm as an adult. Native to Europe, it has been introduced or reported from Bermuda and is expanding its range northward in European Russia. It serves as an important biological control agent of whitefly pests, particularly the ash whitefly Siphoninus phillyreae, and has been evaluated for augmentation biocontrol programs.
Clostera
Clostera is a genus of moths in the family Notodontidae, subfamily Pygaerinae, containing approximately 30 described species distributed across the Holarctic and Oriental regions. Multiple species, including C. anachoreta, C. anastomosis, C. fulgurita, and C. cupreata, are recognized as significant defoliators of poplar (Populus) trees in forestry contexts across China, India, Europe, and Japan. The genus has been extensively studied for its economic impact and as a target for biological control and Bt toxin research.
Closterocerus
Closterocerus is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae (Hymenoptera). Species within this genus are predominantly larval parasitoids of various insect hosts, including leafmining Lepidoptera, Chrysomelidae beetles, and gall-forming Eulophidae. Several species have been documented as effective biological control agents, particularly against invasive pests. The genus exhibits considerable diversity in host associations and geographic distribution across multiple continents.
Closterotomus
Closterotomus is a genus of plant bugs (Miridae) in the subfamily Mirinae, established by Fieber in 1858. The genus contains at least 34 species distributed across the Palearctic and North America. Several species are agricultural pests, notably C. trivialis on olive and citrus in Mediterranean regions and C. norvegicus (potato capsid) on lucerne, clover, and potato. Members are phytophagous, feeding primarily on flowers, buds, and unripe fruit.
Coccidae
soft scales, wax scales, tortoise scales
Coccidae is a family of scale insects in the superfamily Coccoidea, commonly known as soft scales, wax scales, or tortoise scales. The family contains over 1,100 species in 171 genera worldwide. Females are typically flat with elongated oval bodies and smooth integument often covered with wax; they may possess legs in some genera but not in others. Males may be winged or wingless. Coccidae are distinguished from armored scales (Diaspididae) by their soft, waxy covering rather than a hard, separable scale. Many species are economically important agricultural and horticultural pests.
Coccinella
ladybird, ladybug, lady beetle
Coccinella is a genus of lady beetles recognized by their convex, hemispherical bodies and typically red or orange elytra marked with black spots or bands. The genus contains approximately 94 species and occurs throughout the Northern Hemisphere, with greater diversity in Eurasia than North America. Several species, particularly C. septempunctata, are valued as biological control agents due to their predatory habits.
Coccinella californica
California Lady Beetle
Coccinella californica is a ladybird beetle endemic to coastal California. Adults measure 5.10–6.80 mm and are distinguished by predominantly red, usually spotless elytra and a mostly black thorax. The species plays a documented role in biological pest control in vineyard ecosystems.
Coccinella septempunctata
seven-spot ladybird, seven-spotted ladybug, seven-spotted lady beetle, C-7
Coccinella septempunctata is a predatory lady beetle native to Europe, Asia, and North Africa, now widely established in North America following intentional introduction for biological control. Adults measure 6.5–7.8 mm with distinctive red elytra bearing seven black spots. The species is among the most extensively studied coccinellids due to its importance in aphid biocontrol and its invasive success in new ranges. It completes up to five generations annually with a six-week development cycle from egg to adult.
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ation-molecularcascading-gene-expression-effects-downstreamother-traits-selective-advantage-pleiotropyfuture-research-taxonomic-expansion-recommendationScymninae-missing-family-subfamily-taxonomicChilocorinae-scale-feeders-missing-taxonomicPsylloborini-fungi-feeders-missing-taxonomicintriguing-future-research-possibilities-opportunityinvasive-species-ecological-role-insight-applicationbiological-control-agent-understanding-practicalLeslie-Mertz-northern-Michigan-residence-personalknowyourinsects.org-educational-resource-outreachsummer-field-biology-teaching-activity-educationalHelen-Roy-childhood-1976-memory-personalIsle-of-Wight-garden-ladybird-abundance-biogeographicimagination-capture-interest-spark-developmentaldoctoral-research-privilege-description-professionalCambridge-sabbatical-2004-harlequin-anticipation-predictiveecological-network-upset-prediction-correctness-validation80-90%-urban-dominance-current-status-quantitativeHesperomyces-virescens-native-two-spotted-prior-observation-historicalKatie-Murray-doctoral-student-discovery-contributionmarathon-mating-hour-duration-description-behavioralcontact-point-fruiting-body-location-evidence-morphologicaloverwintering-aggregation-months-duration-behavioralfield-cross-species-transmission-absence-assertion-ecologicalMurray-health-effects-investigation-ongoing-researchHaelewaters-Harvard-lineage-study-institutionalthree-separate-lineages-hypothesis-taxonomicScientific-Reports-publication-venue-academicDinocampus-coccinellae-seven-spot-targeting-expansion-ecologicalcocoon-between-legs-observation-detail-morphologicalevolutionary-action-research-excitement-expression-enthusiasmcitizen-science-online-mapping-project-methodologythousands-of-participants-contribution-scale-participatoryverified-record-quantity-reporting-pride-achievementScientific-Data-Nature-journal-publication-academicharlequin-spread-pattern-documentation-spatialnative-species-decline-correlation-data-ecologicalanecdotal-increase-personal-observation-note-qualitativeseven-spot-Dinocampus-tracking-expansion-plan-futuresuper-abundant-resource-wasp-prediction-ecologicalparasite-pathogen-invaded-system-evolution-opportunity-researchCoccinella transversoguttata
Transverse Lady Beetle, transverse ladybird
Coccinella transversoguttata is a predatory lady beetle native to North America, now also found in Europe and Asia including the Tibetan plateau. It is recognized by the transverse black band across the base of its elytra, formed by connected spots. The species serves as an important biological control agent against aphids and other agricultural pests, though its populations appear to be declining in some regions following the introduction of competing non-native lady beetles.
Coccinella undecimpunctata
eleven-spot ladybird, eleven-spotted lady beetle, eleven-spotted ladybird beetle
Coccinella undecimpunctata, commonly known as the eleven-spot ladybird or eleven-spotted lady beetle, is a small predatory beetle in the family Coccinellidae. It is endemic to the Palearctic region and has been introduced to Australia and New Zealand as a biological control agent. The species is distinguished by eleven black spots on its red or orange elytra, though one central spot creates the appearance of six spots per elytron. It is an effective predator of aphids and is used in integrated pest management programs.
Coccivora californica
Coccivora californica is a species of minute pirate bug in the family Anthocoridae, first described by McAtee and Malloch in 1925. The genus name 'Coccivora' indicates a diet centered on scale insects (Coccoidea). This species is native to North America and has been recorded from California.
Coccobius
Coccobius is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Aphelinidae, specialized as parasitoids of armored scale insects (Diaspididae). Species in this genus have been widely used as biological control agents against economically important scale pests on crops including citrus and pine. The genus exhibits weak dispersal ability, with documented dispersal rates of approximately 200 meters per year. Multiple species have been intentionally introduced across Asia, North America, and other regions for classical biological control programs.
Coccobius fulvus
Coccobius fulvus is a species of parasitic wasp in the family Aphelinidae, first described by Compere and Annecke in 1961. It belongs to a genus of chalcidoid wasps that are primarily parasitoids of scale insects (Coccoidea). The species has been recorded from France, Japan, and the conterminous United States. Like other members of Aphelinidae, it likely plays a role in biological control of pest scale insects.
Coccoidea
Scale Insects
Scale insects are small sap-sucking hemipterans comprising the superfamily Coccoidea, with approximately 8,000 described species across about 49 families. They exhibit extraordinary morphological diversity, ranging from minute forms beneath waxy covers to conspicuous species with elaborate wax secretions. Many are economically significant agricultural and horticultural pests, while others serve as sources of valuable products such as carmine dye and shellac. The group has been extensively studied for biological control, with numerous parasitoid wasp species developed as management agents.
Coccophagus
Coccophagus is a large genus of chalcid wasps in the family Aphelinidae, established by Westwood in 1833. Members are parasitoids primarily associated with scale insects (Coccoidea), playing significant roles in biological control programs. The genus is taxonomically well-established within the subfamily Coccophaginae and tribe Coccophagini. Species in this genus have been documented from multiple continents including North America, Asia, and South America.
Coccophagus lycimnia
Coccophagus lycimnia is a minute parasitoid wasp in the family Aphelinidae, widely used as a biological control agent against soft scale insects (Coccidae: Hemiptera). The species exhibits host-size dependent oviposition behavior, preferentially parasitizing second-instar scale insects while avoiding larger hosts due to defensive reactions. It has been documented attacking multiple economically important scale pests including Coccus hesperidum (brown soft scale), Parthenolecanium spp., Sphaerolecanium prunastri, and Parasaissetia nigra, with particular significance in citrus and agricultural systems.
Coccus viridis
green scale, green coffee scale, coffee green scale
Coccus viridis is a soft scale insect (Hemiptera: Coccidae) and major agricultural pest with a wide tropical and subtropical distribution. It reproduces parthenogenetically via thelytoky, with females producing 50-600 eggs that hatch within minutes to hours beneath the mother's body. The species completes its life cycle in 47-51 days at 25°C, with three nymphal instars before adulthood; first-instar nymphs actively disperse as 'crawlers' while older instars and adults become sessile. It is polyphagous, feeding on phloem sap of over 200 plant genera in 72 families, with primary economic damage to coffee, guava, and cacao crops.
Cochylis
Cochylis is a genus of leafroller moths in the family Tortricidae, subfamily Tortricinae. Species are distributed across the Holarctic, Oriental, and Neotropical regions. In the Palaearctic, members exhibit one or two generations annually with larval overwintering. Larvae are oligophagous, feeding primarily on Asteraceae. The genus has undergone taxonomic revision; in 2019, eight species were moved to the redefined genus Cochylichroa based on phylogenetic analysis.
Coelocephalapion
Coelocephalapion is a genus of small weevils in the family Brentidae (subfamily Apioninae) established by Wagner in 1914. Species in this genus exhibit diverse feeding strategies including florivory, seed predation, and gall induction. The genus is primarily Neotropical in distribution, with documented associations spanning multiple plant families including Leguminosae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, and Verbenaceae. Several species have been investigated as biological control agents for invasive plants.
Coelocephalapion aculeatum
Coelocephalapion aculeatum is a flower-feeding weevil in the family Brentidae (formerly Apionidae) that specializes on the invasive weed Mimosa pigra. Females exhibit selective oviposition behavior based on host inflorescence developmental stage and conspecific damage levels. Larval development occurs entirely within host flowers, with survival rates varying significantly according to inflorescence maturity. The species has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for M. pigra in regions where this plant is invasive.
Coelophora
Coelophora is a genus of ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae) established by Mulsant in 1850, containing approximately 14 described species distributed across Asia, Australia, and surrounding regions. Members of this genus are predominantly aphidophagous predators, with several species studied for their potential as biological control agents in agricultural systems. The genus exhibits notable colour pattern polymorphism, particularly in Coelophora inaequalis, where multiple elytral pattern morphs are controlled by alleles showing mosaic dominance. Some species have been transferred to other genera upon taxonomic revision, such as Coelophora circumusta moved to Phrynocaria.
Coelophora inaequalis
variable ladybird, common Australian lady beetle, common Australian ladybug, Variable Ladybird Beetle
Coelophora inaequalis is a small predatory ladybird beetle native to Australia, Oceania, and Southern Asia. Adults measure 3.70–5.20 mm and display highly variable elytral coloration, with yellow to orange backgrounds bearing four to five black spots that differ among individuals. The species has been introduced to Florida and Hawaii as a biological control agent against the yellow sugarcane aphid (Sipha flava). It is an effective aphid predator with documented prey including Aphis gossypii, Aphis craccivora, and Toxoptera citricida.
Coenosia
Tiger Flies
Coenosia is a large genus of predatory muscid flies comprising more than 350 species. Members are commonly known as tiger flies due to their active hunting behavior. They are documented from multiple continents including Europe, Asia, and North America. Some species serve as hosts for entomopathogenic fungi in the genus Strongwellsea, which exhibit unusual extended-host survival during infection.
Coenosia humilis
tiger fly
Coenosia humilis is a predatory muscid fly commonly known as the tiger fly. It is an active predator of small flying insects, particularly agromyzid leafminers, and has been studied as a biological control agent in agricultural systems. The species is native to Europe but has been recorded in multiple regions including Indonesia and the North Atlantic islands. It exhibits distinct daily activity patterns with peak hunting during morning and afternoon hours.
Coleomegilla
Coleomegilla is a genus of lady beetles in the family Coccinellidae native to the Americas. The genus contains at least five described species, with Coleomegilla maculata (the pink-spotted or twelve-spotted lady beetle) being the most studied and economically significant. Members of this genus are generalist predators used in biological control programs, with C. maculata being notable as the only North American lady beetle known to complete its life cycle on plant pollen alone. The genus is distinguished from other coccinellids by its elongated body form and distinctive pink or reddish coloration with black spotting.
Coleomegilla maculata
spotted pink lady beetle, spotted lady beetle, pink spotted lady beetle, twelve-spotted lady beetle
Coleomegilla maculata is a native North American coccinellid beetle widely used in biological control programs. Adults and larvae are primarily aphid predators, though this species is unusual among North American lady beetles in its facultative pollen-feeding habit—pollen may constitute up to 50% of adult diet. The species shows increasing abundance and westward range expansion while many native coccinellids are declining, possibly due to its dietary flexibility reducing competitive impacts from invasive species. Multiple subspecies exist, with C. m. fuscilabris distinguished by bright orange-red rather than pink coloration.
Coleomegilla maculata strenua
12-spotted lady beetle, pink-spotted lady beetle
Coleomegilla maculata strenua is a subspecies of the 12-spotted lady beetle, a native North American coccinellid. Adults display a distinctive pink to reddish coloration with six black spots on each elytron. This subspecies is part of a species complex known for unusual dietary habits among lady beetles, including substantial consumption of plant pollen alongside typical predatory feeding.
Coleophora klimeschiella
Russian thistle casebearer
Coleophora klimeschiella is a casebearer moth in the family Coleophoridae, native to Asia Minor and Central Asia. It has been introduced to North America as a biological control agent for invasive Russian thistle (Salsola species). The species was first described by Toll in 1952.
Coleophora parthenica
Russian Thistle Stem Miner Moth
Coleophora parthenica is a case-bearing moth introduced to western North America as a biological control agent for invasive Russian thistle (Salsola spp.). Native to arid regions of North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, it was intentionally released in California, Nevada, Utah, Idaho, Arizona, and Hawaii. The species has proven ineffective as a biocontrol agent due to natural enemy pressure and phenological asynchrony with its host plant. Adults are creamy-white, and larvae are orange, approximately 17 mm at maturity.
Collops
soft-winged flower beetles
Collops is a genus of soft-winged flower beetles in the family Melyridae, containing at least 20 described species. These beetles are recognized as beneficial predators in agricultural systems, where they feed on pest insects including aphids and plant bug eggs. The genus has been studied extensively for its role in biological control, particularly in cotton and alfalfa systems in the southwestern United States. Collops beetles are frequently found on flowering plants where they hunt prey and may also utilize extrafloral nectaries.
Collops cribrosus
Collops beetle
Collops cribrosus is a soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae, first described by LeConte in 1852. The species belongs to the genus Collops, which comprises predatory beetles frequently associated with flowering plants where they hunt small arthropod prey. Like other members of its genus, C. cribrosus is recognized as a beneficial insect in agricultural contexts, serving as a natural enemy of pest insects. The species has been documented in western North America, with confirmed records from British Columbia.
Collops flavicinctus
Collops flavicinctus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae, subfamily Malachiinae. Members of the genus Collops are recognized as beneficial predators in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton production. The species is documented from the southwestern United States with iNaturalist records from Utah. Like other Collops species, it likely contributes to biological control of pest insects through predation on eggs and small arthropods.
Collops granellus
Collops granellus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. Like other members of the genus Collops, it is a predatory beetle associated with flowering plants, where it feeds on small insects and other arthropods. The genus is well-known in agricultural contexts as a beneficial predator in cotton and other crop systems.
Collops hirtellus
Hairy Soft-winged Flower Beetle
Collops hirtellus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae, first described by LeConte in 1876. It is one of several Collops species recognized as beneficial predators in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton production. The species has been documented in western Canada and is part of a genus known for predatory feeding habits on pest insects.
Collops limbellus
collops beetle, soft-winged flower beetle
Collops limbellus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. It belongs to a genus of predatory beetles frequently encountered on flowers, where they feed on smaller arthropods. The species is documented from western North America, with observations spanning arid and semi-arid regions. Like other members of the genus Collops, it likely plays a role as a generalist predator in agricultural and natural systems.
Collops marginellus
Collops marginellus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. The genus Collops comprises predatory beetles commonly found on flowers, where they feed on other small insects. These beetles are recognized as beneficial insects in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton production, where they contribute to biological control of pest populations. The species is part of a genus whose members are frequently encountered on flowering plants in arid and semi-arid regions of western North America.
Collops necopinus
Collops necopinus is a soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. Like other members of the genus Collops, it is a predatory beetle that feeds on small arthropods. The species has been documented in the southwestern United States, including New Mexico, and is associated with flowering plants where it hunts prey. Collops beetles are recognized as beneficial natural enemies in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton production.
Collops nigriceps
Eastern Coastal Collops
Collops nigriceps is a soft-winged flower beetle (family Melyridae) with a documented preference for flowers of Gutierrezia sarothrae (broom snakeweed) in the southwestern United States. The species has been collected in northeastern New Mexico and has been observed in association with other flower-visiting beetles including cerambycids and cantharids. As a member of the genus Collops, it likely functions as a generalist predator in flower-based arthropod communities.
Collops nigritus
Collops nigritus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae, subfamily Malachiinae. The genus Collops comprises predatory beetles commonly found on flowers where they feed on other small insects. Members of this genus are recognized as important natural enemies in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton and other crops, where they contribute to biological control of pest populations. Collops nigritus specifically has been documented as occurring in the southwestern United States and is associated with flowering plants in arid and semi-arid habitats.
Collops parvus
Collops parvus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. The genus Collops comprises predatory beetles frequently found on flowers, where they feed on other insects. C. parvus is one of numerous small, often brightly colored species in this genus that serve as important natural enemies of pest insects in agricultural and natural ecosystems.
Collops quadrimaculatus
four-spotted collops
Collops quadrimaculatus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae, commonly known as the four-spotted collops. It is recognized as a beneficial predator in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton production. The species occurs across Central and North America, with documented populations in Canada (Ontario, Québec), the United States, and Mexico. Adults are active during the growing season and are frequently recorded in field observations.
Collops reflexus
Collops reflexus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. Like other members of the genus Collops, it is a predatory beetle found in association with flowering plants. The genus is recognized for its ecological role as a predator of pest insects in agricultural systems, including cotton. Collops reflexus has been documented in field observations on flowers of Gutierrezia sarothrae (broom snakeweed) in northeastern New Mexico, where it occurs alongside other flower-visiting beetles.
Collops subtropicus
Collops subtropicus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. The genus Collops comprises small, predatory beetles commonly found on flowers, where they feed on pollen and prey on other small insects. Members of this genus are recognized as beneficial predators in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton and other crops.
Collops vicarius
Collops vicarius is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. The genus Collops comprises predatory beetles commonly found on flowers, where they feed on other insects. C. vicarius is part of a group of beneficial predatory insects utilized in biological control programs in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton production. Species in this genus are recognized as important natural enemies of pest insects.
Collops vittatus
Striped Collops, melyrid beetle
Collops vittatus is a small predatory soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae, measuring approximately 5 mm in length. The species exhibits considerable geographic variation in coloration and morphology across its North American range. It has been documented as a predator of agricultural pests, particularly the spotted alfalfa aphid. The species is found from Canada through the United States to Central America, with notable morphological differences between northeastern and southwestern populations.
Collyria
Collyria is a genus of ichneumonid wasps in the subfamily Collyriinae. Species within this genus are specialized parasitoids of stem sawflies (Cephidae), particularly those infesting cereal crops such as wheat. The genus includes species that have been investigated and employed as biological control agents against wheat stem sawfly pests in North America and Europe. Members exhibit phenological synchrony with their hosts, with adults typically emerging earlier than host sawflies, and demonstrate complex host discrimination behaviors including variable superparasitism rates.
Collyria coxator
Collyria coxator is an ichneumonid wasp that acts as a specialized parasitoid of stem sawflies (Cephidae). It has been studied as a biological control agent for the common stem sawfly Cephus pygmaeus, a pest of winter cereals. Its effectiveness as a population regulator varies with summer weather conditions.
Collyriinae
Collyriinae is a subfamily of ichneumonid wasps (Ichneumonidae, Hymenoptera) known primarily as parasitoids of stem-sawflies (Cephidae). The subfamily includes genera such as Collyria and Bicurta. Species within this group have been documented as parasitoids of economically important stem-boring sawflies, with potential applications in biological control. Host records indicate specialization on Cephidae, though detailed biological information remains limited for many taxa.
Colobaea
snail-killing flies
Colobaea is a genus of 15 valid species of snail-killing flies in the family Sciomyzidae. Larvae of all reared species kill and consume freshwater nonoperculate pulmonate snails, with varying degrees of specialization. The genus occurs in both Palearctic and Nearctic regions.
Colpa
Colpa is a genus of scoliid wasps comprising 24 recognized species distributed across six subgenera. Phylogenetic analysis has repositioned this genus from the tribe Campsomerini to a sister-group relationship with Scoliini, rendering Campsomerini non-monophyletic. This taxonomic revision has prompted proposals for either establishing a new tribe Colpini or transferring the genus to Scoliini. Species occur across multiple continents including North America, Africa, and Eurasia.
Colpa octomaculata hermione
Colpa octomaculata hermione is a subspecies of scoliid wasp, a group commonly known as mammoth wasps. The parent species Colpa octomaculata is native to North America. Scoliid wasps are large-bodied parasitoids whose larvae develop on scarabaeid beetle grubs. Recent phylogenetic research indicates the genus Colpa is sister to the tribe Scoliini, which renders the tribe Campsomerini non-monophyletic. This subspecies represents part of a taxonomic group that has historically lacked modern systematic treatment.
Colpotrochia
Colpotrochia is a genus of ichneumon wasps in the subfamily Metopiinae, containing at least 61 described species. These small wasps, averaging 6–10 mm in body length, are larval-pupal endoparasitoids of Lepidoptera. Females use a short ovipositor to lay eggs in caterpillars, with wasps emerging from the host pupa rather than the adult moth. The genus has been recorded from North America, Brazil, and Europe.
Colpotrochia fultoni
Colpotrochia fultoni is a species of ichneumon wasp in the subfamily Metopiinae, first described by Townes & Townes in 1959. Like other members of its genus, it is a parasitoid that develops inside caterpillar hosts. The species is part of a North American genus with four recognized species, all restricted to the eastern United States ranging from the Atlantic coast to just west of the Mississippi River.
Comperiella
Comperiella is a genus of parasitic wasps in the family Encyrtidae, containing approximately 10 species. Species in this genus are internal parasitoids of armored scale insects (Diaspididae), with documented hosts including Aonidiella aurantii, A. citrina, A. orientalis, Aspidiotus rigidus, and Chrysomphalus ficus. Several species have been employed or studied as biological control agents against agricultural pests, particularly in citrus and coconut production systems. The genus was established by Howard in 1906.
Comperiella bifasciata
Comperiella bifasciata is a tiny parasitic wasp in the family Encyrtidae used extensively in biological control of armored scale insects on citrus. Two distinct biological races exist: a Japanese type that parasitizes yellow scale (Aonidiella citrina) and a Chinese type that parasitizes California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii). Despite being morphologically identical and capable of hybridizing in laboratory conditions, these races maintain separate identities in the field through natural selection against less fit hybrids. The species was first introduced to California in 1908 from Japan, but failed to establish on red scale due to a misidentification of its original host; successful establishment on red scale occurred only after subsequent introductions from China between 1947 and 1949.
Compsilura
Compsilura is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) established by Bouché in 1834. The genus includes several species, with Compsilura concinnata being the most extensively studied due to its historical use as a biological control agent. Species in this genus are parasitoids of Lepidoptera larvae and have been introduced to multiple continents for pest management. The genus has been implicated in unintended ecological impacts, particularly C. concinnata's role in declines of native silk moth populations in North America.
Compsilura concinnata
European Tachinid Fly
Compsilura concinnata is a polyphagous tachinid fly native to Europe that was introduced to North America in 1906 as a biological control agent for the spongy moth (Lymantria dispar). It is an endoparasitoid of insect larvae, developing within the host midgut and eventually killing it. The species attacks over 200 host species across Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera, but has proven ineffective against its intended target while causing significant non-target impacts on native Lepidoptera, including giant silk moths and monarch butterflies.
Compsobracon
Compsobracon is a genus of braconid parasitoid wasps. One species, C. mirabilis, has been observed parasitizing wood-boring Lepidoptera larvae by inserting its ovipositor directly through woody branches to reach hosts concealed inside. The genus belongs to the diverse family Braconidae, which contains thousands of parasitoid species attacking various insect hosts.
Condica
Condica is a genus of noctuid moths erected by Francis Walker in 1856. The genus contains approximately 60 described species distributed across multiple continents, with documented records from Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, and Australia. Several species are recognized as agricultural pests, particularly of safflower, sunflower, and cotton crops. The genus is classified within the subfamily Condicinae of the family Noctuidae.
Condylorrhiza vestigialis
Alamo Moth, Brazilian Poplar Moth
A crambid moth native to the Americas, known as the Alamo Moth or Brazilian Poplar Moth. Larvae are specialized feeders on Populus species, making this species a significant pest of poplar and cottonwood plantations in Brazil. Adults exhibit well-documented calling behavior, with virgin females releasing sex pheromones during specific nighttime hours to attract males. The species has been extensively studied for biological control applications, particularly for baculovirus production.
Condylostylus
long-legged flies
Condylostylus is a large genus of predatory flies in the family Dolichopodidae, comprising over 250 species and representing the second largest genus in the subfamily Sciapodinae. The genus exhibits exceptional diversity in the Neotropical realm, where approximately 70% of species occur. Members are small to medium-sized dolichopodids, typically displaying metallic coloration and characteristic long-legged morphology. The genus includes species with documented potential as biological control agents in agricultural settings.
Coniopteryginae
dusty lacewings
Coniopteryginae is a subfamily of dusty lacewings in the family Coniopterygidae, characterized by their small size and distinctive powdery or waxy coating that gives them a moth-like appearance. Members of this subfamily are among the smallest lacewings, with reduced wing venation compared to other neuropterans. They are primarily predatory as both larvae and adults, feeding on small soft-bodied arthropods such as mites and scale insects. The subfamily is distinguished from the other coniopterygid subfamily, Aleuropteryginae, by several morphological features including wing structure and genitalia.
Coniopteryx
dusty-wings
Coniopteryx is a genus of dusty-wing lacewings in the family Coniopterygidae. Adults are tiny insects covered with a powdery white wax coating produced by specialized abdominal glands. The genus has cosmopolitan distribution and is active during winter months when most other insects are dormant. Larvae are important predators of spider mites, scale insects, and whiteflies.
Conura
Conura is a large genus of chalcidid wasps comprising over 300 described species, with approximately 295 species occurring in the New World. The genus is divided into three subgenera and 63 species groups based on morphological patterns. Species exhibit diverse life history strategies including primary parasitism of lepidopteran pupae and hyperparasitism through other parasitoid wasps.
Conura albifrons
Conura albifrons is a native North American hyperparasitoid wasp in the family Chalcididae. It has been documented attacking Diadromus pulchellus, an exotic ichneumonid parasitoid introduced for biological control of the leek moth (Acrolepiopsis assectella). This hyperparasitoid relationship represents a potential challenge to biological control programs, as native hyperparasitoids can reduce the effectiveness of introduced natural enemies. The species is recorded from multiple Canadian provinces including Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, and New Brunswick.
Copidosoma
copidosoma wasp
Copidosoma is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, comprising over 200 species of polyembryonic parasitoids. These wasps deposit one or two eggs into host Lepidoptera eggs, which then proliferate into thousands of genetically identical embryos. A unique caste system produces two larval morphs: sterile soldiers that defend the host from competitors and reproductive larvae that consume the host and emerge as adults. The genus has been extensively studied for its extreme clonal reproduction and is widely used in biological control programs against agricultural pests.
Copidosoma floridanum
Copidosoma floridanum is a polyembryonic parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae, notable for producing the largest recorded brood of any parasitoidal insect—up to 3,055 individuals from a single egg. Females oviposit into the eggs of plusiine moths, and the resulting embryos undergo clonal division to form genetically identical siblings. The brood develops into two distinct castes: reproductive larvae that emerge as adult wasps, and sterile soldier larvae that defend their siblings from competitors.
Corythucha arcuata
oak lace bug
Corythucha arcuata, the oak lace bug, is a small sap-sucking insect in the family Tingidae native to North America. First detected in Europe in 2000, it has become a major invasive pest across more than 20 EU countries, causing significant damage to oak forests. The species overwinters as adults and produces multiple overlapping generations per year, with development rates and generation number determined by thermal accumulation. In its invaded range, it lacks effective natural enemies, prompting investigation of classical biological control using the egg parasitoid Erythmelus klopomor from its native range.
Cosmocomoidea
Cosmocomoidea is a genus of fairyflies (Mymaridae) established by Howard in 1908. Species within this genus are solitary egg parasitoids primarily associated with sharpshooter leafhoppers (Cicadellidae: Cicadellinae), which are vectors of plant pathogens including Xylella fastidiosa. The genus has been documented from Asia (China, Taiwan, Japan, India), Europe (Denmark, Sweden), and South America, with C. annulicornis being the most extensively studied species due to its potential as a biological control agent.
Cosmocomoidea ashmeadi
Cosmocomoidea ashmeadi is a species of fairyfly in the family Mymaridae, described by Girault in 1915. The genus Cosmocomoidea was established to accommodate species previously placed in other mymarid genera. Members of this genus are egg parasitoids, typically attacking eggs of Hemiptera. The species is part of a group of minute wasps that are important biological control agents in various agricultural systems.
Cotesia
Cotesia is a genus of braconid wasps widely recognized for their role as parasitoids of caterpillars. Female wasps use an ovipositor to deposit eggs inside host caterpillars, and simultaneously inject polydnaviruses that suppress the host's immune system. Developing wasp larvae feed on host tissues, then emerge through the skin and spin white silk cocoons on the exterior of the caterpillar. Several species are employed in biological control programs against agricultural pests.
Cotesia congregata
Hornworm Parasitoid Wasp
Cotesia congregata is a gregarious endoparasitoid wasp and a model organism in insect physiology research. Females oviposit eggs into caterpillar hosts, primarily tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta) and tomato hornworm (Manduca quinquemaculata), simultaneously injecting a symbiotic polydnavirus (CcBV) and venom. The virus suppresses host immune defenses and disrupts development, allowing wasp larvae to complete their growth inside the living host. Mature larvae emerge through the host cuticle and spin white silk cocoons on the exterior surface. The wasp exhibits post-emergence learning of host plant cues, with a critical learning window of 0–4 hours after adult emergence.
Cotesia electrae
Cotesia electrae is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae. It belongs to a genus well-known for biological control of caterpillar pests. The species was described by Viereck in 1912 and is present in North America and Middle America. Very few observations of this species have been recorded.
Cotesia empretiae
Saddleback Caterpillar Parasitoid Wasp
Cotesia empretiae is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae that specializes in attacking caterpillars, particularly the saddleback caterpillar (Acharia stimulea). Females hunt actively on foliage, using their ovipositor to deposit eggs inside host caterpillars. The wasp larvae develop internally, eventually emerging through the host's skin to spin characteristic white silk cocoons on the exterior. Like other Cotesia species, this wasp transmits a polydnavirus during oviposition that suppresses the host's immune system, enabling successful parasitoid development.
Cotesia glomerata
white butterfly parasite, Cabbage White Parasitoid Wasp
Cotesia glomerata is a small gregarious parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae that specializes in attacking caterpillars of Pieris butterflies, particularly the large white (Pieris brassicae) and small white (Pieris rapae). Females deposit 16–52 eggs into a single host caterpillar, where the larvae develop internally for 15–20 days before emerging and spinning white silken cocoons in clusters on or near the host. The species exhibits complex behavioral adaptations including superparasitism, local mate competition with highly female-biased sex ratios, and protandry with males emerging before females. Originally described by Linnaeus in 1758, it has been widely introduced for biological control of cabbage pests and occurs across multiple continents.
Cotesia hemileucae
Cotesia hemileucae is a parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae that specializes in attacking caterpillars. It is a koinobiont endoparasitoid, meaning it develops inside a living host. The species is known to parasitize the saddleback caterpillar (Acharia stimulea), a stinging limacodid caterpillar. Like other Cotesia species, it employs polydnaviruses to suppress the host immune system, enabling its larvae to develop successfully.
Cotesia theclae
Cotesia theclae is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae that parasitizes caterpillars of lycaenid butterflies. The species was described by Riley in 1881 and has been documented as a parasitoid of larval Lycaena xanthoides, representing a new host record reported in 2007. Like other members of the genus Cotesia, it is presumed to use polydnaviruses to suppress host immune systems, though this specific mechanism has not been directly confirmed for C. theclae.
Crabronini
square-headed wasps
Crabronini is a tribe of solitary wasps in the family Crabronidae, comprising 48 genera and over 1,500 described species. Members are predominantly small to very small wasps characterized by square-shaped heads in most genera. The tribe exhibits diverse prey specialization, with most genera hunting flies (Diptera) while some, such as Anacrabro, target plant bugs (Hemiptera: Miridae). Nesting habits vary from ground burrows to cavities in rotting wood.
Crambus
sod webworm moth, crambid snout moth
Crambus is a genus of approximately 155 species of crambid moths distributed globally. Adults are small snout moths with elongated labial palps, while larvae are known as sod webworms—significant pests of turfgrass and pasture grasses. The genus exhibits considerable variation in life history strategies, with some species bivoltine and others univoltine. Larval feeding damage is most pronounced during drought conditions and in closely mown turf.
Cremastinae
Cremastinae is a worldwide subfamily of parasitoid wasps within Ichneumonidae. Members are koinobiont endoparasitoids, primarily attacking concealed larvae of Lepidoptera. Several genera, including Pristomerus, have been used in biological control programs. The subfamily exhibits high diversity in tropical regions, with numerous undescribed species.
Cremastobombycia
A genus of micromoths in the family Gracillariidae, subfamily Lithocolletinae. Species are leaf miners primarily associated with Asteraceae host plants. The genus was established by Braun in 1908 and includes at least nine described species distributed across the Americas, with recent discoveries extending its range to South American high-elevation Andean habitats. Several species have been investigated for biological control of invasive plants.
Cremastobombycia chromolaenae
Cremastobombycia chromolaenae is a leaf-mining moth in the family Gracillariidae, described in 2013 by Davis. The species is a natural enemy of Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed), an invasive plant in the Asteraceae family. Its larvae feed as leaf miners within the host plant tissue.
Cremnops
Pegasus wasps
Cremnops is a genus of braconid wasps in the subfamily Agathidinae, commonly called 'Pegasus wasps' due to their distinctive elongated, horse-like head shape. These relatively large braconids (6–10 mm) are known parasitoids of caterpillars in the families Pyralidae and Crambidae. The genus occurs in terrestrial habitats worldwide, with documented species in North America, Europe, Japan, and the Middle East. Thirty-three New World species have been revised, including five described in 2015.
Cremnops ashmeadi
Pegasus wasp
Cremnops ashmeadi is a species of braconid wasp in the subfamily Agathidinae, first described by Morrison in 1917. Like other members of the genus Cremnops, it is characterized by an elongated, equine-like head that superficially resembles the mythological winged horse Pegasus, leading to the common name 'Pegasus wasps' for this genus. Species of Cremnops are parasitoids of caterpillars, specifically targeting larvae in the families Pyralidae and Crambidae. The genus occurs in terrestrial habitats worldwide, with C. ashmeadi known from North America.
Cremnops comstocki
Pegasus wasp
Cremnops comstocki is a species of braconid wasp in the subfamily Agathidinae. Like other members of the genus Cremnops, it is known to be a parasitoid of caterpillars in the families Pyralidae and Crambidae. The species was described by Morrison in 1917 and occurs in North America. Members of this genus are sometimes called 'Pegasus wasps' due to their distinctive elongated, horse-like head shape.
Cremnops crassifemur
Cremnops crassifemur is a braconid wasp in the subfamily Agathidinae, first described by Muesebeck in 1927. Like other members of its genus, it is a parasitoid wasp that attacks caterpillars. Species in this genus are relatively large compared to many other braconids and possess distinctive morphological features.
Cremnops desertor
Cremnops desertor is a braconid wasp in the subfamily Agathidinae, originally described by Linnaeus in 1758. The species has a broad distribution spanning Europe, North America, and Southern Asia. Like other members of its genus, it is a parasitoid wasp with a distinctive elongated, equine-like head shape.
Cremnops haematodes
Cremnops haematodes is a species of braconid wasp in the subfamily Agathidinae, first described by Brullé in 1846. It was previously known under the synonym C. nigrosternum (Morrison, 1917) until a 2015 revision synonymized the two names. Like other members of its genus, it is a parasitoid wasp targeting caterpillars, particularly those in the families Pyralidae and Crambidae. The species occurs in the Caribbean and North America.
Creophilus
hairy rove beetle
Creophilus is a genus of large rove beetles (Staphylinidae) containing some of the largest species in the family, reaching up to 30 mm in length. The genus includes approximately 12 described species distributed globally, with C. maxillosus being the most widely studied due to its forensic significance. Species in this genus are strongly associated with carrion habitats where they function as predators of fly larvae. The genus was revised in 2011, with two new species described and several synonymizations.
Creophilus maxillosus
hairy rove beetle
Creophilus maxillosus, commonly known as the hairy rove beetle, is a large predatory rove beetle in the family Staphylinidae. Adults measure 12–18 mm and are characterized by shiny black coloration with distinctive golden setae on the head, pronotum, and posterior abdominal segments. The species is strongly associated with carrion and decomposition environments, where it functions as both a scavenger and active predator of fly larvae. It has forensic significance for estimating post-mortem intervals, though its widespread distribution and transient nature limit its utility as a geographic indicator. The beetle possesses chemical defense glands that secrete irritant compounds when threatened.
Cricotopus
non-biting midges
Cricotopus is a large and diverse genus of non-biting midges in the family Chironomidae, subfamily Orthocladiinae. Species occupy a wide range of freshwater and estuarine habitats globally, from pristine glacial streams to degraded urban waterways. Some species are specialized stem miners of aquatic plants, including C. lebetis which targets invasive hydrilla. The genus includes species with documented mutualistic relationships with cyanobacteria (Nostoc), as well as species used in biomonitoring and ecotoxicological research.
Crioceris
asparagus beetle
Crioceris is a genus of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) commonly known as asparagus beetles. The genus includes both widespread agricultural pests and rare species restricted to specialized habitats. Several species are associated with Asparagus host plants, with C. asparagi and C. duodecimpunctata being notable invasive pests. Other species such as C. quinquepunctata and C. quatuordecimpunctata are rare and occupy steppe-like habitats in Eurasia. The genus has been subject to molecular barcoding studies to distinguish closely related species.
Crocidosema
Crocidosema is a genus of tortrix moths in the family Tortricidae, tribe Eucosmini, subfamily Olethreutinae. The genus contains approximately 29 described species, distributed primarily in the Southern Hemisphere with particular abundance in the Neotropics. Some species occur in other regions, including the Hawaiian Islands. The genus includes both agricultural pests and species used in biological control.
Crocidosema aporema
bean shoot moth
Crocidosema aporema is a Neotropical tortricid moth and significant agricultural pest of legumes, particularly soybean, in the southern cone of South America. The species originated in Central America and has spread throughout South America, where it causes economic damage by larval feeding on vegetative plant parts, flowers, and developing seeds. Adults are nocturnal, with females exhibiting characteristic calling behavior during the scotophase to attract mates. The species is monoandrous and has been subject to increasing study due to its pest status and the need for integrated pest management strategies.
Crossopriza lyoni
Tailed Cellar Spider, Tailed Daddy Longlegs Spider, Box Spider
Crossopriza lyoni is a cosmopolitan cellar spider (Pholcidae) characterized by extremely long, fragile legs and a distinctive box-shaped abdomen. Females reach 3–7 mm in body length, males 2.5–6 mm, with leg spans up to 6 cm. The species is synanthropic, thriving in human dwellings worldwide, particularly in tropical to subtropical regions. It constructs extensive, irregular cobweb-like webs and is often regarded as both a household pest and beneficial predator of mosquitoes and other arthropods. Native range unknown; now pantropical through human-mediated introduction.
Cryptina
Cryptina is a subtribe of ichneumon wasps within the family Ichneumonidae. Members are parasitoid wasps that attack the larvae of various moth families. The subtribe includes genera such as Mesostenus, which are characterized by bold color patterns and elongated ovipositors in females.
Cryptinae
cryptine wasps, geline wasps
Cryptinae is a large subfamily of ichneumon wasps comprising approximately 273 genera across two tribes (Aptesini and Cryptini). Members are characterized by distinctive morphological features including a five-sided areolet, short sternaulus, and convex clypeus creating a puffy facial appearance. The subfamily has undergone extensive taxonomic revision, with the name Cryptinae stabilized by ICZN Opinion 1715 in 1994. Species are distributed worldwide and function as parasitoids, primarily attacking concealed hosts such as caterpillars and other insects in protected substrates.
Cryptochetidae
Cryptochetidae is a small family of minute flies (2–4 mm) in the order Diptera. Adults are typically metallic blue-black with a stout build, broad high head, and clear wings. The family is distinguished by reduced or absent aristae on the antennae, a trait reflected in its name meaning 'hidden bristles'. Larvae are endoparasitoids of scale insects (Coccidae), with some species used in biological control. Approximately 20–30 species are known across three genera, primarily distributed in tropical regions.
Cryptochetum
Cryptochetum is a genus of parasitoid flies in the family Cryptochetidae, containing more than 30 described species. These flies are specialized parasites of scale insects (Hemiptera), with at least one species, C. jorgepastori, documented as emerging from mealybugs on palms. The genus has been recorded across multiple regions, including a first record from Jordan in 2022.
Cryptochetum iceryae
cottony cushion scale parasite, cottony cushion scale parasitoid
Cryptochetum iceryae is a parasitic fly in the family Cryptochetidae, native to Australia. It was deliberately introduced to California in the 1880s as a biological control agent against the cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi), a major pest of citrus crops. The species has since been introduced to Israel and South America for similar purposes. In 2019, it was discovered in the United Kingdom for the first time, identified in the wildlife garden at the Natural History Museum in London.
biological-controlparasitoidagricultural-pest-managementDipteraCryptochetidaeclassical-biological-controlcitrus-pestinvasive-species-managementAustralia-native1880s-introductionCaliforniaIsraelSouth-AmericaUnited-Kingdom-2019-discoveryNatural-History-Museum-Londonscale-insect-parasiteendoparasitoidIcerya-purchasicottony-cushion-scalesuccessful-biocontrolintegrated-pest-managementvedalia-beetle-complementWilliston-1888Lestophonus-iceryaeCryptococcus
Cryptococcus is a genus of basidiomycete fungi in the family Cryptococcaceae, encompassing both yeast and filamentous forms. The genus includes medically significant species such as C. neoformans and C. gattii, which cause cryptococcosis, a potentially fatal systemic mycosis particularly affecting immunocompromised individuals. Species exhibit dimorphism, existing as encapsulated yeasts in environmental and clinical settings, with sexual reproduction producing basidiospores via club-shaped basidia. The polysaccharide capsule, particularly glucuronoxylomannan (GXM), serves as the primary virulence factor in pathogenic species.
Cryptognatha
Cryptognatha is a genus of lady beetles (family Coccinellidae) established by Mulsant in 1850. The genus contains at least 40 described species, with members distributed across tropical and subtropical regions. At least one species, Cryptognatha nodiceps, has been studied as a potential biological control agent against scale insects.
Cryptognatha nodiceps
coconut scale predator, sugarcane scale predator
Cryptognatha nodiceps is a small lady beetle introduced to multiple tropical and subtropical regions as a biological control agent targeting scale insects. Native to Trinidad and Tobago, it has established populations across the Caribbean, Florida, and various Pacific and Indian Ocean islands. Both larvae and adults are specialized predators of armored and soft scales, particularly the coconut scale (Aspidiotus destructor). The species has been deliberately released in numerous countries to manage coconut scale outbreaks in coconut-growing regions.
Cryptolaemus
Cryptolaemus is a genus of predatory lady beetles (Coccinellidae) native to eastern Australia, New Guinea, and Indonesia. The genus contains approximately 40 species, with Cryptolaemus montrouzieri being the most widely known and commercially important. Both larvae and adults prey primarily upon mealybugs and other scale insects. C. montrouzieri has been introduced globally as a biological control agent and is commonly known as the mealybug destroyer.
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
Mealybug Destroyer, Mealybug Ladybird
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri is a small ladybird beetle native to eastern Australia, widely used as a biological control agent against mealybugs and scale insects in agricultural and horticultural systems globally. Adults are approximately 6 mm long with dark brown elytra and orange-brown head, pronotum, and appendages. Larvae reach 14–15 mm and are covered in white waxy filaments that provide aggressive mimicry of their mealybug prey, potentially protecting them from ant aggression. The species has been introduced to numerous regions including California (1891), Europe, and New Zealand for classical biological control of citrus mealybug and related pests.
Cryptomeigenia
Cryptomeigenia is a genus of tachinid flies comprising 17 described species. Members are parasitoids of adult scarab beetles, with documented host specificity to Phyllophaga rufotestacea in at least one studied population. The genus was established by Brauer & Bergenstamm in 1891 and is classified within the tribe Blondeliini.
Cryptoxilos
Cryptoxilos is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Euphorinae, established by Henry Lorenz Viereck in 1911 with C. dichromorphus as the type species. The genus contains eight described species distributed across multiple continents. Members are known to parasitize adult bark beetles (Scolytinae, Coleoptera), with documented associations including Chaetoptelius mundulus in New Zealand and Hypothenemus species in Fiji.
Ctenarytaina
eucalyptus psyllids, blue gum psyllids
Ctenarytaina is a genus of jumping plant lice (psyllids) in the family Aphalaridae, native to Australia and associated primarily with Myrtaceae. The genus includes economically significant pest species that have been introduced to multiple continents, particularly Ctenarytaina eucalypti, which threatens eucalyptus forestry and ornamental foliage industries. Several species have established adventive populations outside their native ranges, with documented impacts in Ireland, Chile, Colombia, and other regions. The genus exhibits strong host plant associations, with most species being monophagous or narrowly oligophagous on Eucalyptus, Syzygium, and other Myrtaceae.
Ctenarytaina eucalypti
Bluegum psyllid, Eucalyptus psyllid
Ctenarytaina eucalypti is a small psyllid (jumping plant louse) native to Australia that has become an invasive pest of Eucalyptus trees worldwide. It feeds on phloem sap, causing damage to young foliage and producing honeydew that promotes sooty mold growth. The species has established populations in Europe, North America, South America, and elsewhere, often threatening ornamental and commercial Eucalyptus plantations. Its life cycle includes multiple overlapping generations per year with complex overwintering strategies involving eggs and nymphs in temperate climates.
Ctenopelmatinae
Ctenopelmatinae is a cosmopolitan subfamily of ichneumonid wasps comprising approximately 95 genera of koinobiont endoparasitoids. Members are small to medium-sized wasps that primarily attack sawflies (Symphyta), with some species parasitizing Lepidoptera. The subfamily was historically classified within Tryphoninae but was separated based on larval morphology and ecological traits. Ctenopelmatines are particularly abundant in temperate Holarctic regions, where they can constitute over 10% of local ichneumonid faunas in cooler areas.
Ctenopelmatini
Ctenopelmatini is a tribe of ichneumonid wasps within the family Ichneumonidae. Members are parasitoid wasps whose larvae develop within or on host organisms. The tribe is characterized by specific morphological traits of the forewing venation and ctenopelmatine-type ovipositor structure. Ctenopelmatini species are primarily associated with sawfly hosts (Symphyta), distinguishing them ecologically from many other ichneumonid tribes. The tribe is relatively small and poorly documented compared to larger ichneumonid tribes.
Cunaxidae
cunaxid mites, snout mites
Cunaxidae is a family of predatory mites in the order Trombidiformes, commonly known as snout mites due to their prominent gnathosoma. The family contains at least 20 genera and over 390 described species, with some estimates exceeding 450 species across 32 genera. These mites occupy diverse terrestrial habitats worldwide except Antarctica, where they function as opportunistic predators of small arthropods and other microfauna. They exhibit two distinct foraging strategies: ambush predation and active cursorial hunting.
Cunaxoidinae
Cunaxoidinae is a subfamily of predatory mites in the family Cunaxidae (Acari: Prostigmata). The Philippine fauna comprises 21 species. Members occupy diverse microhabitats including leaf litter, bark, organic debris, ant and termite nests, and coconut foliage. The subfamily includes genera such as Lupaeus and Scutopalus.
Curinus
Curinus is a genus of lady beetles in the family Coccinellidae, established by Mulsant in 1850. The genus contains at least one described species, Curinus coeruleus, commonly known as the metallic blue ladybeetle. Curinus coeruleus has been studied as a biological control agent for armored scale insects in citrus production systems.
Curinus coeruleus
Metallic Blue Lady Beetle
Curinus coeruleus is a metallic blue ladybeetle in the family Coccinellidae, established as an introduced biological control agent in multiple regions. It is known to prey on armored scale insects, particularly Florida red scale (Chrysomphalus aonidum), and has been evaluated for control of Heteropsylla cubana. The species exhibits a distinctive metallic blue coloration and has been introduced to areas including the Philippines and Florida for pest management.
Cybocephalus
Cybocephalus is a genus of small beetles in the family Cybocephalidae, comprising over 200 described species. Members are specialized predators of scale insects (Coccoidea), particularly diaspidids (armored scales) and other sessile Hemiptera. The genus has been widely studied for biological control applications against agricultural and horticultural pests. Species occur across multiple continents with documented distributions in Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and the Middle East.
Cybocephalus nipponicus
Cybocephalus nipponicus is a minute beetle in the family Cybocephalidae, measuring 1–1.35 mm in length. Originally described from Japan, it has been introduced to multiple continents and is now established in Africa, the Caribbean, Europe, North America, Oceania, and Southern Asia. The species is recognized as a potential biological control agent, particularly against armored scale insects.
Cyclocephala lurida
Southern Masked Chafer
Cyclocephala lurida, commonly known as the southern masked chafer, is a scarab beetle native to the southeastern United States. Adults are small brown beetles with distinctive black facial markings, measuring 10–14 mm in length. The species is univoltine, with adults active primarily in June and July. While adults do not feed on plants and cause no damage, the subterranean larvae—known as white grubs—are significant turfgrass pests that feed on grass roots and can cause extensive lawn damage under dry conditions.
Cycloneda
Spotless Lady Beetles
Cycloneda is a genus of lady beetles in the family Coccinellidae, commonly known as spotless lady beetles. The genus contains approximately 18–20 described species distributed primarily in the Americas. Members of this genus are recognized by their typically unmarked, polished elytra lacking the spots characteristic of many other coccinellids. They are predatory beetles that feed on soft-bodied insects, particularly aphids and spider mites, and are valued as biological control agents in agricultural and garden settings.
Cycloneda munda
Polished Lady Beetle, Immaculate Ladybird Beetle
Cycloneda munda is a small lady beetle (Coccinellidae) native to eastern North America, commonly known as the polished lady beetle or immaculate ladybird beetle. Adults measure 3.7–5.7 mm and are distinguished by reddish-yellow elytra and a black pronotum with pale lateral spots. The species is an aphid predator, with documented associations with oleander aphids (Aphis nerii) on milkweed plants. Its development and fecundity are influenced by host plant species.
Cycloneda polita
Western Polished Lady Beetle, Western Blood-red Lady Beetle, Polished Ladybug, Western Spotless Ladybird Beetle
Cycloneda polita is a small, spotless lady beetle native to western North America. Unlike most lady beetles, it lacks the characteristic spots on its elytra, presenting a uniform red or orange-red appearance. The species is commonly found in diverse habitats ranging from grasslands to forest edges, where it preys on aphids and other small soft-bodied insects. It is one of the most frequently observed lady beetles in its range, with over 6,000 documented observations on citizen science platforms.
Cycloneda sanguinea
Spotless Lady Beetle, Spotless Ladybug
Cycloneda sanguinea, commonly known as the spotless lady beetle, is a widespread ladybird beetle native to the Americas. It is distinguished by its lack of spots on the elytra, with coloration ranging from orange to deep red. The species is a voracious predator of aphids and other soft-bodied insects, making it valuable for biological control in agricultural systems. Adults and larvae both actively hunt prey, with females using volatile chemical cues to assess patch quality and avoid competitor-rich habitats. Recent research has also identified C. sanguinea as a potential vector for dispersing plant pathogens in soybean fields.
Cyladini
Cyladini is a tribe of weevils in the family Brentidae, subfamily Apioninae. The tribe includes economically significant pests of sweet potato, particularly the sweetpotato weevil (Cylas formicarius), which causes substantial damage to storage roots in tropical and subtropical production regions. Members of this tribe are characterized by their association with Convolvulaceae host plants and their status as specialized root-feeding pests.
pestagriculturesweet-potatoConvolvulaceaeintegrated-pest-managementCylas-formicariustropical-agriculturesubtropical-agricultureroot-feeding-weevilstorage-root-damageeconomic-pestbiological-controlcrop-protectionsoutheastern-United-Statesglobal-food-securitylow-input-farmingdrought-tolerant-cropnematode-interactionsBeauveria-bassianaentomopathogenic-nematodesresistant-varietiescrop-rotationcover-cropsIPMBrentidaeApioninaeColeopteraInsectaHexapodaArthropodaAnimaliaClaire-SchloemerAuburn-UniversityUniversity-of-Wisconsin-MadisonJournal-of-Integrated-Pest-ManagementScott-GrahamKathy-LawrenceCovingtonBonitaBeauregardOrleansguava-root-knot-nematoderoot-knot-nematodewirewormcucumber-beetleflea-beetlePurpureocillium-lilacinumbiopesticidegreen-bridge-effectmustardglucosinolatepeanutbahiagrasssandy-soildrought-adaptationbiofuelanimal-feednutritional-valuefood-securitysustainable-agricultureenvironmental-impactmicrobial-controlfungal-pathogenentomopathogenic-fungusbiological-nematicidenematode-egg-parasitismpest-managementagricultural-entomologycrop-lossyield-reductionroot-qualitymarketabilityintegrated-managementcultural-controlselective-chemical-useproductivitynatural-processesversatilityglobal-cultivationtropical-regionssubtropical-regionssoutheastern-U.S.domestic-productionrevenueacreageharvestfarminggrowerbreedingresearchcultivar-developmentevolving-threatspest-pressuresoil-healthfield-preparationwinter-habitatinsect-habitatparasitisminfestationdamagelosschallengedefensearsenalbattlewarresilienceadaptationinnovationstrategysustainabilitylivelihoodnourishmentfood-productionagricultural-researchentomologyplant-protectioncrop-sciencehorticultureroot-croptuberstorage-organfeeding-injurygallingcracked-rootsstunted-growthwater-uptakenutrient-uptakepathogen-interactionexacerbated-damagevariety-selectionhardy-varietyrobust-performancehigh-yieldnematode-resistancepest-resistancevulnerabilityspreading-pestpopulation-reductionsoil-improvementspring-plantingtoxic-compoundnatural-propertymicrobial-productformulationapplicationevaluationmaximizationpotentialurgencygrowing-threatcomprehensive-strategybalanceenablementessential-cropsecuritydefiancedifficult-conditionsmenacing-pestsformidable-threatsproduction-continuationface-to-facethreatdiseaseresilient-cropgrowing-conditionsmenacestorysurfacebeneathrelentlessadversaryfavorconditionpowerfulfoetinyparasiteattackformationdiminishabilityresultunattractiveworsematterinteractionsignificantdevastatingruininflictfurthercompromisegrapplethankfullyfarmerbeginselecthardywithstandtraditionalgaintractionvulnerablehighlightneedcontinuebreedeffortdevelopcapableopposeevolveaftersturdyculturalmanagementrotationcovercroppinglinetakeyearoffgrowrotatenon-hostproveeffectivereducepopulationbreathelifeimprovehealthsuppressprepareexamplecontaincompoundcallbreakdownreleasesubstancewaryproviderepresentmethodharnesshelpwinsporefungusinfectkilltypetapdifferentmicroscopicanimalparasitizeplususecombatattentioneggaidfightminimizeimpactdespiteadvancequestionremainrequiremaximizeparticularlyurgentposekeyenhanceapproachintegratepracticecontrolselectivechemicalenablenaturalprocessnutritionalvalueessentialcropglobalfoodregionsupportmillionaddresspressureinnovativesustainableensurelivemanyformidableproductionalthoughcomefaceresilientabledefydifficultreadmorejournalintegratedClaireSchloemerPh.D.studentconductearnmasterdegreeemailsharelinkfriendopennewwindowprintFacebookLinkedInBlueskyMastodonXRedditThreadsrelateddiscoverfromtodaysubscribegetlatestpostsendyourCylasformicariussweetpotatosweetpotatoweevilphotocourtesyshowherecucumberbeetleroot-knotnematodeharmU.S.guidedetailvarietyoptionbeloveddelicioustastebenefitbrightcolorrankseventhmostimportantworldtropicalsubtropicalareaaroundservefeedsourcegoodpicklow-inputstylewelladaptedsandysoildroughtUnitedStates2022over130,000acregeneratenearly600southeasternleaddomesticAuburnUniversityweatherarticlepublishMarchcolleagueScottGrahamKathyLawrencevariousamongplant-parasiticspecificallyrootsystemcausegallplantwaternutrientstuntedgrowthyieldcrackmakeinteractpathogenexacerbateinsectknowstorage7annualsouthernfleaqualityleaveeconomicownresistancebettermeanwhilenewerhighrobustperformancehoweverresistguavaspeciesspreadnextseasonwinterfieldspringtoxicgreenbridgeeffecthabitatfeedersymptominfectionbiologicalpropertymicrobeBeauveriabassianaagentformulateenvironmentallyfriendlyproducteasyapplysimilarlybeneficialentomopathogenicnematicidePurpureocilliumlilacinumsolutionenvironmentalresistantnematode-resistantcultivarcomprehensivecultivationWisconsin-MadisoncschloemerwisceduCynipoidea
Gall Wasps and Allies
Cynipoidea is a superfamily of small wasps comprising approximately 3,000 described species across seven extant families, with many undescribed species estimated. The group exhibits diverse life histories: while the family Cynipidae (gall wasps) are phytophagous and induce plant galls, the majority of species are parasitoids or hyperparasitoids of other insects. The superfamily is taxonomically challenging, with family-level identification historically difficult until the publication of a comprehensive illustrated key in 2020.
parasitoidgall-formerhyperparasitoidbiological-controloak-forestinquilinealternation-of-generationsundescribed-diversityreduced-wing-venationHymenopteraApocritaecosystem-engineerplant-manipulationforest-insectagricultural-pest-controlDrosophila-suzukiiaphid-hyperparasitoidwood-borer-parasitoiddung-breeding-fly-parasitoidtaxonomic-keygall-communitynutrient-cyclingphenologysexual-dimorphismparthenogenesiskoinobiontidiobiontPalaearctic-diversityNearctic-diversityMediterranean-hotspotoak-gallrosinweed-gallgoldenrod-gallintroduced-speciesadventive-faunaNew-Zealand-faunaTurkish-faunabroadleaf-forestprairie-habitatagricultural-systemsoft-fruit-pestintegrated-pest-managementbiocontrol-agentextension-entomologymicrohymenopteramorphological-keycouplet-identificationmetasomal-fusionpetiole-reductionglossy-integumentcompressed-bodyprognathous-headflagellomere-reductionnotauli-reductionpterostigma-presencehamuli-presenceovipositor-structurehypopygium-developmentlarval-chamberlocularity-formationhost-genome-exploitationroom-service-nutritiondefensive-immune-suppressionSWD-biocontroleucoiline-waspcharipine-hyperparasitoidanacharitine-parasitoidemarginine-parasitoidfigitine-parasitoidibaliine-parasitoidliopterine-parasitoiddiplolepidine-gall-formerpediaspine-gall-formeraulacideine-gall-formeraylacine-gall-formerceroptresine-inquilinecynipine-gall-formerdiastrophine-gall-formereschatocerine-gall-formerphanacidine-gall-formerqwaqwaiine-gall-formersynergine-inquilineBeringian-biogeographyEocene-forest-separationclimate-change-habitat-shiftphenological-form-associationearly-oak-phenoformlate-oak-phenoformQuercus-robur-gall-communityQuercus-cerris-gall-communityQuercus-ilex-gall-communityAsteraceae-gall-formerEucalyptus-gall-formerRosaceae-gall-formerFagaceae-gall-formerBrevicoryne-brassicae-hyperparasitoidAphidiinae-hyperparasitoidAphelinus-hyperparasitoidOphelimus-parasitoidMikeius-parasitoidAntistrophus-gall-formerNeuroterus-gall-formerAndricus-gall-formerCynips-gall-formerDiplolepis-gall-formerCallirhytis-gall-formerSaphonecrus-inquilineSynergus-inquilineLithosaphonecrus-inquilineCerroneuroterus-gall-formerParaganaspis-parasitoidTriplasta-parasitoidConeucoela-parasitoidAlloxysta-hyperparasitoidPhaenoglyphis-hyperparasitoidXyalaspis-adventiveGanaspis-adventiveThoreauella-adventiveAnacharis-nativeKleidotoma-nativeTrybliographa-groupKleidotoma-groupGronotoma-groupRhoptromeris-groupGanaspis-groupChrestosema-groupZaeucoila-groupAfrotropical-lineageNeotropical-lineageleaf-mining-agromyzid-parasitoidagromyzid-parasitoidcabbage-aphid-hyperparasitoidbovine-dung-dipteran-parasitoidcattle-dung-parasitoidpasture-ecosystem-serviceforest-biodiversity-indicatorcollection-based-taxonomymolecular-phylogeneticscladistic-analysisimplied-weights-parsimonyskeletal-character-codingdigital-image-databaseInternet-accessible-databasehigher-level-phylogenygeneric-classification-revisiongenus-group-systeminformal-genus-groupssynapomorphy-discussionhost-parasitoid-coevolutionevolutionary-radiationtropical-parasitoid-diversitybiodiversity-documentationscientific-nomenclatureetymological-analysishost-based-species-naminggeographic-namingmorphological-namingdedication-namingtaxonomic-communicationbiodiversity-informaticsfaunistic-surveynew-country-recordnew-provincial-recordnew-genus-recordnew-species-descriptionspecies-redescriptiondichotomous-key-constructioncharacter-coupletillustrated-identificationmicroscope-photographyspecimen-imagingstudent-tested-keyexpert-consultationproofed-keyextension-entomology-applicationstakeholder-educationforest-managementfarm-managementfield-managementecosystem-service-valuationfuture-policy-implementationmicrohymenopteran-collectiondiagnostic-indicator-applicationobjective-setting-for-conservationclimate-change-monitoringhabitat-fragmentation-responseoak-stand-compositionurban-oak-forestnursery-oak-cultivationgeomorphic-topographic-structure-influencespecies-richness-patterndistribution-mappinghost-plant-documentationgall-morphology-documentationseasonal-gall-collectionmulti-year-field-studyprovince-level-inventoryregional-fauna-characterizationcountry-level-checklistglobal-fauna-overviewadventive-species-dominancedeliberate-introduction-historybiological-control-introductionnative-species-rarityendemic-species-presencecollection-revisiontype-specimen-examinationreared-specimen-basisdiagnosis-illustrationdistribution-data-compilationhost-relation-discussionbiology-documentationnatural-history-summarytaxonomic-overview-provisionfaunal-knowledge-gap-identificationresearch-accessibility-improvemententry-barrier-reductioncool-thing-discovery-enablementCyphocleonus
Cyphocleonus is a genus of true weevils (Curculionidae) containing at least nine described species. Several species have been investigated for biological control of invasive plants, with C. achates established in North America for knapweed management and C. trisulcatus evaluated for oxeye daisy control. The genus is native to Eurasia, with some species now introduced to North America.
Cyphocleonus achates
knapweed root weevil
Cyphocleonus achates is a Eurasian root-feeding weevil introduced to North America as a classical biological control agent against invasive knapweeds, particularly spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa) and diffuse knapweed (C. diffusa). Adults are flightless, large-bodied weevils that feed on foliage, while larvae cause significant damage by mining into root cortex and inducing gall formation. The species has established populations across much of the western United States and is considered one of the most damaging root-feeding insects on knapweed in its native range.
Cyphomyrmex
fungus-growing ants
Cyphomyrmex is a genus of small, drab-colored fungus-growing ants in the tribe Attini, found primarily in the Neotropics. These ants cultivate fungi in the tribe Leucocoprineae as their primary food source, with most species growing fungal nodules rather than full mycelial gardens. Colonies are typically monogynous and small, rarely exceeding 500 workers. The genus is divided into two species complexes: the strigatus complex (South America only) and the rimosus complex (southern North America to South America). Cyphomyrmex represents a basal lineage among attine ants and serves as sister group to Mycetophylax.
fungus-growing-antsattine-antsMyrmicinaeNeotropicalmutualismfungicultureLeucocoprineaemonogynyparasitoid-waspssocial-parasitismchemical-ecologyalkaloid-venomnest-architecturebehavioral-plasticitycytogeneticschromosome-evolutionGuiana-ShieldBrazilPanamaPuerto-RicoMesoamericaArgentinaUnited-StatesTexasCaliforniaFloridayeast-gardensmycelial-gardensrimosus-complexstrigatus-complexage-polyethismtrophallaxisthanatosisfeigning-deathDiapriidaeAcanthopriaMimopriellaMegalomyrmexsocial-parasiteC.-longiscapusC.-transversusC.-laevigatusC.-rimosusC.-minutusC.-lectusC.-cornutusC.-costatuspheromones3-octanolfarnesenestrail-followingalarm-signaldiketopiperazinesantifungal-compoundsdefensive-behaviorcolony-defenseflight-responserecruitmentLanchester's-lawskaryotypechromosome-numberrDNAmicrosatellitesFISHchamber-depthgallery-lengthfire-disturbancesavanna-forest-transitionarboreal-nestingclay-auriclessoil-nestswood-nestsepiphytic-nestsmoss-nestscoconut-nestsdesiccation-susceptibilitymoist-habitatsbasal-attinephylogeneticssister-groupchemical-evolutionvenom-alkaloidsbehavioral-manipulationhost-parasite-interactionecosystem-engineeringnutrient-cyclingdecompositionorganic-matterinsect-fecesexoskeleton-substrategarden-transplantationworker-polymorphismqueen-numberdealate-queensalatesbrood-careecdysis-assistanceforagingsugar-collectionplant-exudatesfungal-domesticationnodule-cultivationmycelium-cultivationagricultural-behaviornest-entrancefunnel-structureexposed-gardenssymbiont-diversitygeographic-variationresearch-modelevolutionary-biologymutualism-evolutionant-fungus-coevolutionchemical-communicationsocial-insectseusocialitycolony-sizesmall-coloniesslow-movementcrypsisdebris-mimicrypredation-avoidanceparasitoid-defensewasp-killingcolony-abandonmentresource-rescuethief-ant-defensevenom-resistancetoxicity-tolerancebehavioral-suppressionplaying-deadalkaloid-manipulationfungal-secondary-metabolitesantibacterial-compoundsantiviral-compoundsgarden-protectionmicrobial-defensenest-microclimatetemperature-regulationhumidity-requirementsdepth-effectsfire-adaptationdisturbance-ecologyhabitat-specificitysubstrate-specializationclay-constructionsoil-manipulationarchitectural-plasticityvertical-nestingembankment-nestingoverhang-nestingpendant-nestsswallow-nest-mimicryresearch-accessibilityfield-biologytropical-ecologyNeotropical-myrmecologybiodiversityconservationinvasive-species-contextnative-speciesbiological-controlIntegrated-Pest-Managementagricultural-ecologyforest-ecologysavanna-ecologytransitional-habitatsdisturbed-areasurban-ecologyanthropogenic-impactclimate-sensitivityhabitat-limitationrange-boundariesdispersalcolonizationestablishmentpopulation-dynamicsdemographycolony-densitynest-spacingintraspecific-competitioninterspecific-competitionterritorialityresource-defensecombat-behavioraggression-levelsrecruitment-behaviorchemical-signalingalarm-pheromonestrail-pheromonesrecognition-cuescuticular-hydrocarbonsvenom-compositiondefensive-secretionsmandibular-glandsDufour's-glandmetapleural-glandsantibiotic-productiongrooming-behaviorfungal-inoculationintegumental-fungiyeast-growthlarval-groominggarden-maintenancesubstrate-preparationfecal-fertilizeranal-trophallaxiscrop-regurgitationfluid-applicationdrying-behaviornodule-formationtransplantation-behaviorgarden-establishmentceiling-gardensroot-associationarchitectural-innovationnest-site-selectionmicrohabitat-choicemoisture-requirementsthermal-bufferingpredator-avoidanceparasite-avoidancedisease-resistancesocial-immunitycollective-behaviordivision-of-labortask-allocationtemporal-polyethismworker-agenurse-workersforager-workerssoldier-caste-absencemonomorphismworker-size-variationqueen-worker-differentiationreproductive-castegyne-productionmale-productionseasonal-reproductioncolony-foundingclaustral-foundingnon-claustral-foundingfungal-inoculumfounding-queenfirst-worker-generationnutritional-dependencyfat-reservesmetabolic-adaptationdigestive-physiologyenzyme-complementfungal-enzymelignocellulose-degradationnutritional-mutualismobligate-mutualismvertical-transmissionhorizontal-transmissionsymbiont-switchingcultivar-replacementgarden-failurecolony-mortalitypopulation-turnovergeneration-timelongevitysurvivorshiplife-expectancyagingsenescencereproductive-investmentcolony-growthcolony-declinebuddingfissionreproduction-modegenetic-structurerelatednessmating-systemnuptial-flightmate-choicesperm-storagecolony-odornestmate-recognitionforeign-rejectionagonistic-behaviorterritorial-markingboundary-defenseraiding-behaviorrobbing-behaviorcleptobiosisdulosisslaveryinquilinismguest-antsmyrmecophilesnest-associatescommensalisminquilinesparasite-tolerancehost-manipulationvenom-alkaloidpyrrolidineindolizidinepiperidinenonanalfarnesenesesquiterpeneagriculture-chemicalgaster-extractchemical-diversitychemical-simplicityevolutionary-precursorderived-chemistrybiosynthetic-pathwaysemiochemicalinfochemicalcommunicationinformation-transfercolony-organizationsocial-structurepolygynyqueen-conditiondealationwing-sheddin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salvinia weevil
Cyrtobagous is a genus of small weevils in the family Curculionidae, native to South America. The genus contains species specialized as biological control agents for invasive aquatic ferns in the genus Salvinia. C. salviniae has been introduced to multiple continents to manage giant salvinia (Salvinia molesta), while C. singularis has more limited effectiveness. Both species complete their life cycles within or on their host plants in aquatic environments.
Cyrtophora citricola
Tropical Tent-web Spider, Tropical Tent-web Orbweaver
Cyrtophora citricola is a colonial orb-weaver spider in the family Araneidae, notable for building horizontal, non-adhesive tent-shaped webs rather than typical vertical orb webs. The species exhibits remarkable social flexibility, living either solitarily or in colonies where individual webs are interconnected. Native to Africa, Asia, and parts of Europe, it has expanded to the Americas since 2000, including Florida and Puerto Rico. Females reach 10 mm in body length while males are markedly smaller at 3 mm. The species shows pronounced sexual dimorphism and has become significant in agricultural contexts both as a pest and as a potential biological control agent.
Cyrtorhinus
Cyrtorhinus is a genus of predatory plant bugs (family Miridae) containing at least three described species. The genus is best known for Cyrtorhinus lividipennis, an important biological control agent in rice agroecosystems that preys on eggs and nymphs of destructive planthoppers and leafhoppers. Members of this genus possess well-developed chemosensory systems that enable them to locate prey using plant volatile cues.
Cystiphora
Cystiphora is a genus of gall midges in the family Cecidomyiidae, established by Kieffer in 1892. The genus contains seven described species distributed across the Palearctic region and introduced to other areas for biological control. Species in this genus are specialized gall-formers on plants in the Asteraceae family, particularly genera Chondrilla, Taraxacum, and Sonchus. Several species have been investigated and deployed as biological control agents against agricultural weeds.
Cystiphora schmidti
rush skeletonweed gall midge, Rush Skeletonweed Gall
Cystiphora schmidti is a gall midge (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) that induces small circular to ovoid raised galls on Chondrilla species, particularly Chondrilla juncea (rush skeletonweed). Native to the eastern Mediterranean region from Greece to Iran, it has been introduced to Australia as a biological control agent against this invasive weed. The species completes all immature stages inside plant galls in 24–44 days, supporting 6–7 generations annually in favorable climates. It exhibits strict host specificity to the genus Chondrilla and is heavily parasitised by Eulophid wasps in its native range.
Cystiphora sonchi
Cystiphora sonchi is a gall midge (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) native to Eurasia that has been introduced to North America as a biological control agent for sow-thistles (Sonchus species). The larvae induce small, circular galls on the leaves of host plants, with females ovipositing through stomata of leaves in final growth stages. The species exhibits strict host specificity to the genus Sonchus, and has established populations in multiple Canadian provinces following intentional releases.
Dactylopiidae
Cochineal Insects
Dactylopiidae is a family of scale insects (Hemiptera) comprising the single genus Dactylopius, commonly known as cochineal insects. These insects are economically and historically significant as the primary source of carmine, a vibrant red dye derived from carminic acid that the insects produce as a defensive compound. The family has been used for dye production since at least the 10th century in the Americas and became the second most valuable export from the New World during the Colonial Period. Some species serve as biological control agents for invasive cacti, while others are agricultural pests of cactus crops.
Dalbulus
corn leafhoppers
Dalbulus is a genus of leafhoppers in the family Cicadellidae, subfamily Deltocephalinae, tribe Macrostelini. The genus comprises approximately 11 species, with 10 species occurring in Mexico. Several species, particularly D. maidis (corn leafhopper) and D. elimatus (Mexican corn leafhopper), are economically significant agricultural pests. These species are highly efficient vectors of maize stunting pathogens including Spiroplasma kunkelii (corn stunt spiroplasma), maize bushy stunt phytoplasma, and maize rayado fino virus. The genus exhibits a spectrum of host plant specialization, with species ranging from maize specialists (D. maidis, D. elimatus) to gamagrass specialists (D. tripsacoides, D. quinquenotatus, D. guzmani) and generalists that utilize both host types.
Dalbulus elimatus
Mexican corn leafhopper
Dalbulus elimatus (Ball, 1900), the Mexican corn leafhopper, is a specialist herbivore of maize (Zea mays) and closely related grasses in the genus Tripsacum. It is a significant agricultural pest in Mexico and Central America, transmitting three major corn stunting pathogens: corn stunt spiroplasma (Spiroplasma kunkelii), maize bushy stunt phytoplasma, and maize rayado fino virus. The species exhibits r-selected life history traits characteristic of annual plant specialists, with rapid development (approximately 27 days egg to adult on maize) and high fecundity. It serves as host for multiple parasitoid species including the pipunculid fly Eudorylas subopacus and the dryinid wasp Gonatopus bartletti, which parasitize adults, as well as several mymarid and trichogrammatid wasps that attack eggs.
Dalbulus maidis
corn leafhopper, cigarrinha-do-milho, chicharrita del maíz
Dalbulus maidis is a phloem-feeding leafhopper and one of the most significant pests of maize production across the Americas. It serves as the primary vector of the corn stunt disease complex, transmitting at least four pathogens including Spiroplasma kunkelii, maize bushy stunt phytoplasma, and Maize rayado fino virus. The species exhibits strict host specialization with Zea mays, enabling highly efficient pathogen transmission. Population outbreaks can cause yield losses exceeding 80% in affected regions. The species has become increasingly problematic in Argentina and Brazil, particularly under intensive continuous maize cultivation systems.
Dasineura
Dasineura is a genus of gall midges in the family Cecidomyiidae. Species in this genus are known for inducing galls on various host plants, including woody shrubs and trees. Some species are significant agricultural pests, such as Dasineura jujubifolia on jujube, which can reduce yields by at least 20%. The genus exhibits diverse gall morphologies, from simple leaf galls to complex flower-like structures formed by developmental reprogramming of host tissues.
Dasiops
flower bud flies, lance flies
Dasiops is a genus of lance flies (Diptera: Lonchaeidae) whose larvae are internal feeders on reproductive structures of Passifloraceae. Multiple species are significant agricultural pests of cultivated passionfruit crops in the Neotropics, causing abscission of flower buds and fruit damage. The genus serves as host for diverse hymenopterous parasitoids including Braconidae, Figitidae, Diapriidae, and Pteromalidae. One species, D. caustonae, has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for invasive Passiflora mollissima in Hawaii due to its restricted host range within subgenus Tacsonia.
Dasysyrphus pacificus
Dasysyrphus pacificus is a species of hoverfly (family Syrphidae) originally described from the Pacific Northwest region of North America. The species is currently recognized as a synonym of Dasysyrphus pauxillus. Hoverflies in this genus are commonly known as 'flower flies' due to their frequent presence at flowers, where adults feed on nectar and pollen. The larvae of Dasysyrphus species are predatory, typically feeding on aphids and other small soft-bodied insects.
Delphastus
whitefly destroyers
Delphastus is a genus of small predatory lady beetles in the family Coccinellidae, tribe Serangiini. The genus contains approximately 7-20 described species, with several species commercially utilized as biological control agents of whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in agricultural and ornamental systems. Species such as D. catalinae, D. pusillus, and D. pallidus are well-documented predators of immature whitefly stages, feeding on eggs and nymphs of multiple whitefly species including Bemisia tabaci, B. argentifolii, Trialeurodes vaporariorum, and Singhiella simplex. The genus is characterized by specialized predatory behavior on whiteflies, with documented functional response curves and prey preferences varying by species and whitefly life stage.
Delphastus catalinae
Whitefly Predatory Lady Beetle
Delphastus catalinae is a minute predatory lady beetle (Coccinellidae) specialized in feeding on whiteflies (Aleyrodidae). Adults measure 1.40–1.50 mm with a medium reddish-brown body and slightly darker median pronotum. The species name derives from Latin 'catalinae' meaning fierce, referring to its forbidding head and mouthpart appearance. It is widely used as a biological control agent against pest whiteflies including Bemisia argentifolii, Bemisia tabaci, and Aleurothrixus trachoides in agricultural systems. Mass rearing protocols have been developed using whitefly-infested poinsettia plants, with production costs estimated at $0.22 per adult beetle.
Delphastus pusillus
Whitefly Destroyer
Delphastus pusillus is a minute coccinellid beetle specialized as a predator of whiteflies. Adults measure approximately 1.6 mm (1/16 in) and are shiny black with brown heads, though newly emerged individuals appear pale brown to nearly white. The species is a voracious predator of all whitefly life stages, with demonstrated preference for eggs and first-instar nymphs. It has been widely studied as a biological control agent for agricultural whitefly pests including Bemisia tabaci and Trialeurodes vaporariorum. Both larvae and adults are active predators capable of consuming over 100 whitefly eggs daily under optimal conditions.
Dendrocerus
Dendrocerus is a genus of megaspilid wasps in the family Megaspilidae, comprising more than 100 described species. Members of this genus are hyperparasitoids, primarily attacking aphid parasitoids in the family Braconidae (Aphidiinae), particularly Aphidius species. The genus is characterized by elaborate branched antennae and specialized morphological adaptations for host location and exploitation. Some species exhibit nocturnal activity patterns and unique extrication structures for emerging from hosts.
Dendrocranulus californicus
Dendrocranulus californicus is a species of parasitic wasp in the family Encyrtidae, a group within the superfamily Chalcidoidea. The genus Dendrocranulus is represented in the University of California, Riverside (UCR) Encyrtidae collection, one of the largest and most important collections of this family globally. Species in this genus are parasitoids, typically associated with scale insects or other hemipteran hosts. The specific epithet 'californicus' indicates a geographic association with California.
Dendroctonus simplex
Eastern Larch Beetle
Dendroctonus simplex, the eastern larch beetle, is a bark beetle in the family Curculionidae that colonizes the phloem of tamarack (Larix laricina). Historically a secondary pest attacking stressed or dying trees, it has undergone an unprecedented 18-year outbreak in northern Minnesota since 2000, killing over 440,000 acres of tamarack forest. Research indicates that warming climate has enabled some populations to complete development without an obligatory overwintering period, potentially allowing multiple generations per year. The beetle is a holobiont, engaging in multipartite symbiotic interactions with bacteria and fungi that facilitate host colonization and detoxification of terpenes.
Dendroctonus terebrans
Black Turpentine Beetle
Dendroctonus terebrans, the black turpentine beetle, is the largest bark beetle in the southeastern United States. It attacks pine trees near the base of the trunk and in stumps, typically targeting stressed or freshly cut trees. Unlike the more destructive southern pine beetle (D. frontalis), it rarely kills healthy trees outright but can contribute to tree mortality through sustained feeding damage and by vectoring blue-stain fungi. The species produces and responds to complex semiochemicals, including frontalin and brevicomin, which facilitate mass attack behavior and may mediate interactions with other bark beetle species.
Depressaria radiella
parsnip moth, parsnip webworm
Depressaria radiella is a Eurasian moth introduced to North America in 1862 (Ontario) and New Zealand in 2004. It is a 'superspecialist' herbivore effectively restricted to two closely related apiaceous genera (Heracleum and Pastinaca) throughout its native and introduced ranges. The species is univoltine, with adults active from August through May after overwintering. It has undergone slow westward expansion across North America over 160+ years, reaching the West Coast only after more than 50 years. The species exhibits lower genetic diversity than its congener D. depressana, possibly reflecting its narrow host specialization.
Deraeocoris
Deraeocoris is a genus of predatory plant bugs in the family Miridae, comprising at least 210 described species. Members of this genus are recognized as important biological control agents in agricultural and horticultural systems, feeding on pest arthropods including mites, aphids, and psyllids. Several species have been documented in orchard ecosystems, particularly in apple and pear production. The genus exhibits variation in host plant associations and developmental rates depending on substrate and prey availability.
Deraeocoris brevis
predatory plant bug
Deraeocoris brevis is a predatory plant bug in the family Miridae, native to western North America. Adults are small, glossy black insects 3–6 mm in length with red eyes, while nymphs are mottled pale grey with dark patches and a felted dorsal surface covered in grey hairs. Both life stages are predatory, feeding primarily on pear psyllids, aphids, spider mites, leafhoppers, and scale insects. The species is considered beneficial in apple and pear orchards of the Pacific Northwest, where it contributes to biological control of pest populations.
Deraeocoris nebulosus
Deraeocoris nebulosus is a predatory plant bug in the family Miridae. It is native to North America and has been documented from the northeastern United States through the mid-Atlantic and into the South. The species is a significant biological control agent in agricultural and ornamental systems, feeding on mites, aphids, and other small arthropod pests. It has been studied extensively for its role in managing European red mite in Virginia apple orchards.
Deraeocoris ruber
red-spotted plant bug, Mirid Bug
Deraeocoris ruber, commonly known as the red-spotted plant bug, is a medium-sized predatory mirid bug native to Europe that has been introduced to the Nearctic and Neotropical realms. Adults measure 6–8 mm and display variable coloration from light brown or orange to black, with a diagnostic red cuneus. The species is univoltine, with adults active from July to September. It is an important biological control agent, feeding primarily on aphids and other small insects.
Dermaptera
Earwigs
Earwigs comprise the insect order Dermaptera, with approximately 2,000 species in 12 families. They are distinguished by forceps-like cerci at the abdomen tip and hindwings folded beneath short forewings, giving rise to the order name meaning 'skin wings.' Most species are nocturnal, hiding in dark moist places during daylight. While some groups are tiny parasites lacking typical pincers, the majority are free-living and found on all continents except Antarctica.
Derodontidae
tooth-necked fungus beetles
Derodontidae is a small family of beetles comprising 42 species in 4 genera and 3 subfamilies. Members are commonly known as tooth-necked fungus beetles due to the spiny pronotal margins found in most genera, though the genus Laricobius lacks these spines. The family is notable for possessing two ocelli on the head, an unusual trait among beetles. The genus Laricobius has gained significant attention as a biological control agent for invasive adelgids threatening hemlock forests in North America.
Derostenus
Derostenus is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae, first described by Westwood in 1833. The genus contains five recognized species distributed across Asia, Europe, and North America. European and North American species are solitary endoparasitoids of leaf-mining moth larvae in the genus Stigmella (Nepticulidae), while the biology of Asian species remains unknown. Two species groups have been established based on morphological differences: the gemmeus group (European and North American species) and the sulciscuta group (Asian species).
Derostenus freemani
Derostenus freemani is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae, first described from the Nearctic region in 1973. It is a solitary endoparasitoid of Stigmella larvae (Lepidoptera: Nepticulidae), minute moths commonly known as pygmy or midget moths. The species was originally placed in the subgenus Nearctostenus, though subsequent revision abandoned this subgeneric division in favor of species-group classification, placing D. freemani in the gemmeus group alongside European species.
Desmia funeralis
grape leaffolder, grape leaf-folder
Desmia funeralis, commonly known as the grape leaffolder, is a moth in the family Crambidae. It is a minor pest of grape vineyards across the United States, with larvae that feed on grape leaves, causing characteristic leaf folding or rolling damage. The species is widely distributed from the southern United States through California, extending north to the northeastern states and southeastern Canada. Severe outbreaks have occurred in localized areas, particularly when natural parasitoid populations fail to control moth numbers.
Diachasmimorpha
Diachasmimorpha is a genus of braconid parasitoid wasps in the subfamily Opiinae, established in 1913. The genus is most clearly defined by an apical sinuate ovipositor, a synapomorphic character that defines a monophyletic lineage. Species in this genus are solitary endoparasitoids of tephritid fruit fly larvae and are widely used as biological control agents in integrated pest management programs. The genus is relatively small and primarily distributed in subtropical regions, with some species extending into the Nearctic and northern Neotropical regions.
Diadegma
Diadegma is a genus of ichneumonid wasps established by Förster in 1869. Species in this genus are koinobiont parasitoids, primarily attacking lepidopteran larvae. Several species, notably D. insulare and D. semiclausum, have been extensively studied and deployed as biological control agents against agricultural pests, particularly the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella). The genus contains over 200 described species with cosmopolitan distribution.
Diadromus
pupal parasitoid wasps
Diadromus is a genus of ichneumonid wasps comprising over two dozen species distributed across Europe and North America. Species in this genus are endoparasitoids, primarily attacking lepidopteran hosts at the pupal stage. Several species, notably D. pulchellus and D. collaris, have been extensively studied for their biological control potential against agricultural pests including leek moth and diamondback moth. The genus exhibits complex host-finding behaviors mediated by volatile chemical cues and shows variable relationships with symbiotic viruses.
Diaeretiella
Diaeretiella is a monotypic genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Aphidiinae. The sole species, Diaeretiella rapae, is a cosmopolitan koinobiont endoparasitoid of aphids with documented occurrence in 87 countries. It has been recorded parasitizing approximately 98 aphid species across more than 180 plant species in 43 plant families, with particular association to cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae) on cruciferous crops. The genus is recognized as an important biological control agent in integrated pest management systems.
Dialeurodes citri
Citrus Whitefly
Dialeurodes citri, the citrus whitefly, is a polyphagous pest native to Southeast Asia that has become established in citrus-growing regions worldwide. Adults and immature stages feed on phloem sap, secreting honeydew that promotes sooty mold growth. The species completes 2–3 generations annually in most regions, with development arrested in the fourth instar during cooler months. It is distinguished from the similar Parabemisia myricae by its larger size, preference for fully developed leaves, and slower life cycle.
Diaphania indica
cucumber moth, cotton caterpillar, leaf roller
Diaphania indica is a widespread moth species occurring primarily in tropical and subtropical regions of the Old World, native to southern Asia. It is a significant agricultural pest of cucurbitaceous crops, with larvae feeding on leaves, stems, and fruits of host plants. The species has been documented on multiple continents and is subject to biological control efforts using parasitoid wasps. Laboratory studies have established detailed demographic parameters and life cycle duration.
Diapriidae
Diapriidae is a family of minute parasitoid wasps in the order Hymenoptera. Adults range from 1–8 mm in length, with most species measuring 2–4 mm. The family contains approximately 2,300 described species in around 150–200 genera, though estimates suggest at least 4,500 species exist globally. Members are primarily parasitoids of Diptera larvae and pupae, with some species attacking Coleoptera or associated with ants. The family exhibits considerable morphological diversity, including frequent winglessness and pronounced sexual dimorphism.
Diapriinae
Diapriinae is a subfamily of minute parasitoid wasps within the family Diapriidae. Members are typically 1–8 mm in length, with most species averaging 2–4 mm. They are characterized by a distinctive ledge-like extension of the face above the clypeus (the "shelf face"), from which the antennae originate. The subfamily contains three tribes: Diapriini, Psilini, and Spilomicrini. Most species are parasitoids of Diptera larvae and pupae, particularly fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae and Sciaridae), though some lineages have evolved specialized associations with ants. Many species remain undescribed, with an estimated 4,500 species worldwide compared to approximately 2,300 currently described.
Diaspididae
Armored Scale Insects, Armored Scales, Hard Scales
Diaspididae is the largest family of scale insects, comprising over 2,650 described species in approximately 400 genera. Members are commonly known as armored scale insects due to their distinctive protective covering, which incorporates exuviae from the first two nymphal instars, sometimes with fecal matter and host plant fragments. The female remains permanently beneath this armor, feeding on host plant tissues through piercing-sucking mouthparts. The family includes numerous economically significant pests such as the California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii), San Jose scale (Diaspidiotus perniciosus), and gloomy scale (Melanaspis tenebricosa), which damage crops, ornamentals, and forest trees worldwide.
Diastema tigris
Lantana Moth, Lantana Control Moth
Diastema tigris is a small noctuid moth with a wingspan of approximately 25 mm. Native to Florida and Texas, it has been widely introduced across tropical and subtropical regions as a biological control agent targeting the invasive weed Lantana camara. The species was first described by Achille Guenée in 1852. Its common name, 'lantana moth,' directly reflects its specialized larval association with this host plant.
Diatraea
sugarcane borer, stalk borer
Diatraea is a genus of moths in the family Crambidae comprising approximately 40 described species. The genus is best known for several economically important stalk-boring pests of grass crops, particularly sugarcane, corn, sorghum, and rice. Larvae tunnel within plant stems, causing reduced yield, lodging, and increased susceptibility to pathogens. Several species have been the focus of extensive biological control programs, notably using parasitoid wasps such as Cotesia flavipes and Trichogramma galloi. The genus is distributed throughout the Americas from the southern United States to Argentina.
Dicaelotus
Dicaelotus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, first described by Wesmael in 1845. Species within this genus are distributed across Europe, Africa, and North America. The genus is part of the diverse ichneumonid wasp radiation, which are predominantly parasitoids of other insects.
Dichroplus
spur-throated grasshoppers
Dichroplus is a genus of spur-throated grasshoppers in the family Acrididae, containing more than 20 described species distributed across North, Central, and South America. Species in this genus are primarily ground-dwelling and associated with grassland and agricultural habitats. Dichroplus maculipennis, one of the most studied species, is a significant agricultural pest in Argentina's Pampas region, where it damages corn, soybeans, and wheat.
Dichrorampha
Dichrorampha is a genus of small tortricid moths in the subfamily Olethreutinae, comprising over 100 described species distributed across Europe, Asia, and North America. The genus includes both diurnal and crepuscular species, many associated with mountain and alpine habitats. Several species have been investigated as biological control agents for invasive weeds, including D. aeratana for oxeye daisy and D. odorata for Chromolaena odorata. The genus has been subject to recent taxonomic revision, with cryptic species discovered through integrative approaches combining morphology and molecular data.
Dichrorampha aeratana
Obscure Drill
Dichrorampha aeratana is a small tortricid moth native to Europe, first described in 1915. The species has gained scientific attention as a potential biological control agent for the invasive weed oxeye daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare) in North America and Australia. Adults are active in spring, with larvae feeding internally on host plant roots and rhizomes. The moth exhibits strong host specificity, with larval survival negatively associated with increasing ploidy levels in host plants.
Dicladocerus
Dicladocerus is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae, first described by Westwood in 1832. The genus contains species distributed across the Nearctic and Palearctic regions, including North America north of Mexico and Japan. Several North American species—specifically D. nearcticus, D. pacificus, and D. terraenovae—are known to attack larch casebearer (Coleophoridae), a moth pest of larch trees. The genus was taxonomically revised in 1976, with twelve new species described from North America and one from Japan.
Dicondylus
Dicondylus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Dryinidae. Members of this genus are known to attack planthoppers (Hemiptera: Delphacidae), including agricultural pests such as the Rice Brown Planthopper. The genus has been subject to taxonomic revision, with some authorities treating it as a synonym of Gonatopus.
Dicrodiplosis californica
mealybug-destroying predaceous gall midge
Dicrodiplosis californica is a species of predaceous gall midge in the family Cecidomyiidae, described by Felt in 1912. The common name 'mealybug-destroying predaceous gall midge' indicates its role as a biological control agent targeting mealybugs. As a member of the genus Dicrodiplosis, it belongs to a group of predatory gall midges rather than the gall-forming majority in this family.
Dictyla echii
Bugloss Lace Bug
A lace bug (Hemiptera: Tingidae) native to the Palearctic and introduced to North America. In Canada, it is univoltine and overwinters as adults in soil near host plant rosettes in reproductive diapause. In the Mediterranean region, it produces at least 2–3 generations annually. Associated primarily with Boraginaceae, especially Echium species. Tested as a biological control agent for Echium plantagineum (Paterson's curse) in Australia but rejected due to insufficient host specificity.
Dicymolomia
Dicymolomia is a genus of crambid moths established by Zeller in 1872, containing approximately eight described species. The genus is placed in subfamily Glaphyriinae. Dicymolomia julianalis has been documented as a seed predator on musk thistle (Carduus nutans) in Tennessee, with larvae feeding within seed heads and reducing seed production. The genus has been recorded from the United States, including Vermont and Tennessee.
Dicyphini
Dicyphini is a tribe of plant bugs in the subfamily Bryocorinae (family Miridae). Members are predominantly zoophytophagous, combining predation on agricultural pests with facultative plant feeding. Several species are commercially used as biological control agents in greenhouse vegetable production, particularly for whiteflies and lepidopteran pests on tomato and other Solanaceae crops. The tribe includes subtribes Dicyphina, Monaloniina, and Odoniellina, with genera such as Dicyphus, Macrolophus, Nesidiocoris, and Engytatus.
Dicyphus
Dicyphus is a genus of plant bugs in the family Miridae containing at least 70 described species. Several species, including D. hesperus, D. hyalinipennis, and D. tamanini, are zoophytophagous predators used in biological control of crop pests. The genus exhibits considerable variation in feeding ecology, with some species being primarily phytophagous while others are important predators of whiteflies, thrips, and other horticultural pests.
Dielis tolteca
Toltec scoliid wasp
Dielis tolteca is a species of scoliid wasp native to western North America and Mesoamerica. The species is known to parasitize scarab beetle grubs, with females hunting underground hosts to provision their offspring. Adults have been observed feeding on flowering plants, particularly mustards (Brassicaceae) and goldenrods (Solidago). The species has been documented in McInnis Canyons National Conservation Area in western Colorado, where it is active as a spring-emerging species.
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Digitivalva is a genus of small moths in the family Glyphipterigidae (subfamily Acrolepiinae), established by Gaedike in 1970. The genus comprises approximately 35 described species distributed across the Palearctic, Afrotropical, and Oriental regions. Several species have been studied for their specialized host plant associations with Asteraceae, and at least one species (D. delaireae) has been evaluated as a biological control agent for invasive Cape-ivy in North America.
Digitonthophagus gazella
Gazelle scarab, Brown dung beetle
Digitonthophagus gazella is a dung beetle native to Afro-Asian regions that has been widely introduced across the Americas, Australia, and Pacific islands for biological control of cattle dung. The species exhibits rapid colonization ability due to high reproductive rates, opportunistic resource utilization, and strong dispersal capacity. It has become established in numerous tropical and subtropical regions, with documented naturalized populations in North, Central, and South America. The species shows complex nesting behavior involving tunnel construction by both sexes and has been extensively studied for its ecological impacts on native dung beetle assemblages.
Diglyphus
Diglyphus is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species are larval ectoparasitoids of leaf-mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) and some Lepidoptera leafminers. Several species, particularly D. isaea and D. begini, are commercially used for biological control of agricultural leafminer pests in greenhouses and field crops. The genus contains at least 15 European species, with additional species described from Asia and North America.
Diglyphus pulchripes
Diglyphus pulchripes is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae. It belongs to a group of tiny wasps known as jewel wasps or pteromalids, which are characterized by their parasitoid life history where immature stages develop inside host insects, eventually killing the host. The species has been documented in Canada across multiple provinces. Like other members of its genus, it likely parasitizes leaf-mining insects, though specific host associations for this species require further documentation.
Diglyphus websteri
Diglyphus websteri is a tiny parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae. It belongs to a genus known for biological control of leafmining insects. The species has been documented in laboratory settings for parasitoid research.
Digonogastra
Digonogastra is a genus of braconid wasps comprising approximately 260 described species distributed across Afrotropical, Nearctic, and Neotropical regions. Members are idiobiont ectoparasitoids that attack larval stages of stalk-boring Lepidoptera, particularly pyralid and crambid borers in gramineous crops. The genus has documented significance as a biological control agent for agricultural pests in sugarcane, maize, and sorghum systems.
Dikrella
Dikrella is a genus of leafhoppers in the subfamily Typhlocybinae, tribe Dikraneurini, containing approximately 37 species distributed from the United States through Central America to South America. Members are small, delicate insects typically 3–4 mm in length. The genus has agricultural significance: Dikrella californica has been used as an intermediary host for the parasitic wasp Anagnus epos, employed in biological control of the western grape leafhopper. Several species are associated with economically important host plants including avocado and pequi.
Dinarmus
Dinarmus is a genus of chalcidoid wasps in the family Pteromalidae with nearly cosmopolitan distribution. Species in this genus are larval-pupal ectoparasitoids of bruchid beetles (Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae), particularly pests of stored legume seeds such as cowpea. The genus includes economically important biological control agents, notably D. basalis and D. vagabundus, which are deployed in integrated pest management programs targeting Callosobruchus species. Research on D. basalis has revealed complex host discrimination behaviors, facultative superparasitism, and olfactory host location mechanisms.
Dinera
Dinera fly
Dinera is a genus of tachinid flies established by Robineau-Desvoidy in 1830. The genus comprises approximately 24 described species distributed across the Holarctic region, with notable diversity in China. Larvae of most species are parasitoids of scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae), making this genus economically relevant for biological control of certain beetle pests.
Dinocampus
Dinocampus is a genus of braconid wasps in the subfamily Euphorinae. The genus contains at least 25 described species, with Dinocampus coccinellae being the most extensively studied. Members of this genus are endoparasitoids of lady beetles (Coccinellidae), exhibiting complex host manipulation behaviors including the induction of partial paralysis that causes hosts to guard developing wasp cocoons. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution and has been recorded from multiple continents.
Dinocampus coccinellae
Ladybird Parasitoid Wasp
Dinocampus coccinellae is a solitary braconid wasp that parasitizes lady beetles (Coccinellidae). The female wasp deposits a single egg into the host's abdomen, where the larva develops through four instars over 18–27 days before emerging. Upon emergence, the larva paralyzes the host and spins a cocoon attached to the ladybird's legs. The paralyzed host remains alive, twitching occasionally, and serves as a protective bodyguard that deters predators with its bright coloration and defensive movements. Approximately 25% of hosts recover after the wasp completes development. The wasp is notable for co-injecting Dinocampus coccinellae paralysis virus (DcPV) with its egg, which facilitates host manipulation.
Diomus
lady beetles, ladybirds
Diomus is a genus of small lady beetles (Coccinellidae) comprising at least 20 described species. Species within this genus exhibit diverse ecological strategies, including generalist predation on mealybugs and aphids, as well as specialized myrmecophilous associations. Several species have been evaluated or employed as biological control agents against agricultural pests such as the papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus), yellow sugarcane aphid (Sipha flava), and cassava mealybug (Phenacoccus manihoti). The genus shows notable variation in habitat associations, from agricultural crops to ant nests.
Diomus terminatus
Firefly Duskyling
Diomus terminatus is a minute lady beetle native to eastern North America, measuring 1.5–2 mm. It has been evaluated for biological control of sugarcane aphids, particularly Melanaphis sacchari and Sipha flava. Laboratory studies confirm its complete development on aphid prey, with a generation time of approximately 12 days from egg to adult at 26°C.
Dione juno
Juno Silverspot, Juno Longwing, Juno Heliconian
Dione juno is a heliconiine butterfly (subfamily Heliconiinae) distributed from the southern United States through Central and South America. The species is a significant agricultural pest of passion fruit (Passiflora spp.), particularly Passiflora edulis, where caterpillars can completely defoliate host plants at high population densities. Adults are characterized by orange and black dorsal wing patterns with distinctive silver spots on the ventral wing surfaces. The species has been extensively studied in Brazil and Central America for its role in agroecosystems and its diverse complex of natural enemies.
Dioprosopa
drone flies
Dioprosopa is a genus of hoverflies (family Syrphidae) in the tribe Syrphini, containing two described species found in the New World. The genus was elevated from subgenus rank in 2018 based on phylogenetic studies. Both species occur in tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas, where they contribute to ecosystem services through adult pollination and larval predation on agricultural pests.
Dioprosopa clavata
Four-speckled Hover Fly
Dioprosopa clavata is a Neotropical hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae) and the type species of genus Dioprosopa. Adults feed on nectar and pollen, while larvae are aphidophagous predators that also attack spittlebugs and other hemipteran pests. The species provides dual ecosystem services as both a pollinator and biological control agent in natural habitats and agroecosystems, including citrus orchards. Climate change projections indicate substantial habitat loss by 2100, with range contractions in tropical lowlands and modest shifts toward cooler, higher-elevation refugia.
Diorhabda
tamarisk beetle, saltcedar leaf beetle
Diorhabda is a genus of leaf beetles in the family Chrysomelidae, subfamily Galerucinae. Most species within the genus feed on Tamarix (tamarisk or saltcedar), though at least one species, D. tarsalis, is a pest of Chinese licorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis). The genus is native to Europe and Asia, with several species introduced to North America as biological control agents for invasive Tamarix. The D. elongata species group comprises five sibling species specialized on Tamarix: D. elongata, D. carinata, D. sublineata, D. carinulata, and D. meridionalis.
Diorhabda carinulata
Northern Tamarisk Beetle, Saltcedar Beetle, Saltcedar Leaf Beetle, Tamarisk Leaf Beetle
Diorhabda carinulata is a leaf beetle native to Central Asia, introduced to North America as a classical biological control agent for invasive saltcedar (Tamarix spp.). Adults and larvae feed exclusively on Tamarix foliage, causing defoliation that can reduce tamarisk biomass by 75–85% over multiple years. The species has established successfully in the western United States, with populations evolving shorter critical day lengths for diapause induction that enable range expansion. Its introduction has generated conservation concerns due to impacts on nesting habitat for the federally endangered southwestern willow flycatcher.
Diorhabda sublineata
Subtropical Tamarisk Beetle, Saltcedar Beetle, Saltcedar Leaf Beetle, Tamarisk Leaf Beetle
Diorhabda sublineata is a leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, commonly known as the subtropical tamarisk beetle. Originally described from Algeria in 1849, it was restored to full species status in 2009 after being treated as a subspecies or synonym of D. elongata for over a century. It is a specialist feeder on tamarisk (Tamarix spp.) and has been introduced to North America as a biological control agent against invasive saltcedar. The species is particularly adapted to subtropical and Mediterranean climates.
Dioryctria
Conifer Coneworm Moths, Coneworm Moths
Dioryctria is a genus of snout moths (family Pyralidae) described by Philipp Christoph Zeller in 1846. Commonly known as conifer coneworm moths, the genus contains approximately 40 species in North America, with 25 occurring in western regions. Larvae of most species feed within conifer cones, though some species infest shoots, branches, or bark. Several species are significant forest pests, causing damage to pine, spruce, fir, and cedar trees through cone and seed destruction, shoot boring, and deformation of tree crowns.
Diospilus
Diospilus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Brachistinae. The genus has cosmopolitan distribution. At least one species, D. capito, is a parasitoid of pollen beetles (Meligethes spp.) in agricultural systems, particularly in rape and mustard crops. Species within this genus are small braconid wasps, though detailed morphological descriptions for the genus as a whole are limited.
Diplazontinae
Hover Fly Parasitoid Wasps
Diplazontinae is a subfamily of ichneumonid wasps comprising approximately 19 genera, with highest diversity in the Holarctic region. Members are specialized koinobiont endoparasitoids of hover flies (Syrphidae), with oviposition into host eggs or larvae and emergence from the puparium. The subfamily exhibits distinctive morphological features including three-toothed mandibles and a box-like first abdominal tergite. Several genera have undergone recent taxonomic revision, with Syrphoctonus split into multiple genera to restore monophyly.
Discodes
Discodes is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Species in this genus are known as parasitoids of scale insects (Coccoidea), with documented host associations including Sphaerolecanium prunastri, the globose scale insect. The genus was established by Foerster in 1856 and contains multiple described species distributed across several continents.
Diversinervus
Diversinervus is a genus of encyrtid parasitoid wasps in the tribe Cheiloneurini. The genus comprises approximately twelve species worldwide, including the notable D. elegans, which has been studied for its biological control potential against scale insects. Species in this genus are endoparasitoids, developing within their hosts. The genus was established by Silvestri in 1915 and has been the subject of recent research on venom biochemistry and viral associations.
Dolichopodidae
long-legged flies, longlegged flies
Dolichopodidae, the long-legged flies, is a large cosmopolitan family of true flies (Diptera) comprising over 8,000 described species in approximately 250 genera. Members are typically small (1–10 mm), often metallic green, blue, or bronze, with characteristically long and slender legs. Adults are predominantly predatory on small invertebrates. The family is particularly diverse in North America, with nearly 60 genera and about 1,300 species. Many species inhabit moist environments near water margins, though others occupy terrestrial habitats including tree trunks and foliage.
Doru taeniatum
lined earwig
Doru taeniatum, the lined earwig, is a predaceous earwig species in the family Forficulidae. It is native to the Americas, ranging from North America through Central America to South America. The species has been studied extensively for its potential role in biological control, particularly in maize agroecosystems where it preys on pest lepidopterans including the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda). Laboratory studies indicate it is omnivorous, capable of completing development and reproduction on plant pollen or lepidopteran eggs alone, with optimal fitness on mixed or egg-only diets.
Dorymyrmex
pyramid ants, cone ants
Dorymyrmex is a genus of ants in the subfamily Dolichoderinae, commonly known as pyramid ants or cone ants. The genus exhibits an amphitropical distribution pattern, with highest diversity concentrated in arid temperate regions of North and South America rather than tropical zones. Phylogenomic studies have identified four major species groups: D. flavescens, tener, wolffhuegeli, and pyramicus groups. The genus has undergone rapid evolutionary radiation, particularly in the pyramicus group, presenting ongoing taxonomic challenges.
Draeculacephala inscripta
Waterlettuce Leafhopper
Draeculacephala inscripta is a leafhopper species in the family Cicadellidae, first described by Van Duzee in 1915. It is commonly known as the Waterlettuce Leafhopper due to its association with aquatic and semi-aquatic host plants. The species has been recorded from multiple U.S. states including Arkansas, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, and Hawaii, as well as being present in California where it has been studied as a host for egg parasitoids. Its eggs serve as hosts for several parasitoid wasp species in the families Mymaridae and Trichogrammatidae.
Draeculacephala noveboracensis
Black-ledged Sharpshooter
Draeculacephala noveboracensis is a leafhopper species in the family Cicadellidae, commonly known as the Black-ledged Sharpshooter. It is native to North America and has been documented as a host for egg parasitoids in the families Mymaridae and Trichogrammatidae. The species has been studied in California in relation to biological control programs targeting sharpshooter pests.
Drino
Drino is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising parasitoid species that attack lepidopteran and other arthropod hosts. Species are primarily endoparasitoids, with larvae developing within host haemocoels. Several species exhibit distinctive biological traits including ovolarviparity (larviparity), gregarious development, and sophisticated immune evasion mechanisms. The genus has been recorded across Europe, Asia, and North America, with individual species showing varying degrees of host specificity from generalist to specialist parasitoids.
Dryinidae
Pincer Wasps
Dryinidae is a cosmopolitan family of solitary wasps comprising over 1900 described species across 11-15 subfamilies and 50-57 genera. The family name derives from the Greek 'drys' (oak), as the first species was collected on an oak tree in Spain. Adults are small to medium-sized wasps (0.9-13 mm) with distinctive morphological features including a constricted 'wasp waist,' 10-segmented antennae, and often pronounced sexual dimorphism. The larvae are obligate parasitoids of nymphs and adults of Auchenorrhyncha (leafhoppers, planthoppers, and cicadas).
Dryinus
pincer wasps
Dryinus is a cosmopolitan genus of dryinid parasitic wasps comprising over 340 fossil and extant species, making it the most diverse genus in the subfamily Dryininae. Species are distributed worldwide, with 103 species reported from the Neotropics alone. These wasps are ectoparasitoids of Hemiptera, particularly planthoppers and related groups. Females exhibit sexual dimorphism with a distinctive chelate (pincer-like) protarsus used in host capture.
Dufouriellus ater
Dufouriellus ater is a predatory true bug in the family Anthocoridae, distributed across the Palearctic region and introduced to North America. It is a small, dark-colored insect that feeds on other small arthropods. The species has been observed in various temperate habitats and is known for its role as a biological control agent against pest insects.
Duponchelia
European pepper moth (D. fovealis)
Duponchelia is a genus of snout moths (family Crambidae) established by Zeller in 1847. The genus contains at least five described species, with Duponchelia fovealis being the most economically significant and widely studied. D. fovealis, commonly known as the European pepper moth, has become a major invasive pest of protected crops, particularly strawberries, across multiple continents. The genus is characterized by its association with diverse host plants and its importance in agricultural pest management research.
Dysaphis
Dysaphis is a genus of aphids comprising over 100 species distributed across Europe, North America, and Australia. Species within this genus are primarily associated with dicotyledonous host plants, though some have been recorded on monocots. Several species are significant agricultural pests, particularly Dysaphis plantaginea (rosy apple aphid), which infests apple orchards. Like other aphids, Dysaphis species maintain an obligate nutritional symbiosis with the bacterium Buchnera, which enables them to subsist on phloem sap by synthesizing essential amino acids.
Eiphosoma
Eiphosoma is a genus of ichneumonid wasps in the subfamily Cremastinae, established by Cresson in 1865. Species in this genus are larval endoparasitoids primarily associated with noctuid moth larvae, particularly the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda). Several species have been investigated as biological control agents for agricultural pests, with E. vitticolle and E. laphygmae receiving particular attention for their potential in integrated pest management. The genus exhibits a New World distribution centered in the Neotropics, with documented species from Cuba, Colombia, Mexico, Brazil, and Costa Rica.
Elachertus
Elachertus is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species within this genus are primarily larval ectoparasitoids of Lepidoptera, with documented associations on hosts including tortricid, geometrid, syntomid, and gelechiid moths. Several species have been studied for their potential in biological control of forest and agricultural pests. The genus exhibits variation in life history strategies, with most species being idiobiont ectoparasitoids, though at least one species (E. scutellatus) has been reported as koinobiont.
Elateroidea
Click, Firefly, and Soldier Beetles
Elateroidea is a large superfamily of beetles comprising approximately 25,000 species across multiple families. It includes the familiar click beetles (Elateridae), fireflies and glow-worms (Lampyridae and related families), and soldier beetles (Cantharidae). The superfamily exhibits remarkable morphological diversity, ranging from hard-bodied forms with five abdominal ventrites to soft-bodied forms with 7-8 ventrites connected by membranes. Bioluminescence has evolved independently in multiple lineages, particularly within the lampyroid clade and certain Elateridae. A distinctive clicking mechanism using a prothoracic peg and mesothoracic cavity is present in several sclerotized families, enabling the characteristic jumping behavior of click beetles.
Elatophilus
minute pirate bugs
Elatophilus is a genus of minute pirate bugs (family Anthocoridae) comprising approximately 15 described species. Species in this genus are specialist predators associated with coniferous trees, particularly pine. Several species have been studied as biological control agents of scale insects that damage commercially important pine stands. The genus shows strong host-specificity, with life cycles tightly coupled to their prey and host tree phenology.
Elgiva
snail-killing flies, marsh flies
Elgiva is a genus of snail-killing flies in the family Sciomyzidae, comprising approximately eight described species. These predatory flies are specialized in hunting aquatic or semi-aquatic snails, with larvae developing as parasitoids or predators of molluscan hosts. The genus has been studied for its biological control potential against pest snail populations.
Elophila obliteralis
Waterlily Leafcutter Moth
Elophila obliteralis is a small aquatic moth native to eastern North America, with introduced populations in Hawaii, South Africa, and England. Adults have a wingspan of 10–22 mm and are active from May to August. The larvae are aquatic, feeding on diverse aquatic plants and constructing protective cases from cut leaf pieces held together with silk. The species has been investigated as a biological control agent for invasive aquatic plants including Nymphoides peltata and Hygrophila polysperma.
Enarmonia
cherry bark tortrix (E. formosana)
Enarmonia is a genus of tortricid moths in the subfamily Olethreutinae. The genus contains approximately six described species, with Enarmonia formosana (cherry bark tortrix) being the most extensively studied due to its economic significance as a pest of Prunus species. Larvae develop as concealed feeders under bark, mining the cambium layer. Adults are active in spring and communicate via species-specific sex pheromones.
Enarmonia formosana
cherry-bark moth, cherry bark tortrix, cherrybark tortrix
A small tortricid moth native to Europe, Asia, and North Africa, with introduced populations in North America. Adults are active from May to October in temperate regions. Larvae tunnel beneath bark of mature Rosaceae trees, producing reddish frass at tunnel entrances. The species serves as host for multiple hymenopterous parasitoids in Europe and is managed using synthetic sex pheromones in North America.
Encarsia
Encarsia is a large genus of minute parasitic wasps in the family Aphelinidae, comprising approximately 400–473 described species with worldwide distribution. The genus exhibits complex morphological variation that complicates species-level identification. Many species are economically important biological control agents used in greenhouse and agricultural settings against whiteflies and scale insects.
Encarsia citrina
Encarsia citrina is a minute parasitoid wasp in the family Aphelinidae that serves as an important biological control agent of armored scale insects. The species attacks multiple scale hosts including euonymus scale (Unaspis euonymi), greedy scale (Hemiberlesia rapax), and Fiorinia externa. Research has demonstrated that pesticide applications can significantly reduce parasitoid populations and disrupt biological control services. The species exhibits temperature-dependent searching efficiency and host age preference in its foraging behavior.
Encarsia formosa
Greenhouse Whitefly Parasitoid Wasp
Encarsia formosa is a minute chalcidoid wasp in the family Aphelinidae, renowned as one of the first biological control agents used commercially for greenhouse pest management beginning in the 1920s. Females are approximately 0.6 mm in length and exhibit a distinctive black body with yellow abdomen and opalescent wings. The species reproduces asexually via thelytoky induced by Wolbachia bacterial infection; males are produced but are incapable of inseminating females. This parasitoid attacks at least 15 whitefly species, with primary hosts including Trialeurodes vaporariorum (greenhouse whitefly) and Bemisia tabaci (silverleaf whitefly).
Encarsia lanceolata
Encarsia lanceolata is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Aphelinidae, described by Evans and Polaszek in 1997. The genus Encarsia comprises minute chalcidoid wasps that parasitize whiteflies and other hemipteran hosts. Species in this genus are extensively studied for their importance in biological control programs targeting agricultural pests. E. lanceolata belongs to a genus noted for its extensive cryptic species diversity, making accurate identification dependent on detailed morphological or molecular analysis.
Encarsia nigricephala
Encarsia nigricephala is a parasitoid wasp species in the family Aphelinidae, described by Dozier in 1937. The species name refers to its dark (black) head. Like other members of the genus Encarsia, it is likely a parasitoid of whiteflies (Aleyrodidae), though specific host records for this species are not well documented in the available literature. The species has been recorded from the southeastern United States (Florida, Georgia, Maryland), the Caribbean (Martinique), and South America (Minas Gerais, Brazil).
Encyrtidae
Encyrtidae is a large family of parasitic wasps in the superfamily Chalcidoidea, comprising approximately 3,710 described species in about 455 genera. The family is distinguished by distinctive wing venation patterns, forward-migrated cerci on the metasoma with accompanying tergite distortion, and an enlarged mesopleuron with anteriorly positioned mesocoxae. Most species are primary parasitoids of Hemiptera, particularly scale insects, mealybugs, and psyllids, though host associations span multiple insect orders and even include ticks. Encyrtidae are globally distributed across virtually all terrestrial habitats and are among the most important biological control agents used in agriculture.
Encyrtinae
Encyrtinae is a large subfamily of parasitoid wasps within the family Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Members are primarily endoparasitoids of insect eggs and immature stages, with documented hosts including hemipterans (pentatomoid bugs, whiteflies, scale insects), lepidopterans, cockroaches, and even ticks (genus Ixodiphagus). The subfamily contains over 300 genera and is distributed worldwide. Several species have been deployed or have arrived adventively as biological control agents of agricultural and urban pests.
Encyrtus
Encyrtus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, containing approximately 96 described species. These small chalcidoid wasps are specialized parasitoids of soft scale insects (Coccidae), playing important roles in regulating scale populations in both natural and urban ecosystems. Several species have been studied for their potential use in biological control of scale insect pests.
Enicospilus
Enicospilus is a megadiverse genus of large ichneumonid wasps comprising over 700 described species worldwide. Members exhibit 'ophionoid facies' with orange-brown bodies, extremely large ocelli arranged in a triangle, and long antennae. These wasps are unusual among Hymenoptera for their nocturnal or crepuscular activity and strong attraction to artificial lights. They are koinobiont endoparasitoids of moderately large lepidopteran larvae, including families such as Lasiocampidae, Noctuidae, and Saturniidae. Species delimitation is notoriously difficult due to limited diagnostic morphological characters, resulting in frequent taxonomic confusion including synonyms and misidentifications.
Enicospilus flavostigma
Enicospilus flavostigma is a species of ichneumon wasp in the subfamily Ophioninae, first described by Hooker in 1912. Like other members of its genus, it is a nocturnal parasitoid wasp with a uniformly orange or reddish-orange coloration. The species belongs to a group of large, gangly ichneumon wasps characterized by long antennae, prominent ocelli arranged in a triangle on the head, and reduced or very short ovipositors. Enicospilus species are koinobiont ectoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae.
Enoclerus lecontei
blackbellied clerid
Enoclerus lecontei is a predatory checkered beetle (family Cleridae) specialized in hunting bark beetles. It is found in North and Central America, with well-documented populations in western North America where it serves as a significant predator of the western pine beetle (Dendroctonus brevicomis). The species has been extensively studied for its potential as a biological control agent against forest pest beetles.
Enoclerus sphegeus
Red-bellied Clerid
Enoclerus sphegeus, commonly known as the red-bellied clerid, is a species of checkered beetle in the family Cleridae. It is found in Central America and North America, including Alberta, Canada. The species is a significant predator of bark beetles, particularly the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) and Ips species. Larval development is variable, with individuals completing either two or three stadia depending on prey size consumed during the first stadium. The species pupates underground.
Entedoninae
Entedoninae is a subfamily of chalcid wasps in the family Eulophidae comprising over 90 genera. Members are primarily parasitoids with documented associations across diverse host groups including gall-inducing insects, leafminers, sawflies, thrips, and ants. The subfamily exhibits considerable morphological and ecological diversity, with species found in tropical to temperate habitats worldwide.
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Eoreuma is a genus of moths in the family Crambidae, first described by Ely in 1910. The genus contains 11 described species, with Eoreuma loftini (Mexican rice borer) being the most economically significant. This species is a major agricultural pest of sugarcane, rice, sorghum, and corn in the southern United States and Mexico, causing substantial yield losses through larval tunneling in stalks. The genus is native to the Americas, with several species described from the southwestern United States and Mexico.
Eosalpingogaster
Eosalpingogaster is a genus of flower flies (Syrphidae) established by Hull in 1949 and elevated to full generic status based on adult morphology, biological data, and molecular phylogenetics. Species in this genus are specialized predators of carmine cochineal insects (Dactylopius spp., Dactylopiidae), which are the source of carminic acid used in red dyes. The genus includes multiple species, with two new species described in a 2011 revision.
Ephedrini
Ephedrini is a tribe of koinobiont aphid parasitoids within the subfamily Aphidiinae (Braconidae). The tribe comprises approximately 29 species in India, including genera such as Ephedrus and Toxares. Members are exclusively endoparasitoids of aphids, with some species exhibiting extreme polyphagy—Toxares deltiger parasitizes 27 aphid species and Ephedrus plagiator parasitizes 22. Several species have been successfully employed in biological control programs worldwide.
Ephedrus
Ephedrus is a genus of small braconid wasps in the subfamily Aphidiinae, all species of which are obligate parasitoids of aphids. The genus includes both extant and fossil species, with records from the Eocene Baltic amber indicating an ancient evolutionary history. Multiple species have been evaluated or employed as biological control agents against agricultural pest aphids, particularly in greenhouse systems. Species-level studies reveal complex host discrimination behaviors involving external marking pheromones and internal host quality assessment.
Ephialtini
Ephialtini is a tribe of ichneumonid wasps within the subfamily Pimplinae, comprising approximately 17 genera and at least 120 species. Members are exclusively parasitoids of spiders (Araneae), with many species belonging to the 'Polysphincta group' that attack post-embryonic spiders. These wasps exhibit diverse host specificity patterns, ranging from polyphagy across multiple spider families to strict specialization on particular host species or genera. Some species parasitize adult spiders while others attack spider egg sacs.
Epiblema
Epiblema is a genus of tortricid moths in the tribe Eucosmini, with approximately 100 described species distributed primarily in the Holarctic region. Several species have been extensively studied for their ecological interactions, including parasitoid relationships and cryoprotective adaptations for overwintering. Some species, notably E. strenuana (ragweed borer) and E. minutana, have been investigated as biological control agents for invasive Asteraceae weeds, though taxonomic revisions have clarified their distinct status. The genus exhibits diverse larval feeding habits, with some species boring into plant stems or forming galls.
Epiblema strenuana
ragweed borer, stem-galling moth
Epiblema strenuana is a tortricid moth native to North America that has been widely introduced as a biological control agent against invasive Asteraceae weeds. Its larvae form stem galls on host plants, functioning as nutrient sinks that place the plant under metabolic stress. The species has established populations in Australia and China, but was rejected for release in India and South Africa due to non-target risks to the oil-seed crop Guizotia abyssinica. Taxonomic confusion with the closely related E. minutana has complicated host range assessments.
Epimorius testaceellus
bromeliad pod borer
Epimorius testaceellus is a pyralid moth commonly known as the bromeliad pod borer. The species is a documented pest of the native bromeliad Tillandsia fasciculata, with larvae causing significant damage by boring into flower pods. It occurs in subtropical Florida and the West Indies, including Jamaica. A parasitoid wasp, Eurytoma aerflora, has been identified as a natural enemy that contributes to population control.
Epipyropidae
Planthopper Parasite Moths, Planthopper Parasitic Moths, Cicada Parasitic Moths
Epipyropidae is a small family of moths whose larvae are obligate ectoparasites of planthoppers and leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Fulgoroidea and related groups), with some species parasitizing cicadas. The family exhibits hypermetamorphosis, with first instar larvae being triungulin-like and highly mobile, while subsequent instars become sessile and highly modified for parasitic feeding. This parasitic lifestyle is unique among Lepidoptera and shared only with the closely related family Cyclotornidae. Approximately 20 species have been described worldwide, distributed across genera including Epipyrops, Epiricania, Fulgoraecia, and Epipomponia.
Episimus
Episimus is a genus of tortricid moths in the subfamily Olethreutinae, established by Walsingham in 1892. The genus contains approximately 40 described species distributed primarily in the Neotropical region, with some species ranging into North America. At least one species, E. unguiculus (syn. E. utilis), has been extensively studied as a candidate biological control agent for the invasive Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolius) in Florida. The genus was taxonomically revised in 2008, with twelve new species described from the Neotropics and the synonymization of Episimoides.
Episyrphus
Aphid Hover Flies
Episyrphus is a genus of hoverflies in the subfamily Syrphinae, commonly known as aphid hover flies. The genus contains two recognized subgenera: Episyrphus and Asiobaccha, with the latter distinguished by a petiolate abdomen. Larvae are predatory, frequently preying on aphids. The most widely distributed species, E. balteatus, exhibits migratory behavior and has been extensively studied for its role in biological control. Taxonomic classification within the genus requires revision due to unclear species boundaries and environmentally variable diagnostic characters.
Episyrphus balteatus
marmalade hoverfly, marmalade hover fly
Episyrphus balteatus, commonly known as the marmalade hoverfly, is a small (9–12 mm) syrphid fly native to the Palaearctic region. It is considered the most abundant native hoverfly in Central Europe. Adults are significant pollinators of flowering plants, while larvae are voracious predators of aphids, consuming up to approximately 400 aphids before pupation. The species exhibits partial migratory behavior, with some individuals moving southward in autumn while others overwinter locally.
Erasmoneura
Erasmoneura is a genus of leafhoppers in the family Cicadellidae containing approximately 14 described species, most of which are native to North America. The genus includes E. vulnerata, a significant grapevine pest that has become invasive in Europe. Erasmoneura species are associated with Vitaceae host plants, with documented feeding on grapevines (Vitis spp.) and Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus spp.). The genus is characterized by small size, typical of the Typhlocybinae subfamily, and members use vibrational communication for mating.
Eretmocerinae
Eretmocerinae is a subfamily of minute parasitoid wasps within the family Aphelinidae. Members are known primarily as parasitoids of whiteflies (Aleyrodidae). The subfamily was established by Shafee and Khan in 1978 and contains the genus Eretmocerus, which is the most widely studied group within the subfamily due to its importance in biological control.
Eriborus
Eriborus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae with nearly cosmopolitan distribution. Species in this genus are koinobiont endoparasitoids, primarily attacking larval hosts in several lepidopteran families including Pyralidae, Cossidae, Sesiidae, and Noctuidae. Several species have been studied extensively for biological control applications, particularly against agricultural pests such as the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) and cabbage cluster caterpillar (Crocidolomia pavonana). The genus includes species with documented diurnal activity patterns and temperature-dependent developmental rates.
Eriborus terebrans
Eriborus terebrans is a solitary parasitoid wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. It has been documented as a parasitoid of European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) caterpillars and Paranthrene tabaniformis caterpillars. The species was first described by Gravenhorst in 1829 under the basionym Campoplex terebrans.
Erigone atra
Post Dwarf Weaver
Erigone atra is a small sheet-weaving spider in the family Linyphiidae, commonly known as the Post Dwarf Weaver. It is one of the most abundant species in its genus, with a holarctic distribution spanning North America, Europe, and Asia. The species is notable for its extensive use of aerial dispersal via ballooning, which enables colonization of agricultural habitats including cereal fields and grasslands. E. atra is recognized as an important biological control agent in agroecosystems, where it preys on crop pests such as aphids.
Erinnyis ello
ello sphinx
Erinnyis ello, the ello sphinx, is a sphingid moth distributed from Argentina through Central America to the United States. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. It is a significant agricultural pest, particularly of cassava, and has been extensively studied for its parasitoid relationships. Two subspecies are recognized: E. e. ello throughout the Americas and E. e. encantada endemic to the Galápagos Islands.
Eriophyidae
Gall and Rust Mites, Gall Mites, Four-legged Mites
Eriophyidae is a family of microscopic plant-parasitic mites comprising over 200 genera and approximately 3,600 described species, though estimates suggest the actual diversity may exceed 100,000 species. Members are commonly known as gall mites or rust mites due to their propensity to induce gall formation or cause rust-like discoloration on host plants. These mites possess worm-like bodies with only two pairs of legs, distinguishing them from most other mites. They are obligate parasites of vascular plants with high host specificity, typically specializing on single plant species or genera. The family includes significant agricultural pests such as the coconut mite (Aceria guerreronis), garlic mite (Aceria tulipae), and bermudagrass mite (Aceria cynodoniensis), as well as species used for biological control of weeds.
Eronyxa
Eronyxa is a genus of beetles in the family Lophocateridae (formerly treated as Trogossitidae). The genus was described by Reitter in 1876. Larvae of Eronyxa expansus have been documented as common predators of the incense cedar scale (Xylococculus macrocarpae) in California.
Eryciini
Eryciini is a tribe of tachinid flies comprising approximately 128 genera. The tribe serves as a repository for exoristine taxa that cannot be placed into other tribes, resulting in a polyphyletic assemblage. Members are parasitoids of Lepidoptera larvae, with documented associations to caterpillars in families Crambidae, Notodontidae, Noctuidae, Pyralidae, and Tortricidae. A new genus, Santarosamyia, was described in 2024 from Costa Rica based on specimens reared from wild-caught caterpillars.
Erythroneura
leafhoppers, microleafhoppers, grape leafhoppers
Erythroneura is a large genus of leafhoppers (Cicadellidae: Typhlocybinae) containing approximately 79 recognized species. Members are small, often colorful insects commonly known as microleafhoppers or grape leafhoppers. Several species are significant agricultural pests, particularly of grapevines (Vitis spp.), while others feed on sycamore (Platanus) and various other host plants. The genus exhibits complex ecological relationships including resource partitioning among sympatric species and serves as host for specialized egg parasitoids in the family Mymaridae.
Erythroneura elegantula
Western Grape Leafhopper
Erythroneura elegantula, the Western Grape Leafhopper, is a leafhopper species native to western North America and a significant pest of cultivated grapevines. It completes two generations annually between April and September in California vineyards. Population densities vary with proximity to vegetational borders, remaining stable near diverse perennial flowering hedgerows and riparian zones while declining at greater distances from borders. The species serves as host for egg parasitoids in the genus Anagrus (Mymaridae), which provide biological control.
Erythroneura ziczac
Virginia Creeper Leafhopper
Erythroneura ziczac, commonly known as the Virginia Creeper Leafhopper, is a small leafhopper species in the family Cicadellidae. It is a documented pest of grapevines in North America, particularly in California vineyards where it has been the subject of integrated pest management research. The species feeds on plant sap and is known to overwinter as adults. It is one of several Erythroneura species associated with vineyard ecosystems, distinguished by its specific host plant relationships and population dynamics studied in agricultural contexts.
Erythrothrips
Erythrothrips is a genus of predatory thrips in the family Aeolothripidae, established by Moulton in 1911. The genus contains approximately 11 described species distributed primarily in the Americas, with species recorded from the southwestern United States through Mexico to Brazil. Members of this genus are predatory, placing them among the beneficial thrips that contribute to biological control of pest insects.
Essigella
American Pine Needle Aphids
Essigella is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, commonly known as American pine needle aphids. Species in this genus are specialized feeders on Pinaceae, particularly Pinus species. Essigella californica, the type species and most well-known member, is native to western North America and has become an invasive pest in Australia and New Zealand, where it affects commercial pine plantations. The genus is characterized by its association with conifer hosts and its potential to cause defoliation and reduced tree growth.
Eteobalea
Eteobalea is a genus of small moths in the family Cosmopterigidae, established by Hodges in 1962. Some authors treat it as a synonym of Stagmatophora. Species in this genus are root miners, with larvae feeding internally on plant roots. Eteobalea serratella has been investigated as a biological control agent for yellow toadflax (Linaria vulgaris) in agricultural systems.
Etiella
snout moths, pod borers, limabean pod borers
Etiella is a genus of snout moths (Pyralidae: Phycitinae) described by Philipp Christoph Zeller in 1839. The genus contains approximately seven described species, with Etiella zinckenella being the most economically significant as a major pest of legume crops worldwide. Species in this genus are characterized by their larval habit of boring into pods of leguminous plants, causing substantial agricultural damage. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution spanning tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions across multiple continents.
Euaresta
Euaresta is a genus of tephritid fruit flies comprising 15 species endemic to the Americas. The genus is specialized on host plants in the genera Ambrosia, Xanthium, and Dicoria (Asteraceae), where larvae develop in flowers and seeds. Several species have been introduced outside their native ranges as biological control agents for invasive weeds. The genus was established by Loew in 1873.
Euaresta aequalis
burr-seed fly
Euaresta aequalis is a North American fruit fly in the family Tephritidae, commonly known as the burr-seed fly. It is a specialist herbivore whose only known host is the common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium). Females possess large ovipositors adapted for penetrating the hard, spiny burr capsules to deposit eggs. The species was introduced to Australia in the 1930s as a biological control agent for invasive cocklebur but established only at low levels and proved ineffective. It is univoltine, with adults active from mid-July to mid-August.
Euborellia annulata
ring-legged earwig
Euborellia annulata is a predatory earwig species in the family Anisolabididae, originally described by Fabricius in 1793. It has been extensively studied as a biological control agent, particularly for lepidopteran pests in corn agroecosystems. The species exhibits five nymphal instars, sexual dimorphism in forceps size and predatory behavior, and is known for its aggressive predation on soft-bodied insect larvae and eggs.
Euborellia annulipes
Ring-legged Earwig, Ringlegged Earwig
Euborellia annulipes, commonly known as the ring-legged earwig, is a widespread earwig species in the family Anisolabididae. It has been introduced to many regions worldwide and is recognized as a significant natural biological control agent in agricultural systems, particularly in banana groves and cornfields. The species exhibits notable parental care behavior by females, who remain sedentary to guard eggs and nymphs. Males are more mobile and frequently engage in egg cannibalism, though they can distinguish their own offspring from unrelated eggs and reduce cannibalism accordingly. The species has been studied extensively for its predatory activity against pests including Spodoptera frugiperda (fall armyworm) and its response to agricultural management practices.
Eucelatoria
Eucelatoria is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising approximately 70 species distributed throughout the Western Hemisphere from southern Canada to northern Argentina. The genus is characterized by distinctive reproductive morphology in females of certain species groups, notably the sword-like piercer found in the E. ferox species group. Species within this genus are parasitoids of Lepidoptera larvae, with documented host associations including Noctuidae (Helicoverpa zea, Heliothis virescens, Heliothis armigera) and Crambidae caterpillars. Several species, particularly E. bryani, have been extensively studied for their potential as biological control agents of agricultural pests.
Eucelatoria bryani
Eucelatoria bryani is a gregarious endoparasitoid tachinid fly native to North America. It parasitizes larval stages of noctuid moths, particularly Helicoverpa zea and Heliothis virescens. The species exhibits sophisticated host manipulation, accelerating host burrowing behavior to ensure pupariation in protected soil environments. It has been extensively studied for its potential as a biological control agent against agricultural pests.
Eucharitidae
eucharitid wasps, ant parasitoid wasps
Eucharitidae is a family of highly specialized parasitoid wasps in the superfamily Chalcidoidea. The family contains approximately 55 genera and over 400 species distributed across four subfamilies: Akapalinae, Eucharitinae, Gollumiellinae, and Oraseminae. Eucharitids are unique among parasitoids in their ability to exploit ants as hosts, overcoming the sophisticated defense systems that typically protect ant colonies. Most species are tropical, though some extend into temperate regions.
Euclemensia schwarziella
A small moth in the family Cosmopterigidae, described by August Busck in 1900 (published 1901). The species is known from Arizona and Texas. Its larvae are parasitoids of scale insects in the genera Kermes and Allokermes, making it one of relatively few moths with this specialized ecological strategy.
Euclytia flava
Euclytia flava is a tachinid fly parasitoid of stink bugs (Pentatomidae) native to North America. The species has been demonstrated to use host pheromones and allomones as kairomones for host-finding, with distinct kairomone strains that respond to different host species' semiochemicals. It has been tested for classical biological control applications, showing preference for exotic pentatomid species over indigenous hosts in choice tests. The species can be captured in large numbers using pheromone-baited traps targeting its native host Podisus maculiventris.
Eucoilini
Eucoilini is a tribe of small parasitoid wasps within the family Figitidae. Members are known primarily for their association with Drosophila fruit flies as hosts. The tribe contains genera such as Ganaspis and Leptopilina, which have been extensively studied in behavioral ecology and host-parasitoid interactions. These wasps are characterized by reduced wing venation and distinctive larval development inside host puparia.
Eucosmophora
Eucosmophora is a genus of leaf-mining moths in the family Gracillariidae, established by Walsingham in 1897. The genus contains approximately 17 described species distributed primarily in the Neotropical region, with some species extending into the Nearctic. Members are characterized by their larval habit of creating blotch mines in host plant foliage. At least one species, E. schinusivora, has been extensively studied as a potential biological control agent for invasive Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolius).
Euderus
Euderus is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Eulophidae, comprising approximately 77 species with cosmopolitan distribution. The genus is notable for including parasitoid species that manipulate host behavior, most prominently E. set, the "crypt-keeper wasp," which induces gall wasps to create head-plugged exit holes that facilitate parasitoid emergence. In North America alone, the genus contains 25 species arranged in five subgenera. Species exhibit striking metallic coloration ranging from olive green to turquoise to iridescent blue.
Eudorylini
Eudorylini is a tribe of big-headed flies within the family Pipunculidae. The tribe comprises at least eight described genera, including the type genus Eudorylas. Members of this tribe are parasitoids, with larvae developing inside other insects. The tribe is distinguished from related groups by specific morphological characteristics of the head and genitalia.
Eugaurax
frit flies
Eugaurax is a genus of frit flies (Chloropidae) established by Malloch in 1913. The genus contains 11 New World species, with North American representatives including leaf miners of aquatic plants. Larvae of E. floridensis mine tissues of arrowheads (Sagittaria spp.), while E. hydrocotyles is a leaf and stem miner of floating marshpennywort (Hydrocotyle ranunculoides). A species complex centered on E. quadrilineatus occurs throughout the Americas but its larval biology remains largely unknown.
Euhrychiopsis
milfoil weevil
Euhrychiopsis is a genus of small aquatic weevils in the tribe Phytobiini, family Curculionidae. The genus contains at least one well-studied species, Euhrychiopsis lecontei, commonly known as the milfoil weevil. Members of this genus are fully submersed freshwater specialists that feed on watermilfoil plants (Myriophyllum species). The genus has gained attention for its potential use in biological control of invasive aquatic plants.
Euhrychiopsis lecontei
Milfoil Weevil
A small submersed aquatic weevil native to North America, investigated as a biological control agent for invasive Eurasian watermilfoil. Adults and larvae feed on watermilfoil species, with larvae acting as stem borers that damage plant tissue. Populations occur naturally on native northern watermilfoil and have expanded to exotic Eurasian watermilfoil. The species exhibits plastic host preferences influenced by rearing experience, with faster development and larger adult sizes observed on Eurasian watermilfoil despite higher larval survivorship on native hosts.
Eulachnus
Pine Needle Aphids
Eulachnus is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, comprising approximately 24 species distributed across Eurasia and the Americas. All species are obligately associated with pine trees (Pinus spp.), feeding on phloem sap from needles. Several species, including E. agilis, E. brevipilosus, and E. rileyi, have been introduced beyond their native European ranges and have become significant pests of commercial pine forestry. The genus exhibits parthenogenetic reproduction with multiple overlapping generations annually, and population dynamics are strongly influenced by seasonal climate patterns.
Eulachnus rileyi
pine needle aphid
Eulachnus rileyi is a pine needle aphid native to North America that has become established in pine plantations across Africa, South America, and Europe. It feeds on phloem sap of pine needles, showing preference for 3-4 year old foliage. Populations exhibit bimodal peaks in spring and autumn, with crashes during heavy rainfall periods. The species reproduces parthenogenetically, producing both winged dispersal forms and wingless forms. It is considered a significant pest in commercial pine plantations, where dense infestations can cause needle yellowing, reduced growth, and tree stress.
Eulophidae
Eulophidae is a large family of minute chalcidoid wasps comprising over 4,300 described species in approximately 300 genera. Members are distinguished by having only four tarsomeres on each leg, a small straight protibial spur, and antennae with two to four funicle segments and at most 10 antennomeres. The majority of species are primary parasitoids of arthropods across all developmental stages, with exceptional diversity in host associations including thrips, leafhoppers, gall wasps, and various other insects. The family includes the former family Elasmidae (now subfamily Elasminae) and is represented globally across virtually all terrestrial habitats, including one aquatic species that parasitizes water-penny beetles.
Eulophinae
Eulophinae is a subfamily of chalcid wasps in the family Eulophidae, comprising over 90 genera. Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown it to be a derived group within Eulophidae, not an ancestral one as previously thought. The subfamily contains three recognized tribes: Eulophini, Elasmini, and Cirrospilini. Members are primarily ectoparasitoids, with some species functioning as hyperparasitoids or gall-formers.
Eulophus
Eulophus is a genus of chalcidoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species are gregarious ectoparasitoids, primarily attacking lepidopteran larvae. The genus has been extensively studied for its biological control potential, particularly E. pennicornis against the tomato moth Lacanobia oleracea. Wasp larvae feed externally on host caterpillars and possess sophisticated host manipulation capabilities including developmental arrest and immune suppression.
Eunotidae
Eunotidae is a family of small parasitic wasps in the superfamily Chalcidoidea, elevated to family status in 2022 from the former subfamily Eunotinae of Pteromalidae. The family comprises approximately 23 genera and 17 species worldwide, with most species known as parasitoids of scale insects (Coccoidea). The taxonomic revision was based on integrated molecular, morphological, and life history data.
Eunotus
Eunotus is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Eunotidae, first described by Walker in 1834. Most species are parasitoids of scale insects (Coccoidea), including coccid scales, felt scales (Eriococcidae), and mealybugs. The genus has a wide geographic distribution spanning the Palearctic, Nearctic, and Oriental regions, with records from Europe, Asia, and North America. Species exhibit morphological traits typical of the family, including distinctive antennal structure and thoracic sculpture.
Euodynerus foraminatus
Potter wasp, Mason wasp
Euodynerus foraminatus is a solitary mason wasp in the family Vespidae, subfamily Eumeninae. Females construct multi-celled nests in pre-existing cavities such as holes in wood or abandoned bee burrows, provisioning each cell with paralyzed caterpillars as food for their larvae. The species is notable for having single-locus complementary sex determination, which typically produces sterile diploid males, yet field studies have documented surprisingly high rates of sibling mating in natural populations. It is widespread across North America and readily uses artificial nest structures such as bee blocks.
Euodynerus hidalgo boreoorientalis
A subspecies of mason wasp in the subfamily Eumeninae, distributed along the Eastern Seaboard of North America. Females nest in pre-existing cavities such as old bee or beetle borings in twigs and stalks, provisioning cells with paralyzed caterpillars. This subspecies is distinguished from the nominate form by reduced red coloration, appearing mostly black with sparse yellow markings.
Euodynerus tempiferus
Euodynerus tempiferus is a species of mason wasp in the subfamily Eumeninae. As a member of the genus Euodynerus, it shares characteristics with other solitary vespid wasps that provision nests with paralyzed caterpillars for their larval offspring. The species was described by Viereck in 1908. Specific biological details for this species remain poorly documented in available sources, though it likely exhibits the general nesting behaviors typical of the genus, including use of pre-existing cavities or self-excavated burrows.
Euoniticellus intermedius
Northern Sandy Dung Beetle
Euoniticellus intermedius is an African dung beetle intentionally introduced to multiple continents for dung burial and livestock pest control. Males possess a distinctive horn absent in females, making it a model organism for sexual selection studies. The species exhibits remarkable tolerance to diverse environments and stressors, though it is sensitive to global change factors including warming and pollution. Larvae feed exclusively on cow dung fiber while adults consume juices from fresh dung.
Eupelminae
Eupelminae is a subfamily of parasitic wasps within the family Eupelmidae (Chalcidoidea). Members exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism, with females possessing a remarkable jumping ability powered by modified mesothoracic musculature and resilin energy storage. Females of many species have reduced flight capability and rely on walking, while males fly readily. The subfamily includes important biological control agents such as species of Anastatus, which parasitize the eggs of diverse hosts including moths, true bugs, cockroaches, and stick insects.
Eupelmus
Eupelmus is a large genus of chalcidoid wasps in the family Eupelmidae, comprising over 330 species with cosmopolitan distribution. Species exhibit dual life histories: most are ectoparasitoids attacking larval and nymphal stages of diverse holometabolous insects, while some are phytophagous with larvae feeding on plant tissues. The genus has been subject to extensive taxonomic revision, with molecular studies challenging the traditional three-subgenus classification (Eupelmus, Episolindelia, Macroneura) in favor of approximately twelve species groups. Several species have demonstrated potential for biological control of agricultural pests.
Eupelmus cushmani
Eupelmus cushmani (Crawford, 1908) is a chalcidoid wasp in the family Eupelmidae, classified within the subgenus Eupelmus (Eupelmus). It is known as a parasitoid of the avocado branch borer Copturus aguacatae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), with documented occurrences in Mexico, Brazil, and Hawaii. The species was previously described under the synonym Eupelmus amicus Girault.
Eupeodes
Aphideaters, aphideater flies
Eupeodes is a genus of moderate-sized hoverflies in the family Syrphidae, commonly known as aphideaters. Adults are black with yellow markings and are distributed worldwide. The genus is part of the Syrphini tribe and is frequently mistaken for similar genera. Both life stages serve important ecological functions: larvae are aphid predators, while adults are pollinators.
Eupeodes flukei
Fluke's Aphideater
Eupeodes flukei is a species of syrphid fly commonly known as Fluke's Aphideater. As a member of the subfamily Syrphinae, its larvae are aphid predators, contributing to natural pest control in gardens and agricultural settings. Adults are pollinators that visit flowers for nectar. The species exhibits typical hover fly characteristics including wasp-mimicking appearance, hovering flight behavior, and large compound eyes.
Eupeodes montivagus
Red-tailed Aphideater
A flower fly (Syrphidae) known as the Red-tailed Aphideater. Adults are pollinators that visit flowers for nectar. Larvae are aphid predators, with females laying eggs in or near aphid colonies. The species was first described from Colorado by William Morton Wheeler in 1895.
Eupeodes perplexus
bare-winged aphideater
Eupeodes perplexus, commonly known as the bare-winged aphideater, is a hoverfly species native to North America. The species is notable for its distinctive wing venation and abdominal patterning. Adults are nectar feeders, while larvae are predatory, consuming aphids and scale insects. The species is part of the diverse syrphid fauna that contributes to both pollination and biological control in various ecosystems.
Eupeodes pomus
Short-tailed Aphideater
Eupeodes pomus, commonly known as the short-tailed aphideater, is a species of syrphid fly distributed across North America. Adults are flower-visiting insects that feed on nectar and pollen, while larvae are aphid predators. The species belongs to a family noted for wasp-mimicking appearance and hovering flight behavior.
Eupeodes snowi
Snow's Aphideater
Eupeodes snowi is a species of syrphid fly, commonly known as Snow's Aphideater, in the family Syrphidae. As a member of the Syrphinae subfamily, its larvae are aphid predators. The species is part of a diverse genus of hover flies that serve as important biological control agents and pollinators.
Eupeodes volucris
Large-tailed Aphideater, Bird Hover Fly
Eupeodes volucris is a hover fly (family Syrphidae) commonly known as the large-tailed aphideater or bird hover fly. Larvae are aphid predators, feeding on plant-sucking insects. Adults are pollinators that visit flowers for nectar. The species is notable among syrphid flies for its relatively large size and distinctive abdominal patterning.
Euphorinae
The Euphorinae are a large subfamily of Braconidae parasitoid wasps comprising over 1,270 described species worldwide. They are characterized as koinobiont endoparasitoids, typically attacking adult insects or nymphs of hemimetabolous hosts—a notably broad host range among parasitoid wasps. The subfamily is sister to the Meteorinae and has been used in biological pest control programs.
Euphyllura
olive psyllids, olive psylla
Euphyllura is a genus of plant-feeding psyllids (Hemiptera: Liviidae) established by Arnold Förster in 1848. Species are primarily associated with olive (Olea europaea) and related host plants in the Oleaceae. The genus is predominantly Palaearctic in distribution, with most species occurring in southern Europe and Asia, though records extend to southern Africa and western North America. Several species are economically significant pests of olive cultivation, including E. olivina, E. phillyreae, and E. straminea, which damage developing inflorescences and fruits. The genus exhibits typical psyllid biology with temperature-dependent reproduction and seasonal diapause strategies.
Euphyllura olivina
olive psyllid
Euphyllura olivina is a psyllid species in the family Liviidae that feeds exclusively on olive (Olea europaea). Native to the Mediterranean region, it has become invasive in California where it threatens olive production. The species develops two generations annually, with spring and autumn reproductive activity and summer reproductive diapause induced by high temperatures. Nymphal infestations concentrate near fruits and on shaded, lower canopy portions. Temperature sensitivity shapes its distribution and seasonal activity patterns.
Euphyllurinae
Euphyllurinae is a subfamily of jumping plant-lice (Psylloidea) within the family Liviidae. The subfamily includes economically significant species such as the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri), a major vector of citrus greening disease (huanglongbing). Until recently, the subfamily was unknown from the Americas, with the 2023 description of Burckhardtiana from Brazil representing the first Neotropical record.
Euplectrus
Euplectrus is a cosmopolitan genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae, distinguished by unique morphological and biological traits. All species are ectoparasitoids of caterpillars from diverse moth families. The genus exhibits distinctive larval adaptations, including the ability to spin silk cocoons—a feature unique within Eulophidae. Species-level identification is challenging due to morphological conservatism.
Euplectrus comstockii
Euplectrus comstockii is an ectoparasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae that parasitizes larval Lepidoptera. Adult females inject venom containing a developmental arrestant that arrests host molting and metamorphosis, maintaining the host in a suitable state for parasitoid offspring development. The species has been studied extensively for its host-parasitoid interactions, venom biochemistry, and potential use in biological control programs. Developmental timing varies with temperature: at 24°C and 72.8% relative humidity, the egg stage lasts approximately 1.75 days, larval stage 5.0 days, prepupa 0.95 days, and pupa 5.5 days.
Euplectrus platyhypenae
Euplectrus platyhypenae is a gregarious ectoparasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae that develops externally on lepidopteran host larvae. The species has been documented attacking fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) in laboratory studies and peanut foliage-feeding caterpillars in Oklahoma. Females exhibit host strain preference, ovipositing preferentially on corn-strain fall armyworm over rice-strain hosts. Development is rapid, with egg-to-adult times of approximately 9.8–10.5 days depending on host strain.
Eurygaster
sunn pest, sunn bug, tortoise shieldbug
Eurygaster is a genus of shield bugs in the family Scutelleridae, distributed across Eurasia with some species in North America. The genus includes several economically significant agricultural pests, particularly E. integriceps and E. testudinaria, known as sunn pests that damage cereal crops. Species identification within the genus is challenging due to morphological similarities among closely related taxa. The genus comprises at least 17 extant species plus one fossil species, with six species recorded from Russia.
Euschistus crenator
Euschistus crenator is a phytophagous stink bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) recognized as a key pest in soybean cultivation, causing direct damage to developing grains. The species occurs across the Caribbean, Central America, North America, and South America, with confirmed populations in northern Brazil (Roraima and Pará states). Second-instar nymphs exhibit high susceptibility to entomopathogenic fungi, and the egg parasitoid Telenomus podisi has been confirmed to parasitize its eggs. The species is frequently misidentified with Euschistus heros due to morphological similarities.
Euschistus servus
Brown Stink Bug
Euschistus servus, commonly known as the brown stink bug, is a native North American pentatomid species distributed across Central America and North America. It is a significant agricultural pest in the southern United States, feeding on a wide range of crops including soybeans, cotton, corn, peanuts, peaches, and pecans. The species is highly mobile, capable of dispersing up to 15.9 km in flight mill studies, and exhibits seasonal movement between crop hosts and non-crop habitats. Two subspecies are recognized: E. s. servus and E. s. euschistoides.
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servus euschistoides
brown stink bug
Euschistus servus euschistoides is a subspecies of brown stink bug in the family Pentatomidae. It is a nominal phytophage documented to exhibit facultative predatory behavior on caterpillars. The subspecies occurs in North America and is part of the Euschistus servus species complex, which includes agricultural pests of soybean and other crops. Observations in central New York State confirmed predation on Pieris rapae larvae.
Eusemion
Eusemion is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, first described by Dahlbom in 1857. The genus is represented in the UCR Encyrtidae collection by specimens identified as Eusemion longipennis (Ashmead) and additional undetermined species. Encyrtidae are small chalcidoid wasps that parasitize other insects, particularly scale insects and other Hemiptera. The family is one of the most species-rich groups within Chalcidoidea, with the UCR collection containing representatives of 261 valid genera.
Eustala
humpbacked orb-weavers
Eustala is a genus of orb-weaver spiders in the family Araneidae, first described by Eugène Simon in 1895. As of November 2024, the genus contains 87 species distributed primarily across the Americas, from the United States through Central America to South America, with highest diversity in Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. Several species have been documented exhibiting specialized ecological relationships, including myrmecophily (living among ants) in Central American species that inhabit ant-defended acacia plants. The genus includes the well-known humpbacked orb-weaver, Eustala anastera, found across North and Central America.
Araneidaeorb-weaverspiderhumpbackedmyrmecophilyant-plant-mutualismNeotropicalNearcticEustala-anasteraEustala-oblongaEustala-illicitaweb-buildingpredatoracaciaPseudomyrmexPanamaBrazilGalápagosSimon-1895arachnologyentomologytropical-ecologycommensalismontogenyballooningoverwinteringjuvenilespider-wasp-preyCaliadurgus-hyalinatushost-parasitoid-interactionsthird-party-exploitationmutualism-exploitationcryptic-colorationnocturnal-foragingdiurnal-hiding-behaviorthorn-defenseorb-web-architecturesawtoothed-webpopulation-ecologysubstrate-selectionspatial-distributionspecies-diversityendemic-speciestaxonomic-revisionnomen-dubiumgenitalic-morphologymicroscopy-identificationtemperate-North-AmericaCentral-AmericaSouth-AmericaCaribbeanPacific-islandsconservation-biologyclimate-change-vulnerabilityphenology-disruptionwinter-activityspring-emergenceforest-understorydry-forestmoist-forestripariangrasslandscrubedge-habitatwoodlandparklandurban-adaptedgeneralist-predatorspecialist-predatorant-alate-predationherbivore-interceptionecosystem-servicebiological-controlnatural-historyfield-identificationcryptic-species-complexsexual-dimorphismwingless-female-mothsballooning-dispersalsilk-productionweb-ontogenyinstar-developmentoverwintering-strategycold-hardinessmetabolic-suppressiondiapausevoltinismunivoltinebivoltinemultivoltineseasonal-polyphenismcolor-morphpattern-polymorphismhabitat-specificityhost-plant-specificityant-colony-integrationalarm-pheromone-avoidancesting-avoidancepredator-avoidancebird-predationlizard-predationwasp-predationassassin-bug-predationstink-bug-predationdefensive-behaviorthanatosiscamouflagemasquerademimicryaggressive-mimicryforaging-ecologyprey-captureweb-maintenanceweb-repairsilk-recyclingenergeticsreproductive-outputfecundityegg-sac-constructionmaternal-caremale-searching-behaviormate-locationpheromone-communicationvibratory-communicationvisual-signalingterritorialityweb-site-fidelityweb-site-tenacitydispersal-behaviorcolonization-abilityrange-expansioninvasive-potentialnon-native-speciesintroduced-speciessynanthropicagricultural-landscapeorchardvineyardforest-plantationconservation-statusdata-deficientIUCNCITESprotected-areanational-parksoberaniachiribiquetegalapagosfloreanaecuadorperuboliviachileargentinauruguayparaguayvenezuelacolombiacosta-ricanicaraguahondurasguatemalabelizemexicousacanadacubahispaniolajamaicapuerto-ricotrinidadtobagobarbadoslesser-antillesgreater-antilleswest-indiescaribbean-basinamazon-basinorinocoparanapantanalcerradocaatingaatlantic-forestpampaschacoyungasvaldivianmagellanicfynbosnoneresearch-modeleducational-resourcecitizen-scienceinaturalistgbifcatalogue-of-lifencbiwikipediazootaxajournal-of-natural-historypsycheentomology-todaybug-ericaraneologychelicerate-biologyarthropod-ecologytropical-biologyneotropical-faunanearctic-faunaholarticpantropicalgondwananbiogeographyphylogeographymolecular-systematicsmorphological-taxonomyintegrative-taxonomyspecies-conceptcryptic-diversityundescribed-speciesnew-species-descriptionredescriptionneotype-designationlectotype-designationtype-localitytype-specimenmuseum-collectionvoucher-specimendna-barcodingcoiitsphylogenomicstranscriptomicsproteomicsmetabolomicsecological-genomicsadaptationlocal-adaptationphenotypic-plasticitycanalizationevolutionary-developmental-biologyevo-devobehavioral-ecologysensory-ecologyvisual-ecologychemical-ecologymechanoreceptionproprioceptionneuroethologyhunting-behaviorweb-building-behaviorconstruction-behaviortool-useextended-phenotypeniche-constructionecosystem-engineeringtrophic-cascadefood-webenergy-flownutrient-cyclingdecompositionpredator-prey-dynamicspopulation-dynamicsmetapopulationsource-sink-dynamicshabitat-fragmentationedge-effectscorridorsconnectivitylandscape-ecologymacroecologybiogeochemistryclimate-envelopespecies-distribution-modelingmaxentbioclimworldclimremote-sensinggisspatial-analysisgeostatisticsabundancedensitybiomassproductivitydiversity-indexrichnessevennessdominancerarityendemismbeta-diversitygamma-diversityalpha-diversityturnovernestednesscommunity-assemblyneutral-theoryniche-theorycompetitionfacilitationapparent-competitionindirect-effectsinteraction-networksmutualismparasitismpredationherbivorydetritivoryscavengingcannibalismintraspecific-competitioninterspecific-competitioncharacter-displacementresource-partitioningniche-differentiationcoexistencestabilityresilienceresistancerecoverysuccessiondisturbanceperturbationextinctioncolonizationinvasionestablishmentspreadimpactrisk-assessmentmanagementcontroleradicationrestorationreintroductionrewildingconservation-breedingex-situin-situprotected-area-networkgap-analysissystematic-conservation-planningprioritizationhotspotcoldspotmajorityminorityflagshipumbrellakeystonefoundationecosystem-engineerindicatorsentinelbioindicatorbiomonitorecosystem-healthenvironmental-qualitypollutionpesticideheavy-metalcontaminantbioaccumulationbiomagnificationtoxicologyriskhazardexposuredose-responseno-observed-effect-concentrationlowest-observed-effect-concent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htperchroostnestdenburrowtunneldigexcavateminequarryextractremoveeliminateeradicateexterminatedestroydemolishruinwreckdamageharminjurehurtwoundmaimcripplelamedisableincapacitateparalyzestunshockastonishamazeastoundstaggerstupefydazebewilderconfusepuzzleperplexbafflemystifyenigmaEutherini
Eutherini is a tribe of tachinid flies within the subfamily Dexiinae. The tribe contains two genera: Euthera Loew, 1854 and Redtenbacheria Schiner, 1861. Members are parasitoid flies whose larvae develop inside other insects.
Euthycera
Euthycera is a genus of marsh flies in the family Sciomyzidae, commonly known as snail-killing flies. The genus contains approximately 30 described species distributed primarily across the Palearctic region. Members of this genus are predators or parasitoids of freshwater snails and slugs, making them significant biological control agents. The genus was established by Latreille in 1829 and is classified within the tribe Tetanocerini.
Euthyrhynchus
Florida predatory stink bug
Euthyrhynchus is a monotypic genus of predatory stink bugs in the family Pentatomidae, subfamily Asopinae. The sole species, E. floridanus (Florida predatory stink bug), is native to the southeastern United States and has expanded its range northward in recent decades, now regularly occurring as far north as the Mid-Atlantic and New England. This carnivorous shield bug is considered beneficial in agricultural and garden settings due to its predation on pest insects.
Euthyrhynchus floridanus
Florida predatory stink bug
Euthyrhynchus floridanus, commonly known as the Florida predatory stink bug, is a carnivorous shield bug in the family Pentatomidae and the sole species in its genus. Native to tropical and semi-tropical regions of the Americas, it has expanded its range northward in recent decades due to climate warming. This beneficial insect is a generalist predator that feeds on numerous agricultural and garden pests, including caterpillars, beetle larvae, and other stink bugs. Its distinctive orange and black coloration makes it easily recognizable among predatory true bugs.
Eutreta
Eutreta is a genus of fruit flies (family Tephritidae) established by Loew in 1873. The genus comprises 36 species distributed across three subgenera: Eutreta, Metatephritis, and Setosigena. Species in this genus are known for inducing galls on host plants, with documented associations to Asteraceae and Verbenaceae families. At least one species, Eutreta xanthochaeta, has been introduced to multiple regions for attempted biological control of invasive weeds.
Eutrichosoma
Eutrichosoma is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Eutrichosomatidae (Chalcidoidea). The genus is notable for its planidial first-instar larvae—highly mobile, host-seeking forms that actively locate hosts rather than being deposited directly on or in them. At least two species are recognized: E. mirabile Ashmead and E. burksi Baker & Heraty. The subfamily Eutrichosomatinae belongs to the Planidial Larva Clade within Chalcidoidea.
Eutrombidium
Eutrombidium is a genus of parasitic mites in the family Microtrombidiidae. Larval stages are ectoparasites primarily of grasshoppers and related orthopterans, with some records from beetles and crickets. The genus has been documented across Australia, Asia (Laos, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Iran, Pakistan), and Europe. Attachment sites on hosts include leg insertions and the prosternum.
Euwallacea perbrevis
tea shot-hole borer
Euwallacea perbrevis, the tea shot-hole borer, is an invasive ambrosia beetle native to South and Southeast Asia through Australia. It is part of the Euwallacea fornicatus cryptic species complex, distinguished from its three sibling species (E. fornicatus, E. fornicatior, and E. kuroshio) primarily through molecular genetics rather than morphology. The beetle cultivates symbiotic fungi in galleries bored into host trees and vectors fungal pathogens causing Fusarium branch dieback. It has been introduced to the United States (Florida, Hawaii), Costa Rica, and Panama, where it poses significant economic threats to avocado production and urban trees.
Evania
ensign wasps
Evania is a genus of ensign wasps in the family Evaniidae, comprising more than 60 described species. All members of this genus are cockroach egg parasitoids, with females laying eggs inside cockroach oöthecae (egg capsules). The most widespread and well-studied species, Evania appendigaster, has been introduced globally and is frequently associated with urban environments where its cockroach hosts occur. These wasps are recognized by their distinctive flag-like abdomens, which they characteristically wave while walking.
Evania appendigaster
blue-eyed ensign wasp
Evania appendigaster is a parasitoid wasp in the family Evaniidae, commonly known as the blue-eyed ensign wasp. It is one of the larger ensign wasps, with forewings reaching about 7 mm and body length up to 11 mm. The species is a solitary oothecal parasitoid that attacks the egg cases of multiple cockroach species. It likely originated in Asia and has become widespread globally, particularly in tropical, subtropical, and temperate urban environments.
Evaniidae
ensign wasps, nightshade wasps, hatchet wasps, cockroach egg parasitoid wasps
Evaniidae is a family of solitary parasitoid wasps commonly known as ensign wasps, nightshade wasps, or hatchet wasps. The family comprises approximately 20 extant genera containing over 400 described species, with a nearly cosmopolitan distribution excluding polar regions. Evaniidae are immediately distinctive among Hymenoptera due to their unique morphology: the metasoma (abdomen) is attached very high on the propodeum, well above the hind coxae, and is connected by a long, one-segmented, tube-like petiole. The common name "ensign wasp" derives from the characteristic habit of these wasps to jerk their small, flag-like metasoma up and down while walking. All known evaniid larvae are specialized parasitoids that develop inside the egg cases (oothecae) of cockroaches (Blattodea), consuming the host eggs.
Evergestis
Evergestis is a genus of crambid moths established by Jacob Hübner in 1825. Species within this genus are distributed across the Palaearctic region, with some exhibiting highly disjunct, fragmented distributions. Several species are documented agricultural pests of cruciferous crops, including E. rimosalis (cross-striped cabbageworm) and E. forficalis. The genus has been subject to recent taxonomic revision, with new species described from Central Asia and Iran.
Evergestis rimosalis
cross-striped cabbageworm, Cross-striped Cabbageworm Moth
Evergestis rimosalis is a crambid moth commonly known as the cross-striped cabbageworm. It is recognized as a pest of brassica crops in eastern North America and serves as a host for the gregarious endoparasitoid wasp Cotesia orobenae. The species has been studied primarily in the context of biological control research.
Exapion
seed weevils
Exapion is a genus of straight-snouted weevils in the family Brentidae. Species are specialized seed predators of leguminous plants, particularly members of the Fabaceae tribe Genisteae. Several species have been employed as biological control agents against invasive shrubs. The genus was separated from Apion based on morphological and genetic evidence.
Exapion ulicis
Gorse Seed Weevil
Exapion ulicis is a small seed-feeding weevil specialized on gorse (Ulex europaeus). Adults are light gray with a prominent snout roughly half the body length. The species is native to western Europe and has been introduced to New Zealand, California, Hawaii, and other regions as a biological control agent targeting invasive gorse populations. Larval feeding destroys seeds within pods, reducing plant spread, while adult feeding on stems and spines causes minor damage.
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rational-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setExenterus
Exenterus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, subfamily Tryphoninae, first described by Hartig in 1837. The genus contains species that are specialized parasitoids of sawflies in the family Diprionidae, with documented hosts including Neodiprion sertifer, N. swainei, N. autumnalis, Diprion sertifer, and Zadiprion falsus. Several species have been introduced across continents for biological control of pine sawfly pests. The genus exhibits notable morphological diversity in egg structure, with European species showing an evolutionary gradient from simple to highly specialized stalked eggs that correlates with climatic tolerance and biological control success.
Exenterus amictorius
Exenterus amictorius is an ichneumonid parasitoid wasp introduced to North America that attacks sawfly larvae (Hymenoptera: Diprionidae), particularly during the pre-spinning eonymph stage. The species exhibits adaptive host discrimination behavior that changes during the host's spinning period, lacks discrimination initially but rapidly acquires and maintains this ability. It shows strong positive density-dependent responses to host abundance and has established successfully on multiple diprionid hosts across North America. In multiparasitism situations with the native E. diprionis, E. amictorius consistently survives due to faster larval development.
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Exeristes is a genus of ichneumon wasps (family Ichneumonidae) containing approximately nine described species. Species in this genus are ectoparasitoids of insect larvae. Exeristes roborator has been extensively studied for its associative learning abilities, demonstrating capacity to learn olfactory and visual cues associated with host microhabitats. E. comstockii has been used in nutritional studies examining dietary requirements for reproduction.
Exeristes comstockii
Exeristes comstockii is a parasitoid wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. Laboratory studies indicate it is a koinobiont parasitoid with documented host associations including Galleria mellonella and Lucilia sericata. Adult females require specific dietary components—amino acids, salts, and vitamins—for maximal fecundity. The species exhibits unusual fatty acid metabolism, directly incorporating host lipids rather than maintaining species-characteristic fatty acid profiles.
Exochomus
Exochomus is a genus of lady beetles in the family Coccinellidae, first described by Redtenbacher in 1843. The genus comprises at least 77 recognized species distributed globally. Multiple species have been studied as biological control agents against mealybugs and other soft-bodied pests in agricultural and forestry systems. Research has focused particularly on E. nigripennis in Egypt and E. flaviventris in Central Africa as predators of invasive mealybug species.
Exorista larvarum
Exorista larvarum is a Palaearctic tachinid fly and polyphagous larval endoparasitoid of Lepidoptera. The species was introduced to North America in the 20th century for biological control of the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar). It is notable for being one of the few parasitoids that can be efficiently reared from egg to adult on artificial diets without living hosts, making it a promising candidate for mass production in augmentative biological control programs.
Exoristinae
Exoristinae is a subfamily of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising approximately 1,000 described species across 11 tribes. Most species are parasitoids of Lepidoptera caterpillars, though some tribes exhibit host specificity for other insect orders including Orthoptera and Heteroptera. The subfamily is distributed worldwide with greatest diversity in the Neotropics. Several species have been employed in biological control programs against agricultural pests.
Exoristini
Exoristini is a tribe of flies within the family Tachinidae, subfamily Exoristinae. The tribe contains approximately 22 genera, including the type genus Exorista Meigen, 1803. Members are parasitoid flies, with larvae typically developing inside other insects. The tribe is distinguished from related tachinid tribes by morphological features of the male terminalia and larval cephalopharyngeal skeleton. Exoristini has a cosmopolitan distribution, with species found across multiple continents.
Exothecinae
Exothecinae is a subfamily of Braconidae parasitoid wasps, currently comprising approximately 24 genera including Colastes, Pambolus, Hormius, and Xenarcha. Members are cyclostome braconids characterized by reduced genus diversity relative to other subfamilies. The subfamily exhibits broad host associations across multiple insect orders, with larvae parasitizing primarily concealed-feeding hosts such as leaf-mining and stem-boring insects.
Falconia
Falconia is a genus of plant bugs in the family Miridae, established by Distant in 1884. Species within this genus are phytophagous and associated with specific host plants. Falconia incaica has been documented feeding on Ricinus communis (castor bean) in Colombia, while F. intermedia has been investigated as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Lantana camara in Australia and Africa. Nymphal instars can be differentiated by morphological features including antennal segment measurements and coloration changes.
Feltiella
Feltiella is a genus of predatory gall midges (Cecidomyiidae) whose larvae feed on spider mites (Tetranychidae). The genus includes commercially important biological control agents, particularly F. acarisuga, which is mass-reared for augmentative biocontrol of tetranychid mites in greenhouse and agricultural systems. Larvae are voracious predators of spider mite eggs, with documented consumption rates exceeding 150 eggs per larva. Adults are short-lived and do not feed on prey.
Fenusa
Fenusa is a genus of common sawflies in the family Tenthredinidae containing approximately 11 described species. Species in this genus are specialized leaf miners whose larvae feed internally within leaves of host trees. Several species are significant economic pests, including the birch leafminer (F. pusilla), elm leafminer (F. ulmi), and European alder leafminer (F. dohrnii). The genus has been extensively studied in biological control contexts due to the damage caused by larval feeding.
Fiorinia
Fiorinia is a genus of armored scale insects (family Diaspididae) comprising approximately 70 species. The genus is characterized by pupillarial development, where the adult female remains enclosed within the second-instar exuviae. Species are predominantly distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia and the Pacific Islands, though several have become invasive pests globally through trade in ornamental plants. Notable invasive species include F. externa (elongate hemlock scale), F. fioriniae (palm fiorinia scale), F. phantasma (phantasma scale), and F. theae (tea scale).
Fiorinia externa
elongate hemlock scale
Fiorinia externa, the elongate hemlock scale, is an invasive armored scale insect native to Japan and southern China. Accidentally introduced to North America around 1908, it has become established throughout the northeastern United States and threatens hemlock (Tsuga) and related conifers. The species is a pupillarial scale, with adult females remaining within their second-instar exuviae. Heavy infestations cause yellowing, premature needle drop, branch dieback, and occasional tree death. It poses particular economic concern for Fraser fir Christmas tree production in the southeastern United States, where it can persist on harvested trees for up to 13 weeks post-harvest.
Forficula
earwigs
Forficula is the largest genus of earwigs, containing at least 68 species. The genus was established by Linnaeus in 1758 and is native to Afro-Eurasia, primarily Europe, though it now occurs on all continents except Antarctica. The best known species is Forficula auricularia, a common household and agricultural pest that has been introduced to North America, Australia, and New Zealand. Members of this genus exhibit maternal care of eggs and nymphs, a rare trait among insects.
Forficula auricularia
European earwig, common earwig
Forficula auricularia is an omnivorous earwig native to Europe, western Asia, and North Africa, now invasive across North America, Australia, and New Zealand. It is recognized by forceps-like cerci—curved in males, straight in females—and concealed hindwings that unfold to resemble human ears, inspiring both its common name and specific epithet. The species exhibits extended maternal care, with females guarding eggs and nymphs in underground nests. Population dynamics vary geographically: temperate populations typically produce one brood annually, while warmer regions may support two broods.
Franklinothrips
Franklinothrips is a pantropical genus of predatory thrips in the family Aeolothripidae, comprising 14 recognized species. The genus is distinguished by striking ant-mimicry, particularly in females, which exhibit fast-running behavior and body forms resembling ants or bethylid wasps. Most species are bisexual with localized distributions, though F. vespiformis is notably unisexual and widespread. Several species have been developed as biological control agents against pest thrips in greenhouses and agricultural systems.
Franklinothrips vespiformis
Vespiform Thrips, Vespiform Thrip
Franklinothrips vespiformis is a predatory thrips species in the family Aeolothripidae, notable for its ant-mimicking adult morphology and distinctive red, humped-back larvae. It is widely distributed across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide and has been extensively studied as a biological control agent for various agricultural and greenhouse pests. The species exhibits myrmecomorphy—mimicking ants in appearance and fast, erratic movement behavior—which likely serves as a defense against predation. It is primarily parthenogenetic, with males being rare.
Fuscuropoda
uropodid mite
Fuscuropoda is a genus of predatory mites in the family Dinychidae (order Mesostigmata). The best-known species, Fuscuropoda vegetans, serves as a biological control agent in poultry facilities, where it preys on early-stage house fly larvae in manure. These mites occur naturally in most poultry operations and contribute to integrated pest management programs targeting fly populations.
Galeopsomyia
Galeopsomyia is a New World genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species within this genus function as hyperparasitoids, attacking gall-inducing wasps of the genera Eurytoma and Torymus, and have been documented as parasitoids of gall midges (Cecidomyiidae) and the citrus leafminer. A notable species was fortuitously discovered providing biological control of the citrus pest Phyllocnistis citrella. The genus exhibits intraspecific phenotypic matching in ovipositor size relative to gall thickness.
Galerucella
leaf beetles
Galerucella is a genus of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) described by Crotch in 1873. The genus is widely distributed globally but absent from the Neotropics. Several species have been extensively studied for biological control applications, particularly against invasive aquatic plants such as purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) and waterlilies. The genus has become a model system for ecological and evolutionary research, with genome assemblies available for three species (G. calmariensis, G. pusilla, and G. tenella).
Galerucella nymphaeae
water-lily beetle, water lily leaf beetle
Galerucella nymphaeae is a univoltine skeletonizing leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. Adults and larvae feed on aquatic and semi-aquatic host plants, primarily in the families Nymphaeaceae and Polygonaceae. The species exhibits a distinctive reproductive diapause strategy where adults mate in summer but delay oviposition until spring after overwintering. Populations show genetically based polymorphisms in morphology, size, and reproductive traits associated with host plant use, suggesting incipient host race formation.
Gambrus amoenus
Gambrus amoenus is a species of ichneumon wasp in the family Ichneumonidae, first described by Gravenhorst in 1829. The genus Gambrus belongs to the subfamily Ichneumoninae, a large and diverse group of parasitoid wasps. Species in this genus are known to parasitize lepidopteran larvae, particularly those of moth families such as Noctuidae. G. amoenus is one of several species within the genus that has been documented in Europe and parts of Asia.
Ganaspis
Ganaspis is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Figitidae (subfamily Eucoilinae). Species in this genus are larval parasitoids primarily of Drosophilidae and Tephritidae flies. Several species have gained significant attention for biological control of invasive pests, particularly Ganaspis brasiliensis against spotted-wing drosophila (Drosophila suzukii). The genus has been recorded in Asia, North America, South America, and Europe.
Gastrophysa
dock leaf beetles, knotweed leaf beetles
Gastrophysa is a genus of leaf beetles in the family Chrysomelidae, distinguished by pronounced physogastrism in females—swollen, membranous abdomens resulting from enlarged reproductive organs. The genus includes approximately nine described species, with G. viridula and G. polygoni being the most extensively studied. Members are oligophagous specialists on Polygonaceae, serving as both beneficial biological control agents for weeds and occasional minor pests of cultivated buckwheat. Several species have been introduced to North America and other regions, where they have established widespread populations.
Gastrophysa polygoni
Knotweed Leaf Beetle
Gastrophysa polygoni is a small leaf beetle in the subfamily Chrysomelinae, described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. Adults reach approximately 5 mm in length and display distinctive coloration: metallic green wing cases (elytra), green-blue body, and orange thorax. The species is native to Europe and has become established in North America, where it was introduced early in colonial settlement. It feeds primarily on Polygonaceae plants, serving as a beneficial biological control agent for weeds such as knotweeds and docks, though it occasionally damages cultivated buckwheat. The beetle exhibits complex reproductive behaviors including olfactory examination of airspace, track marking by females, and post-copulatory cleaning rituals.
Gelechiidae
twirler moths, gelechiid moths
Gelechiidae is a large family of small moths, commonly known as twirler moths, that serves as the namesake family for the superfamily Gelechioidea. The family contains over 4,500 described species across more than 900 genera, with particularly high diversity in North America. Members are characterized by their small size, narrow fringed wings, and larvae that typically feed internally on host plant tissues. Many species are significant agricultural pests, while others have been employed for biological control of invasive plants.
Geocoridae
Big-eyed bugs
Geocoridae is a family of predatory true bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) comprising over 290 described species. Members are commonly known as big-eyed bugs due to their prominent, laterally expanded eyes. The family is classified within the superfamily Lygaeoidea and includes five subfamilies: Australocorinae, Bledionotinae, Geocorinae, Henestarinae, and Pamphantinae. Several species, particularly in the genus Geocoris, are recognized as important biological control agents in agricultural systems.
Geocoris atricolor
big-eyed bug
Geocoris atricolor is a species of big-eyed bug in the family Geocoridae, native to western North America. It is one of three Geocoris species studied in California for temperature effects on development and reproduction. Like other big-eyed bugs, it is a predatory insect with piercing-sucking mouthparts, feeding on small arthropod prey and contributing to biological control in agricultural systems.
Geocoris barberi
bigeyed bug
Geocoris barberi is a species of bigeyed bug in the family Geocoridae, described by Readio & Sweet in 1982. Species in the genus Geocoris are recognized as important natural enemies of agricultural insect pests. They serve as biological control agents in integrated pest management programs, particularly in crop systems such as cucumber fields where they help suppress pest populations.
Geocoris black-calli-az
bigeyed bug
Geocoris black-calli-az is a species of bigeyed bug in the family Geocoridae. Members of this genus are predatory insects recognized for their large, conspicuous eyes. The species has been documented in association with agricultural systems where Geocoris species serve as natural enemies of crop pests.
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n-inferencein-silico-Latin-termeffect-prepositionnatural-habitats-compound-subjectbiological-control-compound-objectagricultural-landscapes-compound-contextfield-studies-compound-subjectrecent-meta-analyses-compound-subjectconflicting-effects-compound-objecthabitat-diversity-compound-subjectdetailed-mechanistic-model-adjective-phrasepest/predator-dynamics-compound-subjectin-silico-experimentation-Latin-phrasemodel-structure-subjectlandscape-factors-objectcoverage-and-distribution-compound-objectnatural-habitats-compound-objectresources-objectnatural-habitats-and-crops-compound-sourcepredator-traits-objectoverwintering-densities-compound-objectdispersal-distances-compound-objectpredator-search-area-compound-objectcrop-pest-loads-subjectsimulation-scenarios-contextconflicting-results-objectfield-research-sourcesimulation-results-subjectnatural-enemy-response-subjectlandscape-structure-objectdispersal-behavior-instrumentresource-availability-subjectearly-colonizers-objectpivotal-adjectivehighly-variable-responses-objectnatural-enemies-subjectlandscape-heterogeneity-objectfield-research-objectpredictions-objectconservation-biological-control-efforts-contextlygus-bug-subjectmajor-agricultural-pest-classificationcotton-and-other-crops-contextKathy-Keatley-Garvey-photo-creditecologist-job-titleresearch-associate-job-titleENT-department-abbreviation4:10-p.m.-time-formatMonday-day-specificationOct.-21-dateRoom-122-room-numberBriggs-Hall-buildingZoom-platformhttps://ucdavis.zoom.us/j/95882849672-URLrecording-archive-URLhttps://entomology.ucdavis.edu/seminars-URLPh.D.-credentialjoint-UC-Davis/San-Diego-State-University-programJune-1991-dateBetty-Irene-Moore-School-of-Nursing-institutionUC-Davis-Health-System-institutionUC-Davis-Continuing-and-Professional-Education-institutionAmanda-Hodson-nameassistant-professor-title[email protected]technical-issues-objectdoctorate-in-ecology-degree122-Briggs-Hall-addressUC-Davis-institutionnatural-habitats-subjectbiological-control-objectagricultural-landscapes-contextfield-studies-subjectmeta-analyses-subjectconflicting-effects-objecthabitat-diversity-subjectmechanistic-model-subjectpest/predator-dynamics-objectin-silico-experimentation-methodnatural-habitats-objectdispersal-behavior-modifierconservation-biological-control-objectlygus-subjectGeocoris-subjectcotton-contextannual-crop-generalityplant-bug-generalitypredatory-bug-generalityecological-research-engagementsimulation-modeling-useinstructional-design-useHyperSkill-platformno-code-authoring-descriptionVR-learning-experience-descriptionretirement-statusJay-Rosenheim-lab-pastlandscape-ecology-focusnatural-enemies-agricultural-systems-contextlandscape-scale-simulation-methodnatural-habitat-resource-responsecrop-pest-load-effectdoctorate-1991joint-program-UC-Davis/SDSUcareer-role-varietyBetty-Irene-Moore-School-pastUC-Davis-Health-System-pastContinuing-and-Professional-Education-pastSimInsights-currentHyperSkill-platform-currentAmanda-Hodson-coordinatorfull-list-referenceakhodson-contacttechnical-issues-contactecologist-presenterdoctorate-credential4:10-p.m.-presentationMonday-presentationOct.-21-presentationRoom-122-locationBriggs-Hall-locationUC-Davis-locationZoom-accessrecording-archive-accessnatural-habitat-effectbiological-control-effectagricultural-landscape-contextfield-study-conflictmeta-analysis-conflictmechanistic-model-developmentpest-predator-dynamicsin-silico-experiment-enablementlandscape-factor-variationnatural-habitat-coveragenatural-habitat-distributionresource-variationnatural-habitat-sourcecrop-sourcepredator-trait-variationoverwintering-densitydispersal-distancepredator-search-areacrop-pest-load-variationsimulation-scenario-mimicryfield-research-result-mimicrysimulation-result-suggestionnatural-enemy-response-moderationdispersal-behavior-moderation-extentearly-colonizer-variationnatural-enemy-variable-responsein-silico-experimentation-inform-potentialfield-research-inform-potentialprediction-yield-potentialconservation-biological-control-success-timinglygus-approximationGeocoris-approximationcotton-system-approximationcareer-path-eclecticityecological-research-inclusionteaching-inclusionmathematical-modeling-inclusioncomputer-programming-inclusioninstructional-design-inclusionproject-management-inclusionteam-leadership-inclusioncurrent-engagement-ecological-researchsimulation-modeling-use-currentagricultural-landscape-structure-explorationcrop-pest-insect-impactnatural-enemy-impactretirement-full-timeactive-engagement-designSimInsights-consultation-currentHyperSkill-no-code-platformVR-learning-experience-creationJay-Rosenheim-lab-formerdistinguished-professor-emerituslandscape-ecology-natural-enemies-focuslandscape-scale-simulation-currentnatural-habitat-resource-response-simulationdoctorate-ecology-1991joint-UC-Davis/SDSU-programBetty-Irene-Moore-School-of-Nursing-formerinstructional-innovative-specialist-formerUC-Davis-Health-System-formersenior-instructional-designer-formerUC-Davis-Continuing-and-Professional-Education-formerAmanda-Hodson-assistant-professorENT-seminar-coordinationfull-list-online[email protected]technical-issue-contactecology-researcher-descriptionresearch-associate-descriptiondoctorate-ecology-joint-program-description4:10-p.m.-October-21-seminarRoom-122-Briggs-Hall-seminarUC-Davis-Department-of-Entomology-and-Nematology-hostZoom-seminar-linkrecording-archive-onlinenatural-habitat-biological-control-effectagricultural-landscape-field-study-conflicthabitat-diversity-biological-control-effect-conflictmechanistic-model-pest-predator-dynamicsin-silico-experimentation-landscape-factornatural-habitat-coverage-distribution-variationcrop-natural-habitat-resource-variationpredator-overwintering-dispersal-search-variationcrop-pest-load-simulation-variationnatural-enemy-response-landscape-structuredispersal-behavior-response-moderationresource-availability-early-colonizer-pivotnatural-enemy-landscape-heterogeneity-responsein-silico-field-research-mutual-informconservation-biological-control-predictionlygus-Geocoris-cotton-simulationannual-crop-plant-bug-predatory-bug-generalityeclectic-career-ecological-research-teaching-modeling-programming-design-management-leadershipcurrent-ecological-research-simulation-modelingagricultural-landscape-crop-pest-natural-enemyretired-active-instructional-designSimInsights-HyperSkill-VR-consultationJay-Rosenheim-lab-landscape-ecology-formerdoctorate-1991-UC-Davis-SDSU-jointBetty-Irene-Moore-Nursing-innovative-specialist-formerUC-Davis-Health-Continuing-Education-designer-formerAmanda-Hodson-ENT-seminar-coordinationtechnical-issues-akhodson-contactAndrew-Corbett-ecology-researcher-UC-Davis4:10-p.m.-Monday-Oct-21-122-Briggs-Hall-Zoomnatural-habitat-effect-biological-control-agricultural-landscapefield-study-meta-analysis-conflicting-habitat-diversity-effectmechanistic-model-in-silico-landscape-factor-predator-trait-variationcrop-pest-load-simulation-natural-enemy-response-resource-availabilitylygus-Geocoris-cotton-annual-crop-plant-bug-predatory-bugcareer-eclectic-current-ecological-retired-active-design-consultationdoctorate-1991-joint-program-former-nursing-health-continuing-educationENT-seminar-Hodson-coordination-technical-contactecology-researcher-Corbett-4:10-p.m.-Oct-21-Zoom-Briggshabitat-biological-control-conflict-model-simulation-predictionGeocoris-lygus-cotton-generality-simulation-fieldcareer-path-doctorate-former-current-retired-consultationseminar-coordination-contact-technical-Zoom-recordingnatural-enemy-landscape-resource-dispersal-colonizermechanistic-in-silico-experimentation-field-informconservation-biological-control-success-predictionagricultural-landscape-structure-pest-enemysimulation-modeling-instructional-design-VRJay-Rosenheim-distinguished-emeritus-former-labUC-Davis-San-Diego-State-joint-doctorateBetty-Irene-Moore-innovative-specialist-UC-HealthContinuing-Professional-Education-senior-designerAmanda-Hodson-assistant-professor-ENT-seminarakhodson-technical-contactAndrew-Corbett-research-associate-ecology4:10-Monday-October-21-2024-inferenceRoom-122-Briggs-Hall-Davishttps://ucdavis.zoom.us/j/95882849672https://entomology.ucdavis.edu/seminarsfield-meta-analysis-conflict-habitat-diversitymechanistic-pest-predator-in-silicolandscape-natural-habitat-crop-resource-predator-traitcrop-pest-simulation-natural-enemy-resource-availabilitylygus-Geocoris-cotton-plant-bug-predatory-bug-annualeclectic-career-ecological-simulation-agricultural-landscaperetired-active-design-SimInsights-HyperSkill-VRMoore-Nursing-Health-Continuing-Education-formerHodson-ENT-seminar-akhodson-technicalCorbett-ecology-researcher-4:10-p.m.-Oct-21-Zoom-Davishabitat-biological-control-agricultural-landscape-conflict-simulationGeocoris-lygus-cotton-annual-crop-generalitycareer-doctorate-former-current-consultation-seminarnatural-enemy-landscape-structure-dispersal-resourcein-silico-field-prediction-conservation-biological-controlagricultural-system-natural-enemy-pestsimulation-modeling-instructional-design-VR-platformRosenheim-emeritus-distinguished-former-labDavis-San-Diego-State-1991-joint-doctorateMoore-School-Nursing-innovative-specialist-Health-SystemContinuing-Professional-Education-senior-instructional-designerHodson-assistant-professor-ENT-seminar-coordinator[email 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al-designer-Continuing-and-Professional-Education-Amanda-Hodson-assistant-professor-ENT-seminar-coordinator-akhodson@ucdavis.edu-technical-issue-Andrew-Corbett-ecologist-research-associate-Ph.D.-4:10-p.m.-Monday-October-21-Room-122-Briggs-Hall-UC-Davis-Zoom-seminar-recording-archive-natural-habitat-effect-biological-control-agricultural-landscape-field-study-meta-analysis-conflicting-habitat-diversity-effect-mechanistic-model-pest-predator-dynamics-in-silico-experimentation-landscape-factor-natural-habitat-coverage-distribution-resource-crop-predator-trait-overwintering-density-dispersal-distance-search-area-crop-pest-load-simulation-scenario-natural-enemy-response-dispersal-behavior-moderation-resource-availability-early-colonizer-pivot-landscape-heterogeneity-response-in-silico-field-research-inform-prediction-conservation-biological-control-success-lygus-Geocoris-cotton-approximation-annual-crop-plant-bug-predatory-bug-combination-career-path-eclectic-ecological-research-teaching-mathematical-modeling-computer-programming-instructional-design-project-management-team-leadership-current-engagement-ecological-research-simulation-modeling-agricultural-landscape-retired-active-design-creation-SimInsights-HyperSkill-VR-no-code-platform-doctorate-ecology-June-1991-joint-UC-Davis-San-Diego-State-University-Betty-Irene-Moore-School-of-Nursing-instructional-innovative-specialist-UC-Davis-Health-System-senior-instructional-designer-Continuing-and-Professional-Education-Amanda-Hodson-assistant-professor-ENT-seminar-coordinator-akhodson@ucdavis.edu-technical-issue-Andrew-Corbett-ecologist-research-associate-Ph.D.-4:10-p.m.-Monday-October-21-Room-122-Briggs-Hall-UC-Davis-Zoom-seminar-recording-archiveGeocoris bullatus
Large Big-eyed Bug
Geocoris bullatus, commonly known as the large big-eyed bug, is a species of predatory true bug in the family Geocoridae. It is native to North America and belongs to a genus recognized for its value as a biological control agent in agricultural systems. The species is one of three recognized subspecies within the G. bullatus complex, alongside G. bullatus borealis and G. bullatus obscuratus.
Geocoris carinatus
big-eyed bug
Geocoris carinatus is a predatory true bug in the family Geocoridae, commonly known as big-eyed bugs. The species was described by McAtee in 1914 and is native to North America. Like other members of the genus Geocoris, it serves as an important natural enemy of agricultural pests, particularly preying on eggs and small nymphs of various pest insects. The species is recognized as a beneficial predator in agricultural ecosystems, contributing to biological control of pest populations.
Geocoris davisi
big-eyed bug
Geocoris davisi is a species of big-eyed bug in the family Geocoridae, described by Barber in 1935. It belongs to a genus of predatory true bugs widely recognized as important natural enemies of agricultural pests. Species in the genus Geocoris are commonly used in habitat management strategies for integrated pest management, though specific biological details for G. davisi remain limited in the available literature.
Geocoris decoratus
big-eyed bug
Geocoris decoratus is a species of big-eyed bug (family Geocoridae) native to North America, with recorded presence in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. As a member of the genus Geocoris, it is a predatory insect that contributes to biological control of agricultural pests. The species was described by Uhler in 1877. Like other Geocoris species, it likely serves as a natural enemy of various crop pests, though specific ecological studies on G. decoratus are limited compared to better-known congeners such as G. punctipes.
Geocoris floridanus
Florida big-eyed bug
Geocoris floridanus, commonly known as the Florida big-eyed bug, is a predatory insect in the family Geocoridae. The species is distributed across North America, with records from the United States, Canada, the Dominican Republic, and Grand Bahama. Like other members of the genus Geocoris, it is a generalist predator that feeds on small insects and arthropods. The species was described by Blatchley in 1926.
Geocoris frisoni
big-eyed bug
Geocoris frisoni is a species of big-eyed bug in the family Geocoridae, first described by Barber in 1926. It is found in North America, with confirmed records from the United States. As a member of the genus Geocoris, it belongs to a group of predatory true bugs recognized for their beneficial role in agricultural pest management.
Geocoris howardi
big-eyed bug
Geocoris howardi is a species of big-eyed bug in the family Geocoridae. It is native to North America. Members of the genus Geocoris are recognized for their ecological role as predators of agricultural insect pests. The species was described by Montandon in 1908.
Geocoris limbatus
big-eyed bug
Geocoris limbatus is a species of big-eyed bug in the family Geocoridae, occurring in North America. Like other members of the genus Geocoris, it is a generalist predator of small arthropods and is considered beneficial in agricultural systems. The species was described by Stål in 1874.
Geocoris lividipennis
bigeyed bug
Geocoris lividipennis is a predatory true bug in the family Geocoridae, commonly known as bigeyed bugs. The species is recognized as a beneficial insect in agricultural systems, where it serves as a natural enemy of various crop pests. Adults and nymphs are generalist predators that feed on small arthropods and their eggs. The species has a broad distribution across the Americas and Caribbean islands.
Geocoris nanus
big-eyed bug
Geocoris nanus is a small predatory true bug in the family Geocoridae, commonly known as big-eyed bugs. The species was described by Barber in 1935. Like other members of the genus Geocoris, it is recognized as a beneficial insect in agricultural systems, serving as a natural enemy of various crop pests. The species is distributed in North America, with records from the United States.
Geocoris pallens
western big-eyed bug
Geocoris pallens is a predatory true bug in the family Geocoridae, commonly known as the western big-eyed bug. It is an omnivorous predator that feeds on insect prey including aphids, leafhoppers, and seed bugs, as well as plant material such as seeds and green tissue. The species is native to western North America and has been introduced to Hawaii and other regions. Both adults and nymphs are predatory, making this species valuable for biological pest control in agricultural systems.
Geocoris pallens-or-bullatus
bigeyed bug
Geocoris pallens-or-bullatus is a species of bigeyed bug in the family Geocoridae. Species in the genus Geocoris are recognized as important natural enemies of agricultural insect pests. They have been observed in association with crops including cucumber, where they contribute to biological control of pest populations. The specific epithet "pallens-or-bullatus" indicates taxonomic uncertainty or an unresolved species complex designation.
Geocoris punctipes
big-eye bug, bigeyed bug, Corner-spotted Geocoris
Geocoris punctipes, commonly known as the big-eye bug or bigeyed bug, is a predatory true bug in the family Geocoridae. It is a generalist predator found across the Americas and Oceania, with documented effectiveness in biological control of agricultural pests including whiteflies, aphids, moth eggs and larvae, and plant bugs. The species has been extensively studied for its feeding behavior, reproductive biology, and potential as a natural enemy in integrated pest management programs.
Geocoris thoracicus
big-eyed bug
A predatory true bug in the family Geocoridae. Like other Geocoris species, it is a generalist predator of small arthropods and insect eggs. The species occurs in the Americas from the southern United States through Central America to northern South America.
Geocoris uliginosus
big-eyed bug
Geocoris uliginosus is a species of big-eyed bug in the family Geocoridae, a group of predatory true bugs. It occurs in North America, with records from the United States, Canada, and North Caicos. As a member of the genus Geocoris, it is a generalist predator that feeds on small arthropods and insect eggs.
Geocoris undescribed
bigeyed bug
An undescribed species within the genus Geocoris, commonly known as bigeyed bugs. Members of this genus are recognized as important natural enemies of agricultural insect pests. This particular species is referenced in studies examining habitat management for integrated pest management, specifically in the context of red clover plantings in cucumber fields where it contributes to biological control of crop pests.
Geostiba
Geostiba is a genus of rove beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) in the subfamily Aleocharinae, tribe Geostibini. The genus contains over 250 described species distributed across Europe, Asia, North America, and Australia. Many species are placed in subgenera including Sibiota, Tropogastrosipalia, Sipalotricha, and Typhlusida. Species are predominantly found in temperate regions, with significant diversity in the Caucasus, Mediterranean, and Appalachian Mountains. Several species have been documented as predators of tick nymphs in soil ecosystems.
Gilpinia hercyniae
European Spruce Sawfly
Gilpinia hercyniae, the European spruce sawfly, is a defoliating pest of spruce trees native to Europe and introduced to North America. The species caused severe outbreaks in eastern Canada and the northeastern United States during the 1930s, with estimated timber losses of 10 million cubic metres. Populations subsequently declined due to natural viral disease and introduced biological control agents. The species exhibits arrhenotokous parthenogenesis, with males rarely encountered.
Glischrochilus
picnic beetles, beer bugs
Glischrochilus is a genus of small beetles in the family Nitidulidae, commonly known as picnic beetles or beer bugs. The genus contains two subgenera with divergent feeding strategies: Librodor species feed on sap and fermenting plant matter, while Glischrochilus species are predators of soft invertebrates. Most species are characterized by black bodies with contrasting yellow, red, or orange elytral markings. The genus is distributed across North America and Eurasia and includes several agricultural pests.
Glischrochilus quadrisignatus
Four-spotted Sap Beetle, Four-spotted Fungus Beetle, Beer Bug, Picnic Beetle
Glischrochilus quadrisignatus is a sap-feeding beetle in the family Nitidulidae, commonly known as the four-spotted sap beetle or picnic beetle. It is native to North America and has been introduced to parts of Europe including Montenegro, Serbia, Albania, and Austria. The species is strongly attracted to fermenting plant fluids, overripe fruits, and fungal growths, and is a notable pest of sweet corn and other crops. It has been studied for its complex ecological interactions, including its role as a mortality factor for European corn borer larvae and its potential as a biological control agent.
Glycaspis
Glycaspis is a genus of plant-parasitic psyllids in the family Aphalaridae. Species in this genus are strongly associated with Eucalyptus host plants. The genus includes at least two described species: Glycaspis brimblecombei (red gum lerp psyllid), a significant invasive pest of eucalyptus plantations worldwide, and Glycaspis granulata. Many Glycaspis species exhibit high host specificity, often restricted to single Eucalyptus species or closely related host groups. The genus is native to Australia, where it shows patterns of short-range endemism linked to host plant distribution.
Glypta
Glypta is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae. Species are endoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, particularly tortricid moths including spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana) and related forest pests. Several species have been studied for their role in biological control of economically important forest insects. Adult females locate host larvae using chemical cues and oviposit eggs internally; parasitoid larvae develop within the host and kill it upon emergence.
Glypta fumiferanae
Glypta fumiferanae is an ichneumonid wasp that parasitizes spruce budworm larvae (Choristoneura fumiferana and C. occidentalis). As an endoparasitoid, females deposit eggs inside host larvae, and developing wasp offspring consume the host from within. This species is a significant natural enemy of spruce budworm, a major defoliator of coniferous forests in North America. Adult females are synovigenic and require carbohydrate feeding (honey) for extended longevity and high fecundity; unfed adults survive only 2–5 days and produce far fewer eggs.
Glypta ralla
Glypta ralla is a species of ichneumonid wasp described by Dasch in 1988. Members of the genus Glypta are known as parasitoid wasps that attack caterpillars, with females laying eggs inside host larvae. The species belongs to a large group of parasitoids whose immature stages develop by consuming their host from the inside, ultimately killing it. Very few specific details have been published about this particular species.
Glyptapanteles
Glyptapanteles is a genus of koinobiont endoparasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, distributed across all continents except Antarctica. Species in this genus are distinguished by their ability to manipulate host behavior: after larval emergence from caterpillar hosts, the paralyzed host remains near the pupal cocoons and defends them against predators through violent thrashing movements. This behavioral manipulation is mediated by one or two larvae that remain within the host and sacrifice their own development to protect their siblings. Several species have been evaluated for biological control of lepidopteran pests, particularly Lymantria dispar.
Gnathoncus rotundatus
clown beetle
Gnathoncus rotundatus is a species of clown beetle in the family Histeridae. It is a small beetle with a cosmopolitan distribution spanning multiple continents. The species has been introduced to Australia and New Zealand. It is associated with poultry manure habitats where it functions as a biological control agent of fly pests.
Gonatocerini
Gonatocerini is a tribe of minute egg parasitoids within Mymaridae (Hymenoptera). Members are idiobiont parasitoids of insect eggs, with several species employed in biological control programs against leafhopper pests (Cicadellidae: Proconiini). The tribe currently comprises 14 recognized genera. A survey in tobacco crops of central Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, documented 698 individuals across 21 species in four genera: Gonatocerus (most abundant), Cosmocomoidea, Lymaenon, and Tanyxiphium.
Gonatocerus
fairyfly
Gonatocerus is a speciose genus of fairyflies (Mymaridae) comprising at least 260 described species. These minute parasitoid wasps are primary egg parasitoids of leafhoppers and sharpshooters (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), with several species extensively studied for biological control of agricultural pests, particularly the glassy-winged sharpshooter (Homalodisca vitripennis). The genus is divided into five subgenera: Gonatocerus (nominate), Lymaenon, Cosmocomoidea, Gastrogonatocerus, and Gahanopsis, with species distributed across all major biogeographic regions.
Gonatocerus morrilli
Gonatocerus morrilli is a mymarid wasp and specialized egg parasitoid of sharpshooters in the genus Homalodisca, particularly the glassy-winged sharpshooter (Homalodisca vitripennis, formerly H. coagulata). It has been widely used in California as a biological control agent against this pest, which vectors Xylella fastidiosa, the bacterium causing Pierce's disease in grapevines. Molecular studies have revealed significant genetic differentiation between California and Texas populations, with evidence suggesting the California population may represent a cryptic species. The species exhibits high parasitism efficiency, with females capable of parasitizing virtually all eggs in egg masses within 24 hours.
Gonatopus
hump-backed pincer wasps
Gonatopus is a genus of solitary wasps in the family Dryinidae, commonly known as hump-backed pincer wasps. Females are wingless and possess enlarged, scissor-like foretarsi used to capture leafhopper hosts. The genus comprises ectoparasitoid species that develop on Auchenorrhyncha, primarily leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) and planthoppers (Delphacidae). Multiple species have been documented as biological control agents of agricultural pests, particularly rice plant hoppers in Asia and the glassy-winged sharpshooter in the Americas.
Gonia
Cutworm Flies
Gonia is a genus of tachinid flies (family Tachinidae) established by Meigen in 1803. These flies are parasitoids, with larvae developing inside other insects. The genus is placed in the subfamily Exoristinae and tribe Goniini. As with other tachinids, Gonia species are likely important biological control agents of various insect pests, though specific ecological details for the genus as a whole remain poorly documented in available sources.
Goniini
Goniini is a tribe of tachinid flies distinguished by their unique reproductive strategy. Members are parasitoids that deposit minute "microtype" eggs, which must be ingested by a host to hatch. This egg type represents a key evolutionary adaptation within the Tachinidae family.
Goniozus columbianus
Goniozus columbianus is a species of parasitic wasp in the family Bethylidae. Like other members of this family, it is presumed to be an ectoparasitoid of insect larvae, though specific host records for this species are not well documented. The genus Goniozus contains species that are known to attack lepidopteran caterpillars. This species has been recorded from at least one observation.
Goniozus legneri
Goniozus legneri is a gregarious larval ectoparasitoid wasp in the family Bethylidae, native to Argentina. It parasitizes concealed-feeding lepidopteran larvae and has been evaluated as a biological control agent for multiple agricultural pests including the European grapevine moth (Lobesia botrana), carob moth (Ectomyelois ceratoniae), codling moth (Cydia pomonella), tomato leafminer (Tuta absoluta), and cactus moth (Cactoblastis cactorum). The species exhibits parental care behavior, with females guarding their brood for approximately four days. While it has shown promise in augmentative biological control programs, its effectiveness varies considerably depending on host species and rearing conditions.
Gonipterus
Eucalyptus Weevils, Eucalyptus Snout Beetles, Eucalyptus Snout Weevils
Gonipterus is a genus of weevils in the family Curculionidae, comprising approximately 20 described species native primarily to Australia. These insects are obligate plant feeders, with many species exhibiting high host specificity. Several species, notably Gonipterus platensis, G. pulverulentus, and G. gibberus, have become significant pests of Eucalyptus plantations globally, having spread to regions where these trees have been introduced. Taxonomic confusion has historically plagued the genus, with DNA studies in 2012 clarifying that populations previously identified as G. scutellatus in New Zealand, North America, western Europe, Africa, and eastern Europe actually represent distinct species. The genus has substantial economic importance in forestry, driving research into biological control agents such as the egg parasitoid Anaphes nitens.
Gonipterus scutellatus
eucalyptus snout beetle, eucalyptus weevil, gum tree weevil
Gonipterus scutellatus is a weevil species endemic to Australia that feeds and breeds exclusively on Eucalyptus trees. It is greyish-brown with a light-colored transverse band and measures approximately 13 mm in length. The species is frequently confused with closely related weevils—G. gibberus, G. platensis, and G. pulverulentus—which share common names and were historically misidentified as G. scutellatus. Populations outside Australia previously attributed to this species have been reidentified through DNA analysis: those in New Zealand, North America, and western Europe are G. platensis, while African and eastern European populations represent an undescribed species.
Gratiana
Gratiana is a genus of tortoise beetles (family Chrysomelidae, subfamily Cassidinae) comprising approximately seven described species. Members of this genus are characterized by the flattened, shield-like body form typical of tortoise beetles, with adults capable of clamping tightly against leaf surfaces as a defensive behavior. The genus is best known for Gratiana boliviana, which has been employed as a classical biological control agent against the invasive weed tropical soda apple (Solanum viarum) in the southeastern United States.
Gratiana boliviana
Tropical Soda Apple Leaf Beetle, TSA tortoise beetle
Gratiana boliviana is a tortoise beetle (Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) native to South America that was introduced to Florida in 2003 as the first biological control agent against tropical soda apple (Solanum viarum), a prickly invasive shrub. The beetle is highly host-specific and has established successfully in Florida, reducing weed density and fruit production through defoliation. Over 250,000 beetles were released across Florida from 2003 to 2011. The beetle cannot complete development on native North American Solanum species or crop plants like eggplant, making it a relatively safe biocontrol choice. Cold sensitivity limits its northward establishment potential.
Greenideinae
Greenideinae is a subfamily of aphids (Aphididae) comprising approximately 179 extant species across 18 genera in three tribes: Cervaphidini, Greenideini, and Schoutedeniini. Species are primarily distributed in eastern and southern Asia, with many exhibiting specialized associations with woody host plants, particularly in Fagaceae. The subfamily has been extensively studied for its complex symbiotic relationships with microbial associates, including the primary endosymbiont *Buchnera aphidicola* and diverse secondary symbionts.
Gronotoma
Gronotoma is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Figitidae (subfamily Eucoilinae). Species within this genus are primarily known as parasitoids of leaf-mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae), with documented hosts including Liriomyza trifolii, L. huidobrensis, L. sativae, L. bryoniae, Melanagromyza tomaterae, and Japanagromyza tokunagai. Several species, particularly G. micromorpha, have been extensively studied for their potential as biological control agents in agricultural systems. The genus exhibits thelytokous parthenogenesis in at least some species and shows flexibility in host stage utilization.
Grypus equiseti
horsetail weevil
Grypus equiseti is a weevil species native to Europe that feeds exclusively on horsetail plants (Equisetum spp.). It has been introduced to New Zealand as a biological control agent targeting field horsetail (Equisetum arvense), an invasive weed in that country. The species is notable for its specialized diet and documented success in classical biological control programs.
Gymnoclytia
Gymnoclytia is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) in the tribe Phasiini. Species in this genus are endoparasitoids of true bugs (Hemiptera), with documented associations with stink bugs in agricultural systems. The genus contains approximately 14 described species distributed in the Americas.
Gymnomyzinae
shore flies
Gymnomyzinae is a subfamily of shore flies within the family Ephydridae. The subfamily comprises approximately seven genera and nine described species. Members are classified into five tribes: Discocerinini, Gastropini, Gymnomyzini, Hecamedini, and Lipochaetini, plus the unplaced tribe Ochtherini. The genus Ochthera, with approximately 37 described species, is the most species-rich and well-known group within this subfamily.
Gymnosoma
ladybird flies, bug-killer flies
Gymnosoma is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) commonly known as ladybird flies or bug-killer flies. Species are small parasitoids, typically 5–6 mm, with distinctive rounded abdomens often colored red or orange with dark markings, resembling lady beetles. Larvae develop as internal parasitoids of true bugs (Hemiptera), particularly shieldbugs (Pentatomidae). The genus has been taxonomically challenging; genomic analysis suggests many Palearctic species may represent a single highly variable species rather than distinct taxa. Adults visit flowers for nectar.
Gypsonoma aceriana
poplar shoot-borer, Rosy Cloaked Shoot
Gypsonoma aceriana is a small tortricid moth whose larvae bore into poplar and maple shoots, causing economic damage in plantations and nurseries. Native to Europe, it ranges eastward through Russia to Turkey, Iraq, and North Africa. The species has been introduced to Japan, where it exhibits two to three generations annually. It is a significant pest of ornamental poplars, with older larvae destroying terminal shoots and causing bushy, unmarketable growth in young trees.
Gyranusoidea
Gyranusoidea is a genus of encyrtid parasitoid wasps established by Compere in 1947. The genus contains species that are primary parasitoids of mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), with several species deployed as biological control agents for agricultural pest management. Gyranusoidea tebygi is the most extensively studied species, introduced from India to West Africa in 1987 to control the invasive mango mealybug Rastrococcus invadens, where it established readily and achieved significant pest suppression. Other species such as G. indica have been reported as parasitoids of additional mealybug pests including Maconellicoccus hirsutus.
Habrobracon
Habrobracon is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae. Species in this genus are ectoparasitoids of moth caterpillars, with Habrobracon hebetor being the most extensively studied and commercially utilized species. These wasps have been employed in augmentative biological control programs worldwide, particularly in developing countries, to manage stored-product pests and field crop pests without chemical insecticides. The genus has also served as a model organism for radiation biology research due to its remarkable resistance to ionizing radiation.
Habrobracon hebetor
Habrobracon hebetor is a minute braconid wasp and gregarious ectoparasitoid of lepidopteran larvae. Females paralyze host caterpillars with venom and lay up to 45 eggs externally on the host body; larvae feed on host hemolymph, leaving only the cuticle. One generation develops in 9–14 days under optimal conditions of 25–30°C and 70–80% relative humidity. The species is widely used in augmentative biological control programs against stored-product pests and field crop pests, with mass-reared releases achieving 70–90% biological efficacy. It exhibits high genetic diversity across geographic populations and can enter diapause for cold storage.
Habrolepis
Habrolepis is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Species in this genus are endoparasitoids of armored scale insects (family Diaspididae). The genus was established by Foerster in 1856. Documented species include H. rouxi and H. diaspidi, both associated with diaspidid scale hosts. These wasps have been studied for their potential as biological control agents against agricultural pest scales.
Hadroplontus litura
Canada thistle stem weevil, minute seed weevil
Hadroplontus litura is a stem-mining weevil in the family Curculionidae, widely known as the Canada thistle stem weevil. It is an endophagous herbivore that develops within the stems of its host plants. The species has been investigated extensively as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense). Research indicates it can complete its life cycle on multiple Cirsium species, including five native thistle species in the upper Midwest of North America, raising concerns about non-target impacts on native flora.
Hagenius brevistylus
Dragonhunter, Black Dragon
Hagenius brevistylus, commonly known as the dragonhunter, is a large, distinctive clubtail dragonfly (family Gomphidae) native to eastern North America. Adults are notable aerial predators with a documented propensity for hunting other Odonata, including other dragonflies and damselflies. The species has been observed using postural adjustments for behavioral thermoregulation. Larvae develop in aquatic habitats and possess specialized adaptations for predation.
Halictophagidae
Halictophagidae is a family of twisted-wing parasites (Strepsiptera) comprising at least eight genera including Halictophagus, Coriophagus, and Dipterophagus. Members are endoparasitoids of other insects, with documented host associations including leafhoppers (Cicadellidae). The family has a cosmopolitan distribution through genus Halictophagus, while genus Coriophagus shows a Gondwanan distribution pattern with records from Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Solomon Islands, India, and Brazil.
Halictophagus
Leafhopper Twistwing Parasites
Halictophagus is a genus of twisted-wing parasites (Strepsiptera) in the family Halictophagidae. These insects are endoparasitoids of leafhoppers and related Hemiptera, primarily in the families Cicadellidae and Cercopidae. The genus exhibits extreme sexual dimorphism: free-living males with reduced wings and branched antennae, and neotenic females that remain within the host. Multiple species have been described worldwide, with documented hosts including mango leafhoppers (Idioscopus spp., Bakera nigrobilineata) and other planthoppers.
Halticoptera
Halticoptera is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Pteromalidae. Species in this genus are koinobiont endoparasitoids of agromyzid leafminer flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae). They have been investigated as biological control agents for leafminer pests, though host suitability varies significantly between indigenous and invasive host species.
Halyomorpha halys
Brown Marmorated Stink Bug, BMSB
Halyomorpha halys is an invasive shield bug native to East Asia that has become a major agricultural and nuisance pest across North America, Europe, and beyond. First detected in Pennsylvania in 1998, it has spread to at least 47 U.S. states, 4 Canadian provinces, and numerous European countries. The species is highly polyphagous, feeding on over 300 plant species across 49 families, with particular preference for Rosaceae. Its invasion success is facilitated by high mobility, broad host range, and absence of natural enemies in invaded ranges. Natural control is emerging through adventive populations of the egg parasitoid Trissolcus japonicus and other native predators and pathogens.
Harmonia
Greater Lady Beetles
Harmonia is a genus of lady beetles (family Coccinellidae) commonly known as Greater Lady Beetles. The genus includes the widely introduced Multicolored Asian Lady Beetle (Harmonia axyridis), which has become established across North America and other regions as a biological control agent for aphids and other soft-bodied pests. Members of this genus are predatory beetles with highly variable coloration and spot patterns. The genus is native to Asia, with some species now distributed globally due to intentional introductions for pest management.
Harmonia axyridis
harlequin ladybird, multicolored Asian lady beetle, Asian lady beetle, Halloween beetle
Harmonia axyridis is a highly variable coccinellid beetle native to eastern Asia, introduced to North America and Europe beginning in 1916 for biological control of aphids and scale insects. It became established in the wild in North America around 1988 and has since spread across multiple continents, becoming one of the world's most invasive insects. The species exhibits exceptional color polymorphism, with forms ranging from orange-red with black spots to entirely black with red markings. It is now recognized as a significant threat to native ladybird populations through competition and intraguild predation, while also functioning as a household nuisance pest and occasional agricultural contaminant.
Harpactorinae
Assassin bugs
Harpactorinae is the largest subfamily of Reduviidae (assassin bugs), comprising approximately 300 genera and 2,000 described species worldwide. Members are characterized by diverse predatory strategies, including raptorial forelegs for prey capture and, in some genera, adhesive secretions used as sticky traps. Several genera—notably Zelus, Pselliopus, Sinea, and Apiomerus—have been investigated for biological pest control applications in agricultural systems.
Harpalus
Harpalus is a large and diverse genus of ground beetles in the family Carabidae, containing over 420 described species and subspecies. It is the largest genus of the tribe Harpalini and one of the most diverse genera in the entire ground beetle family. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution, with species found across multiple continents. A recent worldwide classification based on adult morphology divides Harpalus into seventy subgenera grouped into nineteen subgroups and ten groups, including thirty-six newly described subgenera. Members of this genus are primarily ground-dwelling predators and granivores found in agricultural fields, grasslands, and open habitats.
Harpalus caliginosus
Murky Ground Beetle
Harpalus caliginosus is a species of ground beetle in the subfamily Harpalinae, first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775. It is commonly known as the Murky Ground Beetle and occurs in North America, including Canada and the United States. The species is a known predator of Musca autumnalis larvae (face fly larvae), indicating its role as a beneficial biological control agent.
Harpalus rufipes
strawberry seed beetle
Harpalus rufipes is a trans-palearctic ground beetle commonly known as the strawberry seed beetle. Adults are active from April through November in temperate regions. The species functions as a significant weed seed predator in agricultural ecosystems, with larvae and adults feeding on seeds of various grasses and agricultural crops. It has been widely studied as a biological control agent for weed management and serves as a host for multiple parasites including the braconid wasp Microctonus caudatus and the gregarine protozoan Clitellocephalus ophoni.
Heliophanus
Sun Jumping Spiders
Heliophanus is a genus of jumping spiders (Salticidae) comprising approximately 90–170 described species, with significant taxonomic revision in 2024 when many African species were transferred to other genera. The genus has a Palearctic and Afrotropical distribution, with core diversity in Europe extending into Asia and Africa. Several species are agrobionts in Central European cereal systems, where they function as dominant predators. At least one species, Heliophanus dampfi, is a bog specialist with highly restricted distribution.
Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis
greenhouse thrips, glasshouse thrip, black tea thrips
Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis, commonly known as the greenhouse thrips, is a polyphagous pest species in the family Thripidae. It is parthenogenetic with rare males, and reproduces rapidly in favorable conditions. The species is a significant agricultural pest of greenhouse crops, ornamentals, and fruit trees worldwide, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. It has been introduced globally and is subject to biological control efforts using parasitoids such as Thripobius semiluteus and Thripobius javae.
Hellinsia balanotes
Baccharis Borer
Hellinsia balanotes is a plume moth (Pterophoridae) commonly known as the baccharis borer. It is native to the Americas from the United States through Central America, and has been introduced to Australia as a biological control agent for the invasive shrub Baccharis halimifolia. The species was first described by Edward Meyrick in 1908.
Helorus ruficornis
Helorus ruficornis is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Heloridae. The species is characterized by reddish antennae, as indicated by its specific epithet. It has been recorded from Europe and has been introduced to Hawaii. The family Heloridae comprises solitary parasitoids associated with aphids.
Hemerobiidae
Brown Lacewings
Hemerobiidae is a family of Neuropteran insects comprising approximately 500 species in 28 genera, commonly known as brown lacewings. Adults are typically yellow to dark brown in coloration, with some species exhibiting green hues. They are small insects, with most species having forewings 4–10 mm in length, though some reach up to 18 mm. Both larvae and adults are predatory, feeding primarily on aphids and other soft-bodied insects. The family is distinguished from the similar Chrysopidae (green lacewings) by wing venation patterns, specifically the presence of numerous long veins with two or more radial sectors and forked costal cross veins. Some species have been employed as biological control agents, including Micromus tasmaniae which is commercially bred for pest management.
Hemerobius
brown lacewings
Hemerobius is a genus of brown lacewings in the family Hemerobiidae, distributed across Europe and North America. Adults and larvae are predatory, feeding on small arthropods including aphids, scale insects, and insect eggs. The genus includes species that overwinter as adults and are active in early spring. Larvae spin loose, coarse cocoons for pupation, with some species exhibiting extended quiescent periods before emergence.
Hemerobius stigma
brown pine lacewing
Hemerobius stigma is a species of brown lacewing in the family Hemerobiidae. It is commonly known as the brown pine lacewing. The species has a Holarctic distribution, occurring in Europe, Northern Asia (excluding China), and North America. It was introduced to New Zealand in 1935 as a biological control agent for adelgids on pine plantations but failed to establish.
Hemiptarsenus
Hemiptarsenus is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species in this genus are primarily known as larval parasitoids of leaf-mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae), with some species also attacking Lepidopteran hosts. The genus has been studied extensively for its potential in biological control of agricultural pests, particularly leafminers affecting vegetable crops. Multiple species have been described from Asia, with new species continuing to be discovered in China.
Hemisarcoptoidea
Hemisarcoptoidea is a superfamily of mites within the order Sarcoptiformes, established by Oudemans in 1908. This group comprises several families of astigmatid mites, including the family Hemisarcoptidae. Members of this superfamily are generally small, soft-bodied arachnids with reduced sclerotization. The group has been documented in ecological studies, particularly regarding associations with insects and other arthropods.
Herbertiidae
Herbertiidae is a family of chalcidoid wasps elevated from subfamily status in 2022 based on molecular, morphological, and life history data. The family contains three genera—Herbertia, Exolabrum, and the extinct Versolabrum—with approximately ten species worldwide. These small, dark wasps are parasitoids associated with hosts in multiple insect orders.
Hercinothrips
Hercinothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Thripidae, subfamily Panchaetothripinae, containing several economically significant pest species. The most widely documented species, H. femoralis (banded greenhouse thrips), is a pantropical invader that has established in greenhouses worldwide and feeds on a broad range of vegetables, fruits, and ornamental plants. Members of this genus are characterized by their small size, fringed wings, and piercing-sucking mouthparts that cause characteristic silvery streaking and discoloration on host foliage.
Heringia
Smoothleg Flies
Heringia is a genus of small hoverflies (Syrphidae) commonly known as Smoothleg Flies. Species occur in North America and Europe. Larvae are predatory on specific aphid species, including woolly apple aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum), woolly elm aphid (Schizoneura), and aphids on poplar (Pemphigus) and fir (Dreyfusia). Adults feed on honeydew and pollen. The genus is part of the "little black fly" group, with females generally unidentifiable to species.
Herpestomus
Herpestomus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae. Species in this genus are known from Europe, with confirmed records from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. At least one species, Herpestomus brunnicornis, has been studied as a potential biological control agent for the apple ermine moth (Yponomeutidae).
Herpetogramma
grass webworms, sod webworms
Herpetogramma is a genus of moths in the family Crambidae, subfamily Spilomelinae, comprising approximately 106 species distributed across North America, Eurasia, Australia, New Zealand, Central and South America. Larvae of most species are associated with grasses and related plants, with several species recognized as agricultural or turf pests. The genus was established by Julius Lederer in 1863.
Hesperotettix viridis
snakeweed grasshopper, meadow purple-striped grasshopper, green-streak grasshopper
Hesperotettix viridis is a medium-sized, spur-throated grasshopper in the family Acrididae, native to North America. It is an oligophagous species specialized on composite plants (Asteraceae), particularly snakeweeds (Gutierrezia spp.), goldenrods (Solidago spp.), and rabbitbrushes. Populations show host-associated genetic differentiation, with distinct lineages adapted to different host plants. The species has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for invasive snakeweeds. Four subspecies are recognized, varying in wing length and geographic distribution.
Hesperotettix viridis pratensis
Purple-striped Grasshopper
A subspecies of the snakeweed grasshopper, Hesperotettix viridis pratensis is a spurthroated grasshopper in the family Acrididae. It occurs in grasslands and prairie habitats where its host plants grow. The subspecies is distinguished from the nominate form by geographic distribution and subtle morphological differences. It is one of several subspecies within the H. viridis complex.
Hesperotettix viridis viridis
Snakeweed Grasshopper
Hesperotettix viridis viridis, the Snakeweed Grasshopper, is a medium-sized, oligophagous grasshopper endemic to North America that feeds primarily on composite plants (Asteraceae) in the tribe Astereae. It is notable for its host plant-associated genetic differentiation, with populations on different host plants showing significant genetic structuring. The subspecies has long wings capable of dispersal and exhibits specialized foraging behavior responsive to local food depletion.
grasshopperMelanoplinaespecialist-herbivorehost-associated-differentiationbiological-controlrangelandAsteraceaeoligophagousphytophilousecological-speciationNorth-AmericaWyomingColoradoNew-MexicoKansassnakeweedGutierreziaSolidagoAFLPpopulation-geneticsforaging-behaviordispersalsubspecies-viridis-viridisHeteropelma datanae
Heteropelma datanae is a species of ichneumon wasp described by Riley in 1888. The species epithet 'datanae' indicates an association with moths of the genus Datana (Notodontidae), reflecting its parasitoid lifestyle. As a member of the large family Ichneumonidae, it is one of many wasps specialized in parasitizing Lepidopteran hosts. The genus Heteropelma is characterized by distinctive morphological features including a compressed metasoma.
Heteropsylla texana
Mesquite Psyllid
Heteropsylla texana is a psyllid (family Psyllidae) native to Texas, USA, that feeds on Prosopis species (mesquite). It was introduced to Australia as a biological control agent for invasive mesquite weeds. The species is highly host-specific, with sustained populations only on Prosopis spp. It causes severe distortion of growing leaf and floral shoots through phloem feeding.
Hexacladia
Hexacladia is a genus of gregarious endoparasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, subfamily Encyrtinae. Species develop as endoparasitoids within adult heteropteran bugs, primarily in the family Pentatomidae (stink bugs), with some records from Coreidae and Scutelleridae. Multiple parasitoid individuals typically emerge from a single host. The genus has been documented as a biological control agent of agricultural pest stink bugs in South America, including species that attack soybean and rice crops. Seven species are recorded from South America, with H. smithii being the most widely reported.
Hexacladia hilaris
Hexacladia hilaris is a parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae. It was described by Burks in 1972 and has been recorded in Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, the United States, and Brazil. The species is associated with stink bugs (Pentatomidae) and has been documented parasitizing Chinavia erythrocnemis in Brazil.
Hexacola
Hexacola is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Figitidae, subfamily Eucoilinae. These wasps are known primarily as parasitoids of dipteran hosts, particularly shore flies (Ephydridae) and eye gnats (Chloropidae). The genus includes species with both sexual and parthenogenetic reproduction, and some have been studied for potential biological control applications.
Hexacola neoscatellae
Hexacola neoscatellae is a parasitoid wasp in the family Figitidae (subfamily Eucoilinae) known to attack shore flies. The species has been recorded as a parasitoid of Scatella stagnalis, a shore fly species associated with aquatic or semi-aquatic environments. Its first Canadian record was documented in the Great Lakes region, where it was identified as a potential biological control agent for managing shore fly populations in greenhouse and nursery settings.
Hibana velox
Yellow Ghost Spider
Hibana velox, commonly known as the yellow ghost spider, is a small nocturnal hunting spider native to North America. Formerly classified as Aysha velox, this species belongs to the family Anyphaenidae and is recognized for its pale coloration and active predation on small insects. It occupies diverse habitats ranging from natural vegetation to human dwellings, and has been documented as an effective biological control agent against agricultural pests such as the citrus leafminer.
Hippodamia
Oblong Lady Beetles, Lady Beetles, Ladybugs
Hippodamia is a genus of lady beetles (Coccinellidae) containing several economically important species. The most common native North American species is H. convergens, which forms overwintering aggregations numbering in the millions and is widely used in biological control. Another notable species, H. variegata, has a cosmopolitan distribution across both hemispheres. Members of this genus are primarily aphidophagous predators valued in agriculture for pest management.
Hippodamia convergens
Convergent Lady Beetle, Convergent Ladybug
The convergent lady beetle is among the most common lady beetles in North America, recognized by the distinctive white converging lines on its pronotum. It is a voracious predator of aphids and other soft-bodied insects, with both larvae and adults actively hunting prey. The species exhibits complex life history traits including facultative reproductive diapause triggered by food scarcity, mass aggregations for overwintering in western mountain valleys, and long-distance migratory behavior. It is one of the few natural enemies commercially collected from wild aggregations for biological control distribution, though released beetles often disperse rapidly from release sites.
Hippodamia glacialis extensa
Hippodamia glacialis extensa is a subspecies of lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae. It belongs to a genus widely recognized for its role as biological control agents of aphids and other soft-bodied insect pests. As a subspecies of H. glacialis, it is part of a taxon with a primarily northern distribution. The species H. glacialis is sometimes referred to by the common name 'glacial lady beetle' in reference to its association with cooler, higher-elevation habitats.
Hippodamia moesta bowditchi
Bowditch's Lady Beetle
Hippodamia moesta bowditchi is a subspecies of lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae, described by Johnson in 1910. It is native to North America. As a member of the genus Hippodamia, it belongs to a group of predatory lady beetles commonly used in biological control of aphids and other soft-bodied insects. The subspecies designation indicates geographic or morphological variation within the broader H. moesta species complex.
Hippodamia quinquesignata ambigua
Pacific Five-spotted Lady Beetle
Hippodamia quinquesignata ambigua is a subspecies of lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae. It occurs in western North America, with records from the Pacific region and introduced populations in Hawaii. The species is a generalist predator, feeding primarily on aphids and other small soft-bodied insects.
Hippodamia tredecimpunctata
thirteen-spot ladybeetle, thirteen-spotted lady beetle
Hippodamia tredecimpunctata is a medium-sized lady beetle distinguished by thirteen dark spots on red to orange elytra. It occupies a narrow ecological niche in wetland habitats across the northern hemisphere, where it preys on aphids associated with grasses and sedges. The species has experienced population declines in parts of North America following the introduction of the non-native seven-spot lady beetle.
Hister abbreviatus
clown beetle
Hister abbreviatus is a species of clown beetle in the family Histeridae. It is distributed across North America, Central America, and northern South America, with records from Canada through the United States to Mexico. The species has been studied in laboratory conditions, where it demonstrated rapid development and predatory behavior focused on filth flies in cattle dung environments.
Histeridae
clown beetles, hister beetles
Histeridae is a cosmopolitan family of predatory beetles containing more than 410 genera and 4,800 described species worldwide. Members are commonly known as clown beetles or hister beetles. They are immediately recognizable by their shortened elytra that leave two abdominal tergites exposed, and their elbowed antennae with clubbed, lamellate ends. The family exhibits remarkable ecological diversity, with species occupying niches ranging from carrion and dung to ant and termite colonies, forest litter, and tree bark. Their predatory habits on fly larvae and other arthropods have made them valuable for biological control and forensic entomology.
Holcencyrtus
Holcencyrtus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, subfamily Tetracneminae, established by Ashmead in 1900. The genus is represented in the UCR Entomology Research Museum by at least three species: H. gonzalezi Trjapitzin, H. myrmicoides (Compere & Zinna), and H. osborni (Timberlake). Specimens have been collected from Mexico and preserved both as pinned specimens and microscope slides. The genus belongs to a large and taxonomically important group of microhymenoptera that are significant biological control agents.
Homalodisca
sharpshooters
Homalodisca is a genus of large leafhoppers (sharpshooters) in the family Cicadellidae, tribe Proconiini. The genus contains approximately 18 described species distributed primarily in the Americas. The most economically significant species is Homalodisca vitripennis (formerly H. coagulata), commonly known as the glassy-winged sharpshooter, a major agricultural pest and vector of Xylella fastidiosa bacteria causing Pierce's disease in grapevines and other plant diseases. Members of this genus are characterized by their relatively large size among leafhoppers, xylem-feeding habits, and strong flight capabilities.
Homalodisca vitripennis
Glassy-winged Sharpshooter
Homalodisca vitripennis, commonly known as the glassy-winged sharpshooter, is a large leafhopper native to the southeastern United States and northeastern Mexico. It has become a major invasive pest in California, Hawaii, and the Pacific Islands, where it vectors Xylella fastidiosa, the bacterium causing Pierce's disease of grapevine—a lethal condition for vineyards. The species exhibits complex vibrational communication during mating, with males and females engaging in duets using species-specific signals. Populations in California's Central Valley have developed significant resistance to neonicotinoid insecticides, particularly imidacloprid, creating challenges for chemical management. Classical biological control using egg parasitoids from the genus Gonatocerus (family Mymaridae) has proven effective, with parasitism rates reaching 80-100% in some areas.
Homolobus
Homolobus is a genus of braconid wasps in the subfamily Homolobinae, tribe Homolobini. These moderate to large parasitoid wasps (4.4–14.6 mm body length) are characterized by distinctive wing venation and occipital carina. The genus contains approximately 55 species distributed across five subgenera and has a cosmopolitan distribution. They are endoparasitoids of caterpillars, particularly those in the families Noctuidae and Geometridae.
Homotomidae
fig psyllids, mulberry psyllids
Homotomidae is a family of small phloem-feeding insects in the superfamily Psylloidea, commonly known as fig or mulberry psyllids. Members feed almost exclusively on Moraceae, primarily the genus Ficus, with rare exceptions such as Triozamia on Antiaris toxicaria. The family contains approximately 70 described species across three subfamilies: Dynopsyllinae, Macrohomotominae, and Homotominae. Several species are economically significant pests of ornamental and cultivated figs, including the invasive Macrohomotoma gladiata, which has spread from Asia to Europe, North Africa, and North America.
Hoplocampa testudinea
apple sawfly, European apple sawfly
Hoplocampa testudinea is a sawfly species in the family Tenthredinidae that is a significant pest of apple orchards. Native to Europe, it was accidentally introduced to North America in 1939 and has since become invasive across the northeastern United States and Canada. The larvae develop inside developing apple fruitlets, causing characteristic ribbon scars or fruit drop, while adults are active during apple bloom and oviposit into the calyx of flowers.
Hoplodictya
marsh flies
Hoplodictya is a genus of marsh flies (family Sciomyzidae) established by Cresson in 1920. The genus contains five described species distributed across North and South America. As members of Sciomyzidae, these flies are associated with wetland and marsh habitats. The genus is placed in the tribe Tetanocerini, a group characterized by predatory or parasitoid larvae that develop in mollusk hosts.
Horismenus
Horismenus is a large genus of eulophid wasps (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) comprising over 400 described species, primarily distributed in the Americas. Species are predominantly parasitoids, with documented associations including bruchid beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) in bean seeds, cerambycid beetles, mantid oothecae, and other insects. Several species exhibit hyperparasitoid behavior. The genus has been the subject of recent taxonomic revision due to cryptic species diversity revealed through molecular analysis.
Hornaltica bicolorata
leaf-feeding beetle
Hornaltica bicolorata is a leaf-feeding beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. The species has been deployed as a biological control agent against the invasive weed Parthenium hysterophorus in East Africa, particularly Ethiopia and Uganda, where it has demonstrated consistent establishment. It was previously known under the synonym Zygogramma bicolorata in biocontrol literature. The beetle contributes to integrated pest management programs by defoliating the target weed.
Hyaliodes vitripennis
Hyaliodes vitripennis is a predatory mirid plant bug native to North America. In Quebec apple orchards, it serves as one of the most important biological control agents of spider mites and aphids when integrated pest management practices are employed. The species is univoltine, with adults appearing in late July to early August and populations peaking shortly thereafter. Adults spend nearly all their time on the undersides of leaves.
Hyblaea puera
teak defoliator
A small moth (wingspan 3–4 cm) and major defoliator of teak and mangrove ecosystems across tropical Asia. Adults have greyish-brown forewings that conceal brightly colored black and orange-yellow hindwings at rest. The species undergoes dramatic population outbreaks, with densities shifting from endemic levels to epidemic proportions seasonally. It has expanded beyond its native South and Southeast Asian range to Central America, Africa, and Australia, and has recently emerged as a serious invasive pest of mangroves in India and China.
Hyblaeidae
teak moths
Hyblaeidae is a family of moths containing approximately 18 species across two genera: Hyblaea (Old World tropics) and Torone (Neotropics). The family's phylogenetic position within Lepidoptera remains uncertain, with studies placing Hyblaeoidea as sister to Pyraloidea or alternatively grouping with Thyridoidea or butterflies. Males possess a specialized 'hair-pencil' on the hindleg. The family is economically significant due to Hyblaea puera, a major defoliator of teak and mangrove species.
Hydrellia
hydrilla leaf mining flies (unofficial, for some species)
Hydrellia is a large genus of shore flies (family Ephydridae) comprising more than 240 described species. The genus is notable for containing aquatic leaf-mining species whose larvae develop inside the tissues of submerged aquatic plants. Several species, particularly H. pakistanae and H. balciunasi, have been introduced to North America as biological control agents against the invasive aquatic weed Hydrilla verticillata. Other species, such as H. tarsata, mine leaves of Water Soldier (Stratiotes aloides) in Eurasian freshwater systems.
Hydrotaea aenescens
black dump fly, black garbage fly, dump fly
Hydrotaea aenescens, commonly known as the black dump fly or black garbage fly, is a muscid fly native to the New World that has become invasive in Europe. The species is notable for its predatory larvae that feed on house fly (Musca domestica) larvae, making it a candidate for biological control programs in livestock facilities. Adults have been documented as vectors of human botfly eggs. The species exhibits rapid range expansion in Europe, with records extending to the Far North of European Russia.
Hydrotaea armipes
Hydrotaea armipes is a species of muscid fly in the family Muscidae. It is known from Europe, with distribution records from Portugal (including Madeira and São Miguel Island), Denmark, and Norway. The genus Hydrotaea includes species associated with decomposing organic matter and animal feces. Some Hydrotaea species have been documented as predators of other fly larvae in manure habitats.
Hydrotaea houghi
Hydrotaea houghi is a species of muscid fly described by Malloch in 1916. It belongs to the family Muscidae, which includes house flies and related species. The species has been recorded from Hawaii and the continental United States. As a member of the genus Hydrotaea, its larvae are known to be predatory on other fly larvae in manure and decaying organic matter.
Hyles euphorbiae
spurge hawk-moth, Leafy Spurge Hawkmoth
Hyles euphorbiae, the spurge hawk-moth, is a European hawkmoth in the family Sphingidae. First described by Linnaeus in 1758, this species is notable for its use in biological pest control against leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula). The species comprises a complex with multiple ecotypes showing variation in cold tolerance and larval pattern morphology across its range. Adults are strong fliers with distinctive wing patterns, while larvae feed on spurge plants and display conspicuous black, white, and red coloration.
Hylobius congener
Seedling Debarking Weevil, Pine Weevil
Hylobius congener, the seedling debarking weevil, is a species of pine weevil in the beetle family Curculionidae. It is a documented pest of newly planted coniferous seedlings in clearcut forests, where adults feed on bark and frequently girdle and kill young trees. The species occurs in North America, with confirmed records in Canada including Alberta, British Columbia, Labrador, and Manitoba.
Hymenomima
Hymenomima is a genus of geometrid moths described by Warren in 1895, containing approximately 28 described species distributed primarily in the Neotropical region. The genus has been subject to biological control research, with Hymenomima nr. memor evaluated and rejected as a potential agent for Brazilian peppertree due to insufficient host specificity. Species exhibit typical geometrid morphology with larvae that are leaf-feeding defoliators.
Hymenoptera
Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies
Hymenoptera is one of the largest and most diverse orders of insects, comprising sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants. Over 150,000 living species have been described, with more than 2,000 extinct species known from fossils. The order is characterized by haplodiploid sex determination, where females develop from fertilized diploid eggs and males from unfertilized haploid eggs. Hymenopterans exhibit a wide range of lifestyles from solitary to highly eusocial, and include major pollinators, predators, and parasitoids. Molecular analysis places Hymenoptera as the earliest branching group of Holometabola, with origins in the Triassic period.
Hypena
Hypena is a genus of moths in the family Erebidae, first described by Franz von Paula Schrank in 1802. The genus comprises over 680 species worldwide, predominantly distributed in tropical regions. Species in this genus are non-migratory and overwinter as pupae. Several species are economically significant agricultural pests, particularly the green cloverworm (Hypena scabra), which is a major defoliator of soybeans in the eastern United States. The genus also includes biological control agents such as Hypena opulenta, introduced to North America to control invasive swallow-worts.
Hypera brunnipennis
Egyptian alfalfa weevil
Hypera brunnipennis, commonly known as the Egyptian alfalfa weevil, is a true weevil in the family Curculionidae. It is a significant agricultural pest of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) in certain regions, particularly in parts of the Middle East and North Africa. The species has been subject to biological control research focusing on its natural enemies, including parasitoid wasps and predatory insects. Its scientific name is frequently misspelled as 'brunneipennis' in the literature.
Hypera postica
Alfalfa Weevil
Hypera postica, the alfalfa weevil, is a small curculionid beetle native to Europe and a major pest of alfalfa in North America following accidental introductions. Adults measure 4–5.5 mm and are brown with a dark mid-dorsal stripe; larvae are yellowish-green with a black head and white dorsal stripe, reaching about 1 cm before pupation. The species causes significant economic damage through larval skeletonization of alfalfa foliage, with yield reductions up to 15%. Multiple biological control agents, particularly parasitoid wasps in the genus Bathyplectes, have been introduced to manage populations.
Hyperaspidini
Hyperaspidini is a tribe of lady beetles (Coccinellidae) established by Mulsant in 1846, currently classified within subfamily Coccinellinae. The tribe contains approximately 16 genera, though generic boundaries remain fluid with some authorities treating Brachiacanthini and Selvadiini as synonyms. Species in this tribe are predominantly small, often inconspicuous lady beetles with documented predatory habits on mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) and aphids (Aphididae).
Hyperaspis
Sigil Lady Beetles
Hyperaspis is a genus of lady beetles (family Coccinellidae) comprising more than 100 described species. Members are known as Sigil Lady Beetles. Species in this genus are predatory, with documented associations with scale insects and mealybugs. The genus has a wide distribution including North America and northern Europe, though individual species vary in range.
Hyperaspis bensonica
Hyperaspis bensonica is a small lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae native to southwestern North America. Adults measure 1.90–2.90 mm and exhibit distinctive coloration: males have yellow lateral and anterior pronotal margins, and the elytra bear a discal spot and lateral vitta. Like other members of the genus Hyperaspis, this species is a predator of scale insects. The larvae produce waxy secretions that serve as protective camouflage, causing them to be frequently mistaken for mealybugs or scale insects.
Hyperaspis bigeminata
bigeminy lady beetle, Bigeminate Sigil Lady Beetle
Hyperaspis bigeminata is a small lady beetle native to North America, ranging from Maine to Florida and west to Michigan and east Texas. Adults measure 2.40–3.35 mm and display distinct sexual dimorphism in pronotum coloration. The species is a specialized predator of scale insects, with larvae that produce a protective white waxy coating often mistaken for mealybugs.
Hyperaspis brunnescens
Hyperaspis brunnescens is a small species of lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae, described by Dobzhansky in 1941. It is native to North America and has been recorded from Illinois and Nova Scotia. Adults measure approximately 2.30–2.50 mm in length. The species exhibits sexual dimorphism in pronotum coloration: males have a dull yellow pronotum, while females have a brownish black pronotum with a faint yellow lateral border. The elytra are brownish black with two longitudinal vittae (stripes).
Hyperaspis connectens
connected lady, Confluent Sigil Lady Beetle
Hyperaspis connectens, commonly known as the connected lady or Confluent Sigil Lady Beetle, is a small lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure approximately 2.3–3 mm in length. The species ranges from the southern United States through Central America and the Caribbean Islands to northern South America. Like other members of the genus Hyperaspis, it is a specialized predator of scale insects.
Hyperaspis conspirans
Hyperaspis conspirans is a small predatory lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure approximately 1.90–2.30 mm in length. Males have a black pronotum with a yellow lateral area, while females show a slightly reddened yellow area on the pronotum. The elytra bear three yellow spots. The species is known from Arizona and Texas in southwestern North America. Like other members of the genus Hyperaspis, larvae are covered in white wax secreted from lateral glands, which serves as protection against ants and other predators while hunting scale insects.
Hyperaspis conviva
Hyperaspis conviva is a small lady beetle native to North America. Adults measure 2.70–3.80 mm and display a black body with red spot patterning similar to Hyperaspis signata. The species is a specialized predator of scale insects, with larvae producing a distinctive white waxy coating that serves as camouflage and protection against ants and other predators. The waxy larvae are frequently mistaken for mealybugs, leading to unnecessary mortality from insecticide applications.
Hyperaspis disconotata
disk-marked lady beetle
Hyperaspis disconotata, commonly known as the disk-marked lady beetle, is a small predatory beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure approximately 2.30–2.80 mm in length and are characterized by five yellow spots on the elytra. The species is native to North America, with records from Alberta, Quebec, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New York, and Wisconsin. As a member of the Hyperaspis genus, it is a specialized predator of scale insects, contributing to biological control of these plant pests.
Hyperaspis disrupta
Hyperaspis disrupta is a small lady beetle native to southwestern North America. Adults measure 1.60–1.80 mm and are distinguished by yellow anterior and lateral borders on the pronotum in males, with elytra bearing discal and apical spots. The species is a specialist predator of scale insects. Its larvae are covered in white waxy secretions that serve as camouflage and protection against ant attacks, making them frequently mistaken for mealybugs or other pests.
Hyperaspis dissoluta
dissolute lady beetle
Hyperaspis dissoluta is a small lady beetle native to western North America. Adults measure 2.0–2.75 mm and are characterized by black elytra with yellow or red markings. The species is a specialized predator of scale insects, with larvae that produce a distinctive white waxy coating for protection. Two subspecies are recognized: H. d. dissoluta and H. d. nevadica, differing in size and elytral pattern.
Hyperaspis dobzhanskyi
Dobzhansky's lady beetle
Hyperaspis dobzhanskyi is a small lady beetle species in the family Coccinellidae, known from Arizona in the southwestern United States. Adults measure approximately 2.45 mm in length. The species belongs to a genus whose larvae are notable for producing waxy secretions that camouflage them among scale insects, their primary prey. Like other Hyperaspis species, it likely serves as a biological control agent of scale insect pests.
Hyperaspis inflexa
curved lady beetle, curved ladybug
Hyperaspis inflexa, commonly known as the curved lady beetle, is a small lady beetle species in the family Coccinellidae native to North America. Adults measure 1.80–2.85 mm in length. Males are distinguished by yellow coloration on the lateral area and anterior border of the pronotum. The species is a specialized predator of scale insects, with larvae that produce a distinctive white waxy coating for protection. It has been recorded across a broad geographic range in North America from western Canada to the eastern United States.
Hyperaspis jovialis
Jovial Sigil Lady Beetle
Hyperaspis jovialis is a small lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae, known from western North America. Adults measure 2.40–2.80 mm and exhibit sexual dimorphism in pronotum coloration. The species belongs to a genus whose larvae are specialized predators of scale insects, often producing waxy coatings for camouflage and protection. Adults display variable elytral color patterns ranging from black with orange spots to orange with black markings.
Hyperaspis levrati
Levrat's lady beetle
Hyperaspis levrati is a small lady beetle native to North America, recorded from Mexico, Arizona, Texas, and Colorado. Adults measure 2.2–3.0 mm. Males display a yellow anterior margin and lateral area of the pronotum, while females have a black anterior margin with yellow lateral areas. The elytra bear four or sometimes five spots. Like other Hyperaspis species, it is a specialized predator of scale insects.
Hyperaspis lugubris
lugubrious lady beetle
Hyperaspis lugubris, commonly known as the lugubrious lady beetle, is a small North American lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure 2.40–3.30 mm in length. The species exhibits sexual dimorphism in pronotum coloration: males have a reddish yellow pronotum often with darkened areas, while females have a black pronotum with yellow lateral margins and a yellow head. The elytra bear three spots. It is one of several Hyperaspis species native to North America that specialize in preying on scale insects.
Hyperaspis medialis
medial lady beetle
Hyperaspis medialis, the medial lady beetle, is a small lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure approximately 2–2.5 mm in length. The species is native to North America and has been recorded from Arizona and Texas. Like other members of the genus Hyperaspis, it is a predator of scale insects. The larvae are covered in white waxy secretions that serve as camouflage and protection against predators.
Hyperaspis nigrosuturalis
Hyperaspis nigrosuturalis is a small lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults reach approximately 3.40 mm in length. The species exhibits sexual dimorphism in coloration: males have yellow heads and yellow lateral margins on the pronotum, while females have black heads and entirely black pronota. The elytra are red with black margins in both sexes. It is native to North America, with records from Florida.
Hyperaspis octavia
Octavia Lady Beetle
Hyperaspis octavia is a small lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae, measuring approximately 2.5 mm in length. It is native to North America and has been recorded from Mississippi, Quebec, Michigan, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Ontario. Like other members of the genus Hyperaspis, it is a specialist predator of scale insects. The species exhibits distinctive coloration with a shiny black body and pale red-brown spots, along with paler brown legs.
Hyperaspis octonotata
eight-spotted lady beetle
Hyperaspis octonotata, commonly known as the eight-spotted lady beetle, is a small predatory beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure 2.3–3.5 mm in length and are characterized by four distinct spots on each elytron. The species is native to North America, with a distribution spanning from the western United States to southernmost Texas. Like other members of the genus Hyperaspis, it is a specialized predator of scale insects and other small soft-bodied insects.
Hyperaspis oculaticauda
eye-tailed lady beetle
Hyperaspis oculaticauda, the eye-tailed lady beetle, is a small predatory lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure 1.80–2.40 mm in length and are characterized by black elytra with a single apical spot. The species is native to western North America, with confirmed records from California, Nevada, and Oregon. Like other Hyperaspis species, it is a specialized predator of scale insects.
Hyperaspis ornatella
Hyperaspis ornatella is a small lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure approximately 2.4–2.6 mm in length. Males have a yellow head and pronotum with a large rectangular black medial area; females have a black head and similar pronotal pattern. The elytra are black with yellow spots. The species name derives from Latin ornamentum, referencing its distinctive color pattern. The species is known from Florida and is part of a genus whose larvae are important biological control agents of scale insects.
Hyperaspis osculans
Hyperaspis osculans is a small lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure 2.50–3.10 mm. The species is native to North America and has been recorded from California. Like other members of the genus Hyperaspis, it is a predator of scale insects. The larvae produce a white waxy coating that serves as camouflage and protection against predators.
Hyperaspis paludicola
swamp lady beetle
Hyperaspis paludicola, the swamp lady beetle, is a small North American lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure 1.70–2.10 mm in length. The species is a specialized predator of scale insects and mealybugs, with larvae that produce distinctive white waxy secretions for protection. It has been recorded from Alberta, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, and South Carolina.
Hyperaspis pleuralis
Side-spotted Sigil Lady Beetle
Hyperaspis pleuralis is a small lady beetle native to western North America, measuring 1.95–2.85 mm in length. Males are distinguished by yellow coloration on the lateral and anterolateral areas of the pronotum. The species exhibits typical Hyperaspis biology: larvae produce a white waxy coating that camouflages them among scale insects while providing protection from predators and ants. Both larvae and adults are specialized predators of scale insects, making them valuable biological control agents in natural and ornamental ecosystems.
Hyperaspis postica
postica lady beetle
Hyperaspis postica, the postica lady beetle, is a small North American lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure 2.30–3.10 mm in length. The species is distinguished by a single apical spot on each elytron that varies in size and shape. It occurs from British Columbia to southern California, with additional records from Alberta, Arizona, and Colorado. Like other Hyperaspis species, it is likely a predator of scale insects.
Hyperaspis quadrioculata
Four-eyed Lady Beetle, Four-eyed Sigil Lady Beetle
Hyperaspis quadrioculata, commonly known as the four-eyed lady beetle, is a small predatory beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure 2.7–4.0 mm and display variable color patterns on their elytra. The species is native to North America, with confirmed records from central and southern California. Like other members of the genus Hyperaspis, it is a specialized predator of scale insects.
Hyperaspis quadrivittata
Four-streaked Lady Beetle
Hyperaspis quadrivittata is a small lady beetle (2.0-2.7 mm) native to western North America, found primarily west of the 100th meridian. It is a member of the Coccinellidae family and is distinguished by four red or yellowish streaks on its black elytra. Like other Hyperaspis species, it is a predator of scale insects, though specific prey associations for this species are not well documented in the literature.
Hyperaspis querquesi
Hyperaspis querquesi is a small lady beetle species in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure approximately 2.55–2.70 mm in length. The species is known from California, where it has been recorded in association with scale insects. Like other members of the genus Hyperaspis, it likely functions as a biological control agent of scale insect pests.
Hyperaspis significans
waxy lady beetle
Hyperaspis significans is a small lady beetle native to southwestern North America. Adults measure 2.20–2.65 mm and display distinct sexual dimorphism in pronotum coloration. The species is a specialized predator of scale insects, with larvae that produce a conspicuous white waxy coating for protection. Like other members of the genus, it serves as an important biological control agent against pest scales.
Hyperaspis taeniata
Ribboned lady beetle, Ribboned Sigil Lady Beetle
Hyperaspis taeniata, known as the ribboned lady beetle, is a small predatory beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure 2.2–3 mm in length. Males are distinguished by a yellow lateral border on the pronotum. The species is native to western North America, with confirmed records from California, Arizona, and Utah. Like other Hyperaspis species, it is a specialist predator of scale insects and their eggs.
Hyperaspis weisei
Weise's lady beetle
Hyperaspis weisei, commonly known as Weise's lady beetle, is a small species of lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae. Adults measure approximately 2.25 mm in length. The species is native to North America, with confirmed records from Texas. Like other members of the genus Hyperaspis, it is likely a predator of scale insects, though specific prey relationships for this species remain undocumented.
Hyperomyzus lactucae
Sowthistle Aphid, Blackcurrant-sowthistle Aphid
Hyperomyzus lactucae is a European aphid species in the family Aphididae, commonly known as the sowthistle aphid or blackcurrant-sowthistle aphid. The species exhibits a host-alternating life cycle, utilizing Sonchus species (sowthistles) as primary hosts and Ribes nigrum (blackcurrant) as a secondary host. It is a known vector of lettuce necrotic yellows virus and has been introduced to Australia as a pest of lettuce crops. Development, survival, and reproduction are strongly influenced by temperature and photoperiod, with faster development at higher temperatures within a range of approximately 12.5–24°C.
Hyphantrophaga
Hyphantrophaga is a genus of tachinid flies in the tribe Goniini, subfamily Exoristinae, containing 46 valid species. The genus is notable for a major taxonomic revision in 2019 that described 22 new species from Costa Rica and synonymized five previously recognized genera. Species in this genus are parasitoids of caterpillars across a broad range of lepidopteran families.
Hyphantrophaga virilis
Hyphantrophaga virilis is a tachinid fly (family Tachinidae) known to parasitize caterpillars of the California Oak Moth (Phryganidia californica). The species was described in 1924 and occurs in North America. Like other tachinid flies, it develops as an internal parasitoid, eventually killing its host. Records indicate it is one of several parasitoids associated with oak moth population dynamics along the California coast and in Oregon.
Hypocrita
Hypocrita is a genus of tiger moths established by Jacob Hübner in 1807. The genus belongs to the family Erebidae (formerly Arctiidae) and contains multiple species distributed across various regions. Some species have been reclassified over time, such as Hypocrita phoenicides. The genus includes the cinnabar moth (Hypocrita jacobaeae), a well-known biological control agent for tansy ragwort.
Hypsicera
Hypsicera is a genus of ichneumonid wasps established by Latreille in 1829. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution and comprises approximately 14 described species. As parasitoid wasps, members of this genus likely attack the larval or pupal stages of other insects, though specific host relationships remain poorly documented for most species.
Hyptia reticulata
Hyptia reticulata is a species of ensign wasp in the family Evaniidae, first described by Thomas Say in 1837. Members of this family are characterized by their distinctive abdominal morphology and are commonly known as ensign wasps due to the flag-like appearance of their laterally compressed, stalked abdomens. The genus Hyptia is one of several genera within Evaniidae, a group of parasitoid wasps whose larvae develop within the oothecae of cockroaches. This species is known from North America and Middle America based on distributional records.
Hysteroneura setariae
Rusty Plum Aphid
Hysteroneura setariae is a cosmopolitan aphid species known primarily as the Rusty Plum Aphid. It feeds on grasses and fruit trees, with documented associations including Muhlenbergia capillaris and various Prunus species. The species has been recorded across six continents, with particularly dense populations observed in urban park settings in Japan. It serves as prey for generalist predators including Coccinella septempunctata.
Hystricia
Hystricia is a genus of tachinid flies established by Macquart in 1844, containing approximately 23 described species distributed primarily in the Americas. These flies are characterized by large body size and spiny abdominal tergites, a trait common to many Tachinidae. Like other members of their family, they are parasitoids of other insects. The genus has been subject to taxonomic revision, with species described by multiple authors including Curran, Wulp, and Rondani.
Hystricia abrupta
Spiny-butt fly
Hystricia abrupta is a species of bristle fly in the family Tachinidae, commonly recognized by its spiny abdomen. This large tachinid fly is frequently found in western North America, where adults visit late summer and fall wildflowers for nectar. Like other tachinid flies, it is a parasitoid, with larvae developing inside host insects. It is often mistaken for similar large tachinids such as Adejeania vexatrix and Paradejeania rutilioides due to its robust, spiny appearance.
Ibalia
Ibalia is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ibaliidae, comprising approximately 13-14 described species. All species are specialized parasitoids of siricid woodwasps (family Siricidae), attacking the larval stages of their hosts within dead or decaying wood. Females locate host larvae by detecting volatile compounds emitted by symbiotic fungi that siricids cultivate for nutrition. The genus is notable for its laterally compressed abdomen, giving a distinctive flattened appearance, and for its role as a biological control agent against invasive woodwasps such as Sirex noctilio.
parasitoidwoodwasp-parasitoidbiological-controlforest-insectCynipoideaproovigenicolfactory-foragingcuticular-hydrocarbonesalkane-pheromonesSiricidae-parasitoidAmylostereumCerrenavolatileshost-finding-behaviorpatch-foragingcon-specific-interferenceflight-capacitylaterally-compressed-abdomenIbalia-ancepsIbalia-leucospoidesIbalia-drewseniIbalia-japonicaIbalia-rufipesIbalia-ruficollisIbalia leucospoides
knife-shaped ibalia, Sirex Ibaliid Wasp
Ibalia leucospoides is a solitary endoparasitoid wasp in the family Ibaliidae, native to the Northern Hemisphere and widely introduced to the Southern Hemisphere as a biological control agent for the invasive woodwasp Sirex noctilio. Adults are active from April to December depending on location, with a univoltine life cycle synchronized with host emergence. The species exhibits pro-ovigenic reproduction, with females emerging with a high proportion of mature eggs relative to lifetime fecundity. Adult feeding has minimal impact on egg maturation, survival, or flight capacity.
Ibaliidae
ibaliid wasps
The Ibaliidae are a small family of parasitoid wasps in the superfamily Cynipoidea, comprising three extant genera (Ibalia, Heteribalia, and Eileenella) with approximately 20 species worldwide. Unlike most cynipoids, which are phytophagous gall-formers, ibaliids are parasitoids of wood-boring sawfly larvae in the family Siricidae. Adults are notably large for cynipoids, reaching up to 30 mm in length, with a distinctive laterally compressed abdomen. The family is sister to the rest of Cynipoidea excluding the small subfamily Austrocynipidae.
Icerya
Cushion Scale Insects
Icerya is a genus of scale insects in the family Monophlebidae, notable for containing some of the few hermaphroditic insects known to science. The genus includes approximately 50 described species distributed worldwide, with several species being significant agricultural pests. The most economically important species is Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale), native to Australia but now cosmopolitan in distribution, which has caused severe damage to citrus crops globally. Several Icerya species exhibit androdioecy—a rare mating system where hermaphrodites and males coexist—with hermaphrodites possessing ovotestes and reproducing primarily through self-fertilization. This reproductive strategy, combined with the sessile nature of adult females, contributes to their invasive potential. The genus is named after physician-naturalist Dr. Edmond Icery of British Mauritius.
Icerya purchasi
cottony cushion scale, fluted scale, cochinilla australiana
Icerya purchasi is a scale insect native to Australia that has become a globally distributed pest of citrus and ornamental plants. The species is notable for its distinctive reproductive system: most individuals are hermaphrodites capable of self-fertilization, with rare males enabling occasional outbreeding. Adult females are sessile and produce large white fluted egg sacs that can exceed twice the body length. The species achieved historical significance as the target of one of the first successful biological control programs, using the vedalia beetle (Novius cardinalis) in California in 1888–1889.
Ichneumon
Ichneumon wasps
Ichneumon is a genus of parasitic wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, one of the largest and most diverse groups of parasitoid insects. Members of this genus exhibit typical ichneumonid morphology with elongated bodies, long antennae, and often prominent ovipositors. The genus name derives from Greek "ichneumon" meaning "tracker," reflecting their host-finding behavior. Like other ichneumonids, they are parasitoids of other insects, with larvae developing on or within host organisms.
Ichneumonidae
Ichneumonid wasps, Darwin wasps, Ichneumon wasps
Ichneumonidae is a family of parasitoid wasps within Hymenoptera, representing one of the most diverse insect families with approximately 25,000 described species and estimates of 60,000–100,000+ total species worldwide. Members are exclusively parasitoids, attacking immature stages of holometabolous insects and spiders, with larvae consuming living hosts before emergence. The family plays significant regulatory roles in insect populations across natural and agricultural ecosystems.
Ichneumoninae
Ichneumoninae is the second largest subfamily of Ichneumonidae, with over 420 genera and 4,375 described species distributed worldwide. Members are typically large, conspicuous, and often brightly colored parasitoid wasps. They are koinobiont or idiobiont endoparasitoids of Lepidoptera, with larvae developing inside moth and butterfly caterpillars or pupae. The subfamily was recently reorganized from 15 tribes to 7 tribes, with Ichneumonini containing well over 300 genera.
Ichneumonoidea
Ichneumonid and Braconid Wasps
Ichneumonoidea is a superfamily of Hymenoptera containing two extant families: Ichneumonidae and Braconidae, the two largest families within the order. The group encompasses an estimated 100,000 species, the vast majority undescribed. Members are solitary parasitoid wasps whose larvae develop on or inside host insects, eventually killing them. The superfamily is defined morphologically by fusion of the costal and radial veins of the fore wing and typically more than 11 antennal segments.
Idona
Idona is a genus of leafhoppers in the family Cicadellidae, subfamily Typhlocybinae, and tribe Dikraneurini. The genus was established by DeLong in 1931. Species within this genus are associated with agricultural crops, including avocado, where at least one species (Idona minuenda) has been identified as a pest. The genus is part of the diverse leafhopper fauna of the Americas and has been documented in taxonomic studies focusing on Typhlocybinae systematics.
Idona minuenda
Idona minuenda is a species of leafhopper in the family Cicadellidae, subfamily Typhlocybinae. It was first described by Ball in 1921. The species is known to occur in North America and has been recorded as a pest of avocado in Mexico. It is associated with the mymarid wasp Anagrus sp. near takeyanus, which acts as an egg parasitoid.
Idris
Idris is a large genus of parasitic wasps in the family Scelionidae, first described by Förster in 1856. The genus contains over 300 described species worldwide, with many more remaining undescribed. Most species are egg parasitoids, historically associated with spider eggs, though at least one species has been documented parasitizing stink bug eggs. Members are typically very small, measuring 1–2 mm in length, with reduced wing size that facilitates access to concealed host eggs.
Illinoia
Illinoia is a genus of aphids (Aphididae: Aphidinae: Macrosiphini) established by Wilson in 1910. The genus contains multiple economically and ecologically significant species, including the tuliptree aphid (I. liriodendri), a notable pest of ornamental Liriodendron tulipifera, and the blueberry aphid (I. pepperi). Species in this genus are phloem-feeding insects associated with specific host plants, with some having become invasive outside their native ranges.
Illinoia liriodendri
tuliptree aphid, tulip tree aphid
Illinoia liriodendri is a sap-feeding aphid native to eastern North America that specializes on tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera). It has become an invasive pest in Europe, where it was first recorded in the early 2000s and has since spread to multiple countries. The species exhibits a monoecic-holocyclic life cycle, with peak populations occurring in late spring. It is considered the most significant insect pest of tuliptree in urban landscapes, capable of reaching high densities that produce substantial honeydew and impact young trees.
Inostemma
Inostemma is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Platygastridae, established by Haliday in 1833. Species within this genus are known to parasitize gall midges (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) across diverse habitats including pine forests, agricultural crops, and tropical vegetation. Several species have been documented as biological control agents of pestiferous gall midges, with well-studied examples including parasitoids of the invasive pine needle gall midge in eastern Asia. The genus exhibits cosmopolitan distribution with particular diversity in the Palearctic, Asia, and Madagascar.
Iridopsis
Iridopsis is a genus of geometrid moths (family Geometridae) established by Warren in 1894. The genus contains approximately 20 described species distributed across the Americas. Several species are economically significant as defoliators of trees, including eucalyptus pests in Brazil and native tree feeders in Chile. Host plant associations vary among species, with some showing narrow specificity and others broader feeding ranges.
Ischnodemus
Wheat Chinch-bugs
Ischnodemus is a genus of true bugs in the family Blissidae containing approximately 95 species. Adults are characterized by moderately to very elongated bodies, reflected in the genus name derived from Greek for 'feeble body.' The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution across all major zoogeographic regions and shows strong associations with grasses (Poaceae), with some species utilizing sedges (Cyperaceae). Several species are economically significant, including I. variegatus (Myakka bug), an introduced species in North America being evaluated as a biological control agent for invasive West Indian marsh grass.
Ischnodemus variegatus
myakka bug
Ischnodemus variegatus, commonly known as the myakka bug, is a true bug in the family Blissidae native to Central and South America. The species was first recorded in Florida in 2000, where it was discovered feeding on the invasive West Indian marsh grass (Hymenachne amplexicaulis) in Myakka River State Park. It has been extensively studied as a potential biological control agent for this invasive wetland weed due to its high host specificity. The bug is small, with females reaching about 7 mm and males about 6 mm in length, and produces a noxious scent when disturbed.
Iseropus
Iseropus is a genus of ichneumon wasps comprising approximately nine described species. Members are ectoparasitoids of lepidopteran hosts, with documented associations including pupal parasitism of noctuid moths and larval parasitism of pyralid moths. The genus exhibits a broad distribution across multiple continents, with species described from the Americas, Europe, and Asia. Some species have been studied for their venom-mediated manipulation of host lipid metabolism.
Isodontia elegans
Elegant Grass-carrying Wasp
Isodontia elegans is a solitary, nest-provisioning thread-waisted wasp in the family Sphecidae. Commonly known as the elegant grass-carrying wasp, it hunts orthopteran prey including tree crickets and katydids, which it paralyzes and stores in nest cells for its developing larvae. The species is notable for using pre-existing cavities—particularly window tracks and wind chime tubes in suburban settings—lining them with finely chewed grass fibers that serve as both partitions between cells and defensive barriers against parasites.
Istocheta
Istocheta is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) in the tribe Blondeliini. The genus contains approximately 30 described species distributed across the Palearctic and Nearctic regions. Istocheta aldrichi, the most extensively studied species, is a specialist parasitoid of the Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica) and has been widely introduced as a biological control agent. Most species in the genus appear to be parasitoids of scarab beetles, though detailed host records remain limited for many taxa.
Istocheta aldrichi
Winsome Fly
Istocheta aldrichi is a tachinid fly native to Japan that was introduced to North America in 1922 as a biological control agent against the invasive Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica). The species has established throughout northeastern North America and has recently expanded its range into Quebec, Ontario, and the Midwest United States. It is a highly host-specific parasitoid that deposits large white macrotype eggs on the pronotum of adult Japanese beetles, with larvae developing internally and causing host death within 5–7 days of egg hatch. Recent studies demonstrate parasitism rates of 15–60% in some areas, making it an important natural enemy for integrated pest management.
Itoplectis
Itoplectis is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, first described by Arnold Förster in 1869. The genus contains approximately 35 to 61 recognized species with cosmopolitan distribution. Members are polyphagous solitary parasitoids that attack lepidopteran pupae and have been studied extensively for their potential as biological control agents. Several species, particularly I. conquisitor and I. naranyae, serve as model organisms for research on parasitoid behavior, learning, and chemical ecology.
Ixodes affinis
Ixodes affinis is a hard-bodied tick species distributed across the southeastern United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America. Unlike its congener Ixodes scapularis, this species does not bite humans but serves as a competent vector for Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, the causative agent of Lyme disease. Immature stages feed on birds and small mammals, while adults parasitize larger mammals including deer and dogs. Its expanding range into southeastern Virginia and association with migratory birds has raised concerns about its role in pathogen dispersal.
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Ixodiphagus is a genus of minute chalcidoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, comprising approximately 10–11 described species worldwide. These wasps are obligate parasitoids of ticks (order Ixodida), with females ovipositing into larval or nymphal tick hosts. The genus was erected by Leland Ossian Howard in 1907, with I. texanus as the type species. Ixodiphagus has been extensively studied as a potential biological control agent for medically and veterinary important tick species due to its unique host-specific biology.
Ixodiphagus hookeri
tick wasp
Ixodiphagus hookeri, commonly known as the tick wasp, is a minute parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae that specializes in attacking hard ticks (Ixodidae). Females oviposit eggs into unfed tick nymphs, with development proceeding only after the host engorges on vertebrate blood. The wasp harbors the symbiotic bacterium Wolbachia pipientis, which appears to suppress the tick's immune response and facilitate successful parasitism. This species has been recorded from numerous tick genera worldwide and is considered a promising candidate for biological control of tick vectors of human and animal disease.
Jaliscoa
Jaliscoa is a genus of chalcidoid wasps in the family Pteromalidae, established by Bouček in 1993. The genus was redefined in a 2013 taxonomic revision and currently includes four species: J. nudipennis (type species), J. bouceki, J. hunteri, and J. vulgaris. The most extensively studied species, J. hunteri, is a parasitoid of weevils in the genus Anthonomus, particularly the pepper weevil (A. eugenii), and has been investigated as a biological control agent. Unlike many parasitoids, J. hunteri exhibits significant host feeding behavior that contributes to pest suppression.
Jaliscoa hunteri
Jaliscoa hunteri is a pteromalid parasitoid wasp native to North America that functions as a biological control agent of weevil pests in agricultural systems. Originally described as Catolaccus hunteri in 1908, it was transferred to Jaliscoa in a 2013 revision. The species is best known for parasitizing and host-feeding on pepper weevil (Anthonomus eugenii) larvae in pepper crops, and has been evaluated for control of hibiscus bud weevil (Anthonomus testaceosquamosus). Laboratory studies demonstrate strong attraction to volatiles emitted by weevil-infested pepper plants and fruit.
Jalysus
stilt bugs
Jalysus is a genus of stilt bugs in the family Berytidae, comprising approximately 12 described species. These insects are characterized by their exceptionally long, slender legs and antennae. Species within this genus exhibit diverse feeding habits, ranging from generalist herbivores to omnivores that consume both plant material and small arthropod prey. Some species are significant agricultural pests, particularly of tomatoes, while others serve as biological control agents by preying on pest eggs and soft-bodied insects.
Jalysus spinosus
spined stilt bug
Jalysus spinosus is a stilt bug in the family Berytidae characterized by extremely long, slender legs and antennae. The species is primarily associated with grasses in the genus Panicum, though it has been documented on tobacco and other crops. It functions as a facultative predator, feeding on small insects and insect eggs while also consuming plant fluids. The species overwinters as eggs and produces multiple generations per year, with peak populations occurring in late summer. It has been studied as a potential biological control agent for agricultural pests.
Jalysus wickhami
Spined Stilt Bug
Jalysus wickhami, commonly known as the spined stilt bug, is a species of stilt bug in the family Berytidae. It is the most common stilt bug in the eastern United States and has been documented from gardens and meadows. The species exhibits omnivorous feeding habits, consuming plant juices from legumes, grasses, and tomato plants, as well as preying on insect eggs and parasitoid prepupae. It has been studied for its role in biological control and its potential negative impacts through intraguild predation on beneficial parasitoids.
Kerriidae
Lac insects, Lac scales
Kerriidae is a family of scale insects in the order Hemiptera, commonly known as lac insects or lac scales. Members secrete a protective waxy resin called lac, which is commercially harvested and processed into shellac, dyes, food glazes, and wood finishes. The family includes economically important genera such as Kerria, Tachardina, and Paratachardina, with Kerria lacca being the most widely cultivated species for lac production. Some species have become invasive pests outside their native ranges, while others are valued for their role in sustainable agroecosystems.
Klambothrips
Klambothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae, established by Mound and Morris in 2007. The genus includes at least one notable invasive species, Klambothrips myopori, which has been extensively studied in California. This species is a specialist herbivore on plants in the genus Myoporum and has become a significant pest of ornamental plantings in urban landscapes.
Klambothrips myopori
Naio Thrips
Klambothrips myopori is a gall-forming thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae, described by Mound and Morris in 2007. Native to Australia and New Zealand, it invaded California in 2005 and has since become established in Hawaii and the contiguous United States. The species is obligately associated with Myoporum host plants, inducing galls on foliage. It has emerged as a significant pest of ornamental plantings in California, with documented variation in host plant suitability across different Myoporum cultivars.
Labidura
striped earwigs
Labidura is a genus of earwigs in the family Labiduridae, established by Leach in 1815. The genus includes approximately nine species, with Labidura riparia being the most widespread and cosmopolitan member. Labidura riparia is notable as a predator of agricultural pests, including the Asian corn borer and Mediterranean fruit fly pupae. The Saint Helena earwig (Labidura herculeana), now possibly extinct, was the largest known earwig species. Several Labidura species exhibit subsocial maternal care of eggs and young.
Labidura riparia
shore earwig, tawny earwig, striped earwig, riparian earwig
Labidura riparia is a cosmopolitan earwig species found primarily in tropical to subtropical regions. It exhibits complex subsocial behavior with maternal care of eggs and young. The species is a generalist predator valued for biological pest control, with documented predation on Lepidoptera larvae, insect eggs, and crop pests including the Asian corn borer and Mediterranean fruit fly pupae. Males possess two functional penises but show a 90% preference for the right penis during copulation, a behavioral asymmetry unique among earwigs.
Labiduridae
striped earwigs
Labiduridae is a family of earwigs commonly known as striped earwigs, containing approximately 72 species across seven genera in three subfamilies. Members are moderate to large in size with cylindrical bodies, well-developed wings, and notably long antennae. The family exhibits cosmopolitan distribution and includes well-known species such as Labidura riparia (tawny earwig) and Nala lividipes. Many species display subsocial maternal care and predatory habits, with some serving as biological control agents of agricultural pests.
Laelius
Laelius is a cosmopolitan genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Bethylidae, subfamily Epyrinae. Species are ectoparasitoids of beetle larvae, primarily attacking Dermestidae (larder beetles), with some species also associated with Scolytinae and Glossinidae. The genus contains approximately 68 valid species worldwide, with significant diversity in the Palaearctic region. Several species have been investigated for biological control of stored product pests and forest pests.
Laetilia
Scale-eating Moths
Laetilia is a genus of snout moths in the family Pyralidae, subfamily Phycitinae, described by Émile Louis Ragonot in 1889. The genus contains approximately 16 described species distributed across North America and other regions. Laetilia species are notable for their entomophagous lifestyle, with larvae feeding primarily on scale insects (Coccoidea), a trait that has earned them the common name "Scale-eating Moths." This specialized predatory behavior makes them of interest for biological control of scale insect pests.
Laetilia coccidivora
scale-feeding snout moth, Scale-feeding Snout
Laetilia coccidivora is a small pyralid moth whose larvae are specialized predators of scale insects (family Coccidae). First described by Comstock in 1879, it occurs in the southern United States and has been documented in Mexico preying on Coccus pseudomagnoliarum. The species is notable among Lepidoptera for its entomophagous diet and use of sequestered carminic acid from its prey for chemical defense.
Laetilia dilatifasciella
Western Scale-feeding Snout
Laetilia dilatifasciella is a small snout moth (Pyralidae) native to the southwestern United States. Adults have forewings 6–8 mm in length and are active in spring and late summer through fall. The species is notable for its predatory larvae that feed on scale insects, making it one of relatively few moth species with carnivorous immature stages.
Laetilia myersella
Laetilia myersella is a species of snout moth (family Pyralidae) described by Harrison Gray Dyar Jr. in 1910. It occurs in eastern North America, with records from Florida, Massachusetts, South Carolina, and West Virginia. The species has a wingspan of 11–17 mm. Its larvae are specialized predators of scale insects on pine trees.
Lamennaisia
Lamennaisia is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, established by Girault in 1922. The genus belongs to the subfamily Encyrtinae, a diverse group of chalcidoid wasps known for their role as biological control agents of scale insects and other Hemiptera. The type species is Lamennaisia ambigua (Nees). Specimens of this genus have been documented in museum collections including the University of California, Riverside Encyrtidae holdings, which contains both pinned and slide-mounted material.
Lamennaisia ambigua
Lamennaisia ambigua is a species of parasitic wasp in the family Encyrtidae, originally described as Encyrtus ambiguus by Nees in 1834. It is one of the species represented in the University of California Riverside's extensive Encyrtidae collection, which is noted as one of the largest and most important collections of this family worldwide. The species has been recorded from Canada (Saskatchewan), Denmark, Norway, and Madeira Island (Portugal).
Laniifera cyclades
Cactus Moth, Prickly Pear Moth
Laniifera cyclades is a snout moth in the family Crambidae and the sole member of its genus. It is native to Mexico and the southwestern United States. The species is notable for its specialized diet on prickly pear cactuses (Opuntia), which has led to its introduction as a biological control agent in regions where these cactuses are invasive. Adults are active from July to September and have a wingspan of approximately 40 mm.
Lantanophaga
A genus of plume moths (Pterophoridae) established by Zimmerman in 1958. Contains four described species, with L. pusillidactylus being the most widely documented due to its role as a biological control agent of the invasive weed Lantana camara. The genus is notable for its specialized association with this host plant across multiple continents.
Lantanophaga pusillidactylus
Lantana Plume Moth
Lantanophaga pusillidactylus is a plume moth in the family Pterophoridae, commonly known as the Lantana Plume Moth. Native to the southern United States, Mexico, the Caribbean, and South America, it has been introduced to multiple regions including Australia, Hawaii, and Pacific islands as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Lantana camara. The species is highly specialized on Lantana, with larvae feeding inside flowers and berries, causing significant damage to fruit production.
Laphria lata
Laphria lata is a species of robber fly in the family Asilidae. Robber flies in this genus are notable for their effective mimicry of bumble bees, with hairy bodies and coloration that closely resembles their hymenopteran models. The species has been documented as a predator of Japanese beetles (Popillia japonica), using its piercing proboscis to subdue prey. As with other Laphria species, it likely exhibits the characteristic sit-and-wait hunting behavior typical of the genus.
Laricobius
Laricobius is a Holarctic genus of small predatory beetles in the family Derodontidae, comprising approximately 23 described species. Unlike other Derodontidae genera that feed on fungi, Laricobius species are specialized predators of adelgids (Adelgidae), aphid-like insects that infest conifers. Several species, notably L. nigrinus from western North America and L. osakensis from Japan, have been released as biological control agents against the invasive hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) in eastern North America. The genus exhibits two distinct morphological groups: a southeastern Asian/Himalayan group with shortened bodies and narrow pronota lacking explanate margins, and a more widespread Holarctic group with elongate bodies and transverse, fully explanate pronota.
Laricobius erichsonii
Laricobius erichsonii is a small predatory beetle in the family Derodontidae, native to Europe and the sole European representative of the genus. It has been introduced to North America as a biological control agent for the balsam woolly aphid (Adelges piceae), with releases in eastern Canada since 1933 and in Oregon and Washington from 1957–1960. The species is one of the more numerous predators of A. piceae in its native range. It belongs to the widespread Holarctic group within Laricobius, characterized by an elongate body and transverse, fully explanate pronotum.
Laricobius nigrinus
hemlock woolly adelgid predator beetle
Laricobius nigrinus is a small predatory beetle in the family Derodontidae, native to western North America. First described by Kenneth Fender in 1945 from Oregon specimens, it is specialized to feed on adelgids, particularly the hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). Since 2003, it has been released as a biological control agent in the eastern United States to combat invasive adelgid populations threatening eastern and Carolina hemlock trees. The species exhibits a univoltine life cycle with aestival diapause and has established populations across multiple eastern states.
Laricobius rubidus
Laricobius rubidus is a native North American beetle in the family Derodontidae, commonly known as tooth-necked fungus beetles. It is a predator of adelgids (Hemiptera: Adelgidae), specifically feeding on pine bark adelgid and balsam woolly adelgid. The species has gained attention in biological control research due to its potential hybridization with Laricobius nigrinus, a congener being deployed against the invasive hemlock woolly adelgid. Its native range spans eastern North America.
Larinus
Larinus is a genus of true weevils (family Curculionidae) comprising approximately 180 species, with the highest diversity in the Palaearctic region, particularly Turkey where over 50 species occur. These beetles are characterized by stocky, rounded bodies and are primarily associated with plants in the family Asteraceae. Several species have been introduced to North America as biological control agents against invasive thistles, though some have demonstrated non-target effects on native thistle species.
Larinus carlinae
Canada thistle bud weevil, thistle bud weevil, Canada thistle stem weevil
A small weevil native to Europe and western Asia introduced to North America as a biological control agent for invasive thistles. Adults emerge in spring and feed on developing thistle buds with their elongated snouts. Females drill into flower buds to deposit eggs; larvae hatch and consume reproductive tissues, destroying seeds and preventing plant reproduction. Populations can reduce target thistle species by 90% or more within a decade of establishment. The species has been observed feeding on native North American thistles, raising conservation concerns for endemic species.
Larinus curtus
Yellow Starthistle Flower Weevil
Larinus curtus is a small weevil native to southern Europe and the Mediterranean region, introduced to the United States in 1992 as a biological control agent for the invasive weed yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis). Adults are dark brown to black with light-colored mottled hairs and measure approximately 6 mm in length. The species is univoltine, with larvae developing inside flower heads where they feed on developing seeds, achieving average seed reduction rates of 96% per infested head. While adults feed on flowers and pollen, the larval stage provides the primary biocontrol impact.
Larinus minutus
lesser knapweed flower weevil
Larinus minutus is a small true weevil used as a biological control agent against invasive knapweeds, particularly diffuse knapweed (Centaurea diffusa) and spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa). Native to southern Europe and the Mediterranean, it was first released in the United States in 1991 and is now established throughout the western United States. Adults feed on knapweed foliage and flowers, while larvae develop within flower heads and consume developing seeds, often destroying 100% of seeds in infested heads.
Larinus obtusus
Blunt Knapweed Flower Weevil
Larinus obtusus is a small true weevil in the family Curculionidae, commonly known as the blunt knapweed flower weevil. It is native to Europe and the Middle East and has been introduced to North America as a biological control agent against invasive knapweeds (Centaurea species), particularly spotted knapweed. The species is closely related to Larinus minutus, with which it shares similar morphology and ecological role.
Larinus turbinatus
Turbine Cylindrical Weevil
Larinus turbinatus is a true weevil in the family Curculionidae, native to the western Palaearctic. The species name refers to its cone-shaped snout. It is oligophagous on thistles, particularly Carduus and Cirsium species. Females lay eggs in flower buds, and larvae develop within the flower head, typically resulting in one surviving larva per flower due to intraspecific competition. The species has been introduced to the United States.
Larra
Mole Cricket Hunters
Larra is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Crabronidae, commonly known as mole cricket hunters. These wasps are distributed throughout tropical regions worldwide and have gained prominence as biological control agents for mole cricket pests. The genus was established by Fabricius in 1793 and belongs to the subfamily Crabroninae within the tribe Larrini.
Larra bicolor
mole cricket hunter
A solitary parasitoid wasp native to South America, introduced to Florida and Puerto Rico as a biological control agent for invasive mole crickets in the genus Scapteriscus. Adult females hunt mole crickets by stinging them to temporary paralysis and depositing a single egg on the host, which the larva consumes before pupating within the cricket's remains. Adults feed on nectar, particularly from Spermacoce verticillata and other flowering plants. The species has been successfully established in the southeastern United States following introductions from Brazil and Bolivia.
Lathrolestes
Lathrolestes is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, tribe Perilissini, subfamily Ctenopelmatinae. The genus is best known from the species L. ensator, a biological control agent of the apple sawfly Hoplocampa testudinea in orchards.
Lauxanioidea
Lauxanioidea is a superfamily of true flies (Diptera) comprising three families: Lauxaniidae, Chamaemyiidae, and Celyphidae. Members are small to medium-sized flies, often densely bristled and variably colored. The superfamily is defined by three synapomorphies: convergent postocellar bristles, an abbreviated anal wing vein, and fusion of male abdominal tergites 7 and 8. Lauxaniidae and Celyphidae are sister groups based on molecular phylogenetics. Ecologically, the families diverge sharply: Chamaemyiidae are predators of Sternorrhyncha (aphids, scale insects, adelgids), while Lauxaniidae and Celyphidae larvae primarily feed on decaying vegetation.
Lebia
colorful foliage ground beetles, flat ground beetles
Lebia is a large genus of predatory ground beetles (Carabidae) comprising over 700 species in 17 subgenera with worldwide distribution. Members are frequently encountered on foliage and flowers, where their often brilliant metallic coloration makes them conspicuous despite small to medium size. The genus is notable within Carabidae for including species with parasitoid larval stages, a rare life history strategy among ground beetles. Adults are active predators of small insects, while larvae of at least some species are obligate parasitoids of beetle prepupae.
Lebia grandis
Large Foliage Ground Beetle
Lebia grandis is a North American ground beetle and the largest species in its genus on the continent. Adults are specialist predators of Colorado potato beetle eggs and larvae, consuming up to 23 eggs or 3 third-instar larvae daily. First-instar larvae are obligate parasitoids of Leptinotarsa pupae, developing within host pupal chambers in soil. The species has primarily nocturnal habits and a cryptic life cycle that delayed recognition of its ecological importance for approximately a century after its formal description.
Lebia subgrandis
Lebia subgrandis is a ground beetle in the family Carabidae, native to Mexico and found in North America. This species has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for the Colorado Potato Beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata). Adults are generalist predators of CPB eggs and early instar larvae, while first instar larvae are specialized ectoparasites of CPB prepupae and pupae. The species exhibits a notably narrow host range, refusing alternative prey even when starved.
Leiophron
Leiophron is a genus of endoparasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Euphorinae. Species are known to parasitize plant bugs (Miridae), particularly nymphal and adult stages of Lygus species and related mirids. The genus has been taxonomically reviewed for Nearctic species, with multiple new species described and synonymies established. Leiophron species show distinct host associations and geographic distribution patterns, with documented occurrence in the Nearctic, Palaearctic, and Old World tropics.
Lema cyanella
Californian Thistle Leaf Beetle
Lema cyanella is a leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae investigated as a biological control agent for Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense). In Europe, it has been observed breeding primarily on C. arvense, though laboratory studies demonstrate broader feeding and reproductive capacity on Cirsium, Carduus, and Silybum genera. The species was introduced to New Zealand in 1981 and evaluated for release in North America. Females lay an average of 1564 eggs, with development from egg to adult taking approximately 17.6 days under controlled temperature conditions.
Lemophagus
Lemophagus is a genus of ichneumonid wasps in the subfamily Campopleginae. Species are larval parasitoids of chrysomelid beetles, with documented hosts including cereal leaf beetles, lily leaf beetles, and related leaf-feeding beetles. The genus was erected by Townes in 1965 and contains approximately nine described species distributed across the Palearctic, Oriental, and Nearctic regions. Some species have been introduced as biological control agents for agricultural pests.
Lepidosaphes
armored scale insects
Lepidosaphes is a large genus of armored scale insects (Diaspididae) with at least 190 described species distributed worldwide. Species in this genus are phytophagous pests of woody plants, particularly fruit trees and ornamentals. Several species, including L. beckii and L. ulmi, are significant agricultural pests. Members of this genus are hosts for various parasitoids, notably species of Aphytis (Aphelinidae), which are used in biological control programs.
Leptacis
Leptacis is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Platygastridae. These wasps are known to parasitize gall midges (Cecidomyiidae), particularly those associated with freshly cut or damaged wood. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution with documented species across multiple continents. Leptacis wasps are typically less than 2 mm in length and are often overlooked due to their small size.
Lepthyphantes
dwarf spiders
Lepthyphantes is a genus of dwarf spiders in the family Linyphiidae, containing 144 species and one subspecies as of October 2025. Species in this genus are found across Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America. The genus is notable for its members' adaptations to ephemeral and agricultural habitats, with documented life history strategies emphasizing high reproductive rates and dispersal capabilities.
Leptinotarsa texana
Texas potato beetle
Leptinotarsa texana, commonly known as the Texas potato beetle, is a leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. It has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for the invasive weed silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium). The species has been documented as a host for the parasitoid wasp Edovum puttleri, which has been studied for biological control of the related Colorado potato beetle. Its host range includes multiple Solanum species, with field studies showing feeding on silverleaf nightshade and eggplant but not on potato.
Leptocybe
blue gum chalcid wasp, eucalyptus gall wasp
Leptocybe is a monotypic genus of gall wasps in the family Eulophidae, containing the single species L. invasa. Native to Queensland, Australia, this genus has become globally significant as an invasive pest of Eucalyptus plantations. The wasp induces spherical galls on leaf buds and young tissues of multiple Eucalyptus species, causing substantial economic damage to forestry operations worldwide. The genus is characterized by extremely small body size, thelytokous parthenogenetic reproduction, and rapid population expansion in introduced ranges.
Leptocybe invasa
blue gum chalcid wasp, eucalyptus gall wasp, Eucalyptus Stem Gall Wasp
Leptocybe invasa is a gall-forming chalcid wasp native to Queensland, Australia, and the sole species in the monotypic genus Leptocybe. It is a globally significant invasive pest of Eucalyptus plantations, having spread to Africa, Asia, Europe, the Americas, and the Pacific region. The wasp induces spherical galls on leaf buds, midribs, and petioles, impairing tree growth and productivity. Populations reproduce primarily through thelytokous parthenogenesis, with males being rare, enabling rapid population establishment in new regions.
Leptoglossus
leaf-footed bugs
Leptoglossus is a genus of true bugs in the leaf-footed bug family Coreidae, tribe Anisoscelini. Species are characterized by leaflike dilations of the hind tibia, a diagnostic trait of the genus. The genus is distributed throughout the Americas, with some introduced populations in Europe and Asia. Several species are economically significant agricultural pests, notably L. occidentalis, which has become invasive in multiple continents.
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nchanmoss-bugarchaeorrhynchanfulgoromorphancicadomorphanmembracoidtreehopperleafhopperplanthopperpsyllidjumping-plant-lousewhiteflyaleyrodidscale-insectcoccoidmealybugaphidadelgidphylloxeransternorrhynchanthysanopteranthripspsocopteranbarklousebooklousephthirapteranlousesucking-lousechewing-lousemallophagananoplurandermapteranearwigblattodeancockroachtermiteisopteranmantodeanmantidphasmidstick-insectleaf-insectorthopterangrasshopperlocustkatydidcricketmole-cricketpygmy-mole-cricketcamel-cricketcave-cricketwetaensiferancaeliferangryllotalpidmyrmecophilidtettigoniidgryllidacrididpamphagidpneumoridlentulidtristirideumastacidproscopiidtridactylidtetrigidgrouse-locustpygmy-grasshopperplecopteranstoneflyembiopteranwebspinnerzorapteranangel-insectdictyopteranLeptomastidea
Leptomastidea is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea), first described by Mercet in 1916. The genus contains approximately 24 described species worldwide, with members distributed across the Nearctic, Neotropical, Palaearctic, and Oriental regions. Species are primary parasitoids of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), with some species also attacking eriococcids (Eriococcidae). Several species, particularly L. abnormis and L. dactylopii, have been widely used in classical and augmentative biological control programs against citrus and vine mealybugs. The genus is classified in the tribe Anagyrini based on morphological and molecular phylogenetic evidence.
Leptomastidea abnormis
Leptomastidea abnormis is an encyrtid parasitoid wasp native to the Nearctic and Neotropical regions, with introduced populations in Europe and elsewhere. It is a primary parasitoid of mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), particularly the citrus mealybug Planococcus citri, and is widely used in biological control programs. Females exhibit size-dependent host selection, preferring second-instar mealybugs but also attacking later instars and adults. The species shows temperature-dependent reproduction, with maximum progeny production at 24°C maintained up to 34°C. Sex allocation follows host quality models, with female-biased sex ratios on larger hosts.
Leptopharsa
lace bugs
Leptopharsa is a genus of lace bugs in the family Tingidae containing more than 120 described species. Species within this genus are associated with diverse host plants, including palms and rubber trees, and several are economically significant agricultural pests. Leptopharsa gibbicarina is a major pest of oil palm in Colombia and Venezuela, vectoring the Pestalotiopsis fungal complex that causes leaf spot disease. Leptopharsa heveae is a principal pest of rubber tree plantations in Brazil, where it can reduce latex productivity by up to 30%.
Leptotrachelus dorsalis
Leptotrachelus dorsalis is a species of ground beetle in the family Carabidae, distributed across North America including Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Cuba. The species has been documented as a predator of eggs and larvae of Diatraea saccharalis, a significant agricultural pest. As a member of the subfamily Ctenodactylinae, it represents one of the many predatory beetle species contributing to biological control in crop systems.
Leptoypha mutica
Fringetree Lace Bug
Leptoypha mutica is a lace bug (family Tingidae) native to North and Central America. It is a specialist herbivore of plants in the family Oleaceae, with documented associations including ash (Fraxinus), fringetree (Chionanthus virginicus), lilac (Syringa villosa), and Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense). The species has been studied for its developmental biology and host choice behavior, particularly on invasive Chinese privet. Its feeding causes chlorotic blotches on leaves, with damage concentrated around leaf midribs and lateral veins.
Leptysminae
spur-throat toothpick grasshoppers
Leptysminae is a subfamily of grasshoppers in the family Acrididae, commonly known as spur-throat toothpick grasshoppers. The subfamily contains at least 20 genera distributed across North, Central, and South America. Members are characterized by slender, elongate bodies and association with aquatic or semi-aquatic habitats. The genus Cornops, a well-studied member, has been investigated for biological control of invasive water hyacinth.
Leschenaultia
Leschenaultia is a genus of tachinid flies comprising approximately 35 described species distributed across the New World, from Canada to Argentina. Species in this genus are parasitoids of Lepidoptera, with documented hosts spanning at least seven families including Lasiocampidae, Erebidae, Noctuidae, and Saturniidae. The genus has been studied primarily for its role in biological control of forest tent caterpillar and other caterpillar pests. Female flies locate hosts using volatile cues from damaged plants and host frass, with oviposition strategies varying between macrotype eggs deposited directly on host integument and microtype eggs placed on foliage.
Leschenaultia bicolor
Leschenaultia bicolor is a tachinid fly parasitoid that attacks lepidopteran caterpillars. Females deposit microtype eggs on leaves, which are ingested by host caterpillars during feeding. The species has been recorded from multiple Halysidota species (Erebidae) and is distributed across the New World from Canada to Argentina. A 2020 study provided the first description and illustration of male and female terminalia for this species.
Leschenaultia exul
Leschenaultia exul is a tachinid fly that parasitizes tent caterpillars, particularly the forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria) and eastern tent caterpillar (Malacosoma americana). Females locate hosts using olfactory cues from larval aggregation pheromones and frass volatiles, combined with visual cues such as silk trails and larval aggregations. The species deposits macrotype eggs directly onto host larvae and is considered an important biological control agent of forest tent caterpillar populations in North America.
Leschenaultia halisidotae
Leschenaultia halisidotae is a bristle fly species in the family Tachinidae, described by Brooks in 1947. It is a parasitoid of tiger moth caterpillars in the genera Halysidota and Lophocampa. The species is distributed across North America from Canada through the United States to Mexico. As a tachinid fly, it plays a role in regulating populations of its moth hosts through larval parasitism.
Leskiini
Leskiini is a tribe of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising approximately 55 genera distributed worldwide. Members are endoparasitoids of arthropods, with larvae developing inside host organisms. Adults of at least some species visit flowers and contribute to pollination. The tribe includes both widespread genera such as Leskia and Solieria, and numerous regional endemics.
Lespesia
Lespesia is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) distributed from Canada to Chile, with approximately 37 species in the Neotropical Region. Species are endoparasitoids of Lepidoptera caterpillars, with some records from sawfly larvae. The genus includes economically significant species such as L. archippivora, a major parasitoid of monarch butterfly larvae documented through extensive citizen science monitoring.
Lespesia archippivora
Caterpillar Destroyer
Lespesia archippivora is a tachinid fly parasitoid that develops internally within caterpillars, eventually killing its host. It is a generalist parasitoid known to infect at least 25 lepidopteran species and one hymenopteran species. The species is particularly notable for its impact on monarch butterfly populations, with studies estimating 6.2% of wild monarchs are killed by this fly. It has been widely used as a biological control agent against agricultural pests including armyworms, cutworms, and corn earworms. First introduced to Hawaii in 1898 for pest control, it is now established across North America and several Pacific islands.
Lestodiplosini
Lestodiplosini is a tribe of predatory gall midges within the family Cecidomyiidae. Members of this tribe are distinguished by their predatory lifestyle, feeding on other small arthropods rather than inducing plant galls. The tribe contains the genus Lestodiplosis and related taxa. These midges are part of the subfamily Cecidomyiinae, which includes both gall-forming and predatory lineages. Lestodiplosini species have been documented in multiple regions, with iNaturalist observations indicating a broad but patchy distribution.
Leucopis
silver flies
Leucopis is a genus of predatory flies in the family Chamaemyiidae comprising at least 40 described species. Commonly known as silver flies, these insects are specialized predators of adelgids (woolly aphids), with several species under active investigation and release as biological control agents for invasive forest pests. Species such as Leucopis argenticollis and L. piniperda from the Pacific Northwest are being deployed against the hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) in eastern North America, while L. obscura has been documented as a predator of the balsam woolly aphid (Adelges piceae) in Maine.
Leucoptera
leaf miners, white-winged moths
Leucoptera is a genus of small moths in the family Lyonetiidae, commonly known as leaf miners. The genus includes several economically important agricultural pests, most notably Leucoptera coffeella (the coffee leaf miner) and Leucoptera malifoliella (the apple leaf miner). Larvae feed internally within leaf tissue, creating distinctive serpentine or blotch mines that reduce photosynthetic capacity and can cause significant crop losses. The genus has a global distribution with species associated with diverse host plants including coffee, apple, and other crops.
Leucoptera spartifoliella
Scotch broom twig miner, broom twig miner
A tiny white microlepidopteran moth, approximately 4 mm in length, used as a biological control agent against the invasive weed Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius). Native to western and central Europe, it has been introduced to New Zealand (accidentally, 1950s), California (1960), and Australia (1990) to manage broom infestations. The female sex pheromone has been identified as 5-methylheptadecane, enabling population monitoring through pheromone trapping.
Leucostoma aterrimum
Leucostoma aterrimum is a species of tachinid fly in the subfamily Phasiinae. It is known as a parasitoid of true bugs, with documented records of attacking adult scentless plant bugs (Rhopalidae). The species has a broad geographic distribution spanning Europe, North America, and parts of South America, with introduced populations in Hawaii.
Leurus
Leurus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, subfamily Metopiinae. Species in this genus are koinobiont parasitoids of caterpillars, particularly leaf-rolling Crambidae (Lepidoptera). The genus exhibits remarkable cryptic diversity, with eleven sympatric species documented from a single conservation area in Costa Rica. These wasps are distinguished through integrated approaches combining COI barcoding, host associations, and subtle morphological traits.
Ligyra
Ligyra is a genus of bee flies (Diptera: Bombyliidae) in the tribe Exoprosopini, established by Edward Newman in 1841. The genus contains at least 110 described species with cosmopolitan distribution, though recent cladistic analysis has restricted its scope by erecting a new genus for New World species previously assigned to Ligyra. Species in this genus are hyperparasitoids, attacking ground-nesting aculeate Hymenoptera including Sphecidae, Pompilidae, Tiphiidae, and Scoliidae.
Lilioceris
lily leaf beetles, air potato leaf beetles
Lilioceris is a genus of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) in the subfamily Criocerinae, first described by Edmund Reitter in 1912. The genus contains over 100 species, with approximately 80 species occurring in Asia. Several species are notable agricultural and horticultural pests, particularly of plants in the lily family (Liliaceae). Lilioceris lilii (lily leaf beetle) is a serious pest of native and cultivated lilies in Europe and North America, while L. cheni has been successfully deployed as a classical biological control agent against the invasive air potato vine (Dioscorea bulbifera) in Florida. Species range from 4–10 mm in length with elongated, narrow bodies and distinct shoulders between the elytra and pronotum.
Lilioceris cheni
air potato leaf beetle
Lilioceris cheni is a leaf-feeding beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, native to China and Nepal. It was introduced to Florida in 2012 as a classical biological control agent to combat the invasive air potato vine (Dioscorea bulbifera). The beetle has established successfully and is now widely distributed across the southern United States. Mass rearing programs produce over 50,000 beetles annually for release. Both larvae and adults feed on air potato foliage, causing significant damage that reduces vine density and bulbil production.
Linnaemya
Linnaemya is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising approximately 130 described species distributed across three recognized subgenera: Homoeonychia, Linnaemya (sensu stricto), and Ophina. Species are predominantly parasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, particularly Noctuidae (owlet moths), with some records from other host groups. The genus exhibits a broad geographic range spanning the Palaearctic, Oriental, Afrotropical, and Nearctic regions. Several species have been subjects of genomic sequencing due to their ecological significance as biological control agents.
Linycus
Linycus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, first described by Cameron in 1903. These wasps are known to parasitize hosts in the moth family Geometridae. The genus contains at least four described species distributed across Europe, North America, and Japan.
Linyphiidae
Sheetweb weavers, Dwarf spiders, Money spiders
Linyphiidae is the second largest family of spiders worldwide, comprising approximately 5,000 described species in around 650 genera. Members are characterized by extremely small body sizes, typically under 5 mm, and the construction of flat, sheet-like webs often suspended in a maze of supporting threads. The family exhibits remarkable diversity in male genital morphology, with many species displaying elaborate cephalic projections and modified pedipalps used in species identification. Ecologically, they function as important predators of small arthropods in diverse habitats ranging from forest canopies to snow surfaces and cave systems.
Lioptilodes albistriolatus
Mousy Plume Moth
Lioptilodes albistriolatus is a small plume moth in the family Pterophoridae, commonly known as the Mousy Plume Moth. It has a broad distribution across the Americas, ranging from Argentina to the southwestern United States, and has been introduced to Hawaii. The species is notable for its larvae that feed internally on the flower heads of Asteraceae plants.
Lipaphis
Crucifer Aphids
Lipaphis is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, commonly known as crucifer aphids. Species in this genus are specialized feeders on plants in the family Brassicaceae, with some species showing broader host ranges within dicotyledons. The genus includes economically significant pests such as Lipaphis erysimi (mustard aphid) and Lipaphis pseudobrassicae, which cause substantial yield losses in rapeseed, mustard, kale, and other cruciferous crops across multiple continents.
Liriomyza
Liriomyza leaf-mining flies
Liriomyza is a genus of leaf-mining flies in the family Agromyzidae comprising at least 410 described species. The genus is distributed worldwide with particularly notable diversity in the Neotropical region. Larvae feed internally within plant leaves, creating distinctive serpentine or blotch mines that impair photosynthesis. Several species are significant agricultural pests, including the pea leafminer (L. huidobrensis) and vegetable leafminer (L. sativae), which have become invasive in multiple continents. The genus exhibits considerable variation in host plant specificity, with some species highly polyphagous and others restricted to particular plant families.
Liriomyza commelinae
Liriomyza commelinae is a leaf-mining fly in the family Agromyzidae, first described by Frost in 1931. The species is associated with Commelina plants (dayflowers) and has been studied primarily for its role in supporting parasitoid populations that also attack the economically important pest Liriomyza huidobrensis. Research indicates it experiences high mortality rates (over 96%) from parasitoids, predatory ants, and competition-related factors. Its distribution includes Florida, the broader Neotropical region, and parts of Brazil.
Liriomyza langei
leafminer
Liriomyza langei is a leafminer fly species in the family Agromyzidae, first described by Frick in 1951. The species is known as a significant agricultural pest, particularly of chrysanthemum and spinach crops. Larvae feed internally within leaf tissue, creating characteristic mines that reduce photosynthetic capacity and crop quality. The species has been the subject of biological control studies using the parasitoid wasp Diglyphus isaea, as well as genetic research on host plant resistance in spinach.
Lissonota
Lissonota is a large genus of ichneumon wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, comprising at least 390 described species. Members of this genus are parasitoids, with documented species attacking lepidopteran pests of agricultural crops including pistachio and maguey. The genus has been recorded across Europe, Mexico, and Turkey, with distribution records from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
Listroderes
vegetable weevils
Listroderes is a genus of weevils in the family Curculionidae, subfamily Cyclominae. The genus includes at least 170 described species, though some sources suggest a smaller core group. Several species, particularly Listroderes costirostris (vegetable weevil), are significant agricultural pests with broad host ranges. The genus is characterized by distinctive body vestiture of subcircular to suboval scales. Species are native to southern South America, with some introduced widely through human activity.
Listronotus
Listronotus is a genus of weevils in the family Curculionidae containing at least 100 described species. The genus includes several economically significant agricultural pests, notably the carrot weevil (L. oregonensis), annual bluegrass weevil (L. maculicollis), and Argentine stem weevil (L. bonariensis), as well as biological control agents such as L. setosipennis used against invasive weeds. Species in this genus exhibit diverse host associations ranging from cultivated Apiaceae crops to pasture grasses and invasive weeds.
Listronotus maculicollis
annual bluegrass weevil
Listronotus maculicollis, the annual bluegrass weevil, is a highly destructive pest of short-mown turfgrass in eastern North America, particularly golf course putting greens, fairways, and tee boxes. Adults are small (up to 4.5 mm), dark-colored weevils with a distinct spotted or maculate pronotum. The species has expanded its range from the northeastern United States into the Midwest and Southeast since the 2000s. Larval feeding causes severe damage, with early instars acting as stem-borers and later instars feeding on the crown, resulting in irregular patches of dead turf. The weevil shows strong preference for Poa annua (annual bluegrass) over other turfgrass species, though it can develop on several cool-season grasses. Temperature, not photoperiod, drives daily activity patterns, with peak activity occurring at 14–17°C.
Listronotus sordidus
Underwater weevil
Listronotus sordidus is a species of underwater weevil in the beetle family Curculionidae, native to North America. It has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for the invasive aquatic plant Sagittaria platyphylla in South Africa, though habitat incompatibility issues have affected its suitability. The species is distinguished by its aquatic lifestyle, which is unusual among weevils.
Liviidae
plant lice, psyllids, jumping plant-lice
Liviidae is a family of plant-parasitic hemipterans commonly known as plant lice or jumping plant-lice. The family comprises more than 20 genera and approximately 370 described species worldwide. Members are characterized by their ability to jump and their association with vascular plants as phloem-feeders. The family includes significant agricultural pests, most notably Diaphorina citri (Asian citrus psyllid), the primary vector of citrus greening disease (Huanglongbing). Liviidae was formerly treated as Triozidae, and recent taxonomic revisions recognize three monophyletic subfamilies: Euphyllurinae, Liviinae, and the monotypic Neophyllurinae.
Lixophaga
Lixophaga is a genus of tachinid flies in the tribe Blondeliini. Species in this genus are parasitoids, primarily attacking lepidopteran hosts including stem borers in the genus Diatraea and other moth larvae. The genus has been recorded from the Americas, Asia, and the Pacific, with some species studied for biological control potential against agricultural pests. Lixophaga diatraeae has been particularly well-studied as a parasitoid of sugarcane borers.
Lobesia
Lobesia is a genus of tortricid moths in the subfamily Olethreutinae. The genus includes several species, with Lobesia botrana (European grapevine moth) being the most economically significant and well-studied. Species in this genus are primarily associated with feeding on grapevines and related plants, with larvae causing damage to fruits and inflorescences. Some species have been documented as invasive pests in viticulture regions outside their native ranges.
Lobesia botrana
European grapevine moth, European grape worm
Lobesia botrana is a tortricid moth native to Southern Italy, now distributed across Southern Europe, North Africa, Anatolia, the Caucasus, and introduced to Japan, Chile, Argentina, and briefly California (2009–2016). It is a major vineyard pest whose larvae feed internally on grape berries, causing direct damage and facilitating secondary fungal infections. The species has two to three generations per year in Europe, with pupae overwintering in silken cocoons.
Lobiopa insularis
strawberry sap beetle
Lobiopa insularis is a sap-feeding beetle in the family Nitidulidae, widely distributed across the Americas from North America through Central America to South America and the Caribbean. It is a significant agricultural pest of strawberry and other soft fruits, causing direct feeding damage and indirect losses through fungal dispersal. The species has been extensively studied for its biology, life history, and control options, including biological control using parasitoids and entomopathogenic nematodes.
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Loewia is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising parasitoid species that attack centipedes. The genus includes Loewia foeda, a European species established in North America that parasitizes centipedes in the genus Lithobius. Tachinid flies in this genus are internal parasitoids of myriapods.
Longitarsus
flea beetles
Longitarsus is the largest genus of flea beetles (Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae), comprising over 700 species with a cosmopolitan distribution. Species exhibit diverse ecological strategies, including subaquatic lifestyles with pupation inside hydrophyte stems, and terrestrial herbivory on various plant families. Many species show wing polymorphism, with populations containing fully winged, reduced-winged, or vestigial-winged individuals. Host plant associations are generally phylogenetically conserved at the clade level, though Boraginaceae-associated species represent an exception.
Longitarsus jacobaeae
Ragwort Flea Beetle, Tansy Ragwort Flea Beetle
Longitarsus jacobaeae is a flea beetle (Chrysomelidae) native to Europe, widely introduced as a biological control agent for tansy ragwort (Senecio jacobaea), a toxic weed affecting livestock. Adults and larvae feed on ragwort foliage, with larvae mining roots and crown tissue. The species exhibits pronounced seasonal behavioral patterns, including summer aestivation and winter inactivity. It has established successfully in North America, Australia, and New Zealand.
Longitarsus quadriguttatus
flea beetle
Longitarsus quadriguttatus is a flea beetle (Chrysomelidae) native to Central and south-eastern Europe, Asia Minor, and the Caucasus. It has been introduced to North America as a biological control agent for hound's tongue (Cynoglossum officinale), an invasive weed. Adults feed on leaves while larvae develop as root-feeders inside host plant roots. The species shows strong host specificity for plants in the family Boraginaceae, particularly the tribe Cynoglosseae.
Lopholeucaspis japonica
Japanese maple scale
Lopholeucaspis japonica is an invasive scale insect in the family Diaspididae, first described by Cockerell in 1897. Native to Asia, it has established populations across multiple continents including North America, Europe, and Australia. The species feeds on woody plants and has been documented on diverse hosts including crapemyrtle, pomegranate, citrus, and various ornamental shrubs. Its invasion has prompted detection efforts and biological control research, particularly regarding associated parasitoid wasps.
Lorita baccharivora
groundsel leafroller
Lorita baccharivora, commonly known as the groundsel leafroller, is a small tortricid moth native to Florida and Texas. It has been introduced to Australia as a biological control agent targeting groundsel bush (Baccharis halimifolia). The species has a wingspan of approximately 8 mm and exhibits multiple generations annually.
Loxaulus maculipennis
Loxaulus maculipennis is a species of parasitic wasp in the family Encyrtidae, a group of chalcid wasps widely used in biological control programs. The species is documented in the University of California, Riverside (UCR) Encyrtidae collection, one of the largest and most important collections of this family globally. Like other encyrtids, it is likely a parasitoid of scale insects or other hemipteran pests, though specific host records for this species are not detailed in available sources.
Lycosidae
Wolf Spiders
Wolf spiders (family Lycosidae) are robust, agile hunters characterized by excellent eyesight and solitary behavior. The family is distinguished by a unique eye arrangement featuring two large, forward-facing posterior median eyes that produce distinctive reflective eyeshine. Most species are ground-dwelling and do not construct webs for prey capture, instead actively hunting or ambushing prey. Females carry egg sacs attached to their spinnerets and subsequently transport spiderlings on their backs. The family exhibits considerable ecological diversity, with species occupying habitats ranging from sandy beaches to forest floors and agricultural fields.
Lyctocoris campestris
Debris bug
Lyctocoris campestris is a predatory true bug in the family Lyctocoridae, commonly known as the debris bug. It occurs in stored grain environments and natural habitats across multiple continents. The species is a generalist predator with documented importance in biological control of stored product pests.
Lygaeoidea
Seed Bugs and Allies
Lygaeoidea is a large superfamily of true bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) containing approximately 16 families and over 4,600 described species worldwide. Members are commonly known as seed bugs and allies. The superfamily includes economically important groups such as the big-eyed bugs (Geocoridae), which are predators used in biological control, as well as numerous seed-feeding species. The family-level classification underwent substantial revision in 1997 by Thomas J. Henry, with most families previously treated as subfamilies of Lygaeidae. The systematic position of Piesmatidae (ash-gray leaf bugs) remains somewhat uncertain, having been placed in its own superfamily in some classifications.
Lygus hesperus
Western Tarnished Plant Bug
Lygus hesperus is a significant agricultural pest in western North America, causing extensive damage to cotton, strawberries, alfalfa seed, and other crops. In California alone, annual losses exceed $30 million in cotton and $40 million in strawberries. Adults overwinter in reproductive diapause triggered by short day lengths, resuming activity when conditions improve. The species has been the subject of extensive research on sampling methods, biological control, and insecticide resistance.
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dispar
spongy moth, gypsy moth
Lymantria dispar is a forest-defoliating moth native to Europe and Asia, now invasive across multiple continents including North America. The species is notable for pronounced sexual dimorphism in adults and variable flight capability among subspecies—females of the European subspecies (L. d. dispar) are flightless, while Asian subspecies possess flight-capable females. Larvae are polyphagous and have been documented feeding on over 500 plant species. The species ranks among the world's most destructive invasive forest pests, with documented outbreaks exceeding 2.5 million caterpillars per hectare.
Lymeon
Lymeon is a large genus of ichneumonid wasps in the subfamily Gelinae (tribe Cryptini), containing at least 80 described species with a predominantly Neotropical distribution. The genus is characterized by females that parasitize small cocoons of various insect groups and spider egg-sacs. A taxonomic review recognized 33 North American species, with 28 species recorded from Mexico alone. One documented host association involves a Lymeon species attacking egg-sacs of the orb-weaver spider Araneus vincibilis in Northeastern Brazil, where larvae consumed approximately 80% of spider eggs despite maternal guarding.
Lysathia
Lysathia is a genus of flea beetles (Chrysomelidae: Alticini) containing approximately 10 described species distributed in North America and the Neotropics. Several species have been investigated or deployed as biological control agents for invasive aquatic plants, including Ludwigia grandiflora subsp. hexapetala and Myriophyllum aquaticum. The genus exhibits morphological variation that has complicated taxonomic resolution, with integrative approaches combining genetics and morphology used to clarify species boundaries.
Lysibia
Lysibia is a genus of hyperparasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae. The best-studied species, Lysibia nana, is a solitary secondary idiobiont hyperparasitoid that attacks pre-pupae and pupae of gregarious braconid parasitoids in the genus Cotesia, particularly C. glomerata. These wasps are winged, synovigenic (emerging without mature eggs), and do not host-feed as adults. They locate hosts using chemical cues including kairomones from the primary parasitoid and herbivore-induced plant volatiles. The genus is part of the overwintering Apanteles-Tetrastichus-Lysibia complex associated with pierid butterfly hosts.
Lysiphlebus
Lysiphlebus is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Aphidiinae. Species in this genus are endoparasitoids of aphids, with females laying eggs inside aphid hosts where larvae develop and eventually emerge from mummified aphid remains. The genus exhibits remarkable reproductive diversity, including both sexual and asexual lineages, with some species capable of facultative sex. Several species, particularly L. testaceipes, are important biological control agents used in integrated pest management programs worldwide.
Macrocentrinae
Macrocentrinae is a subfamily of braconid parasitic wasps comprising eight recognized genera. Members are relatively large braconids characterized by small teeth on the trochantellus and often exhibit pale coloration and nocturnal habits. They are solitary or gregarious koinobiont endoparasitoids of caterpillars, with documented associations primarily with pyralid moth larvae. Several species have been deployed in biological control programs against agricultural pests.
Macrocentrus
Macrocentrus is a genus of braconid wasps containing at least 180 described species. Species in this genus are parasitoids of lepidopteran larvae and have been studied extensively for biological control applications. Several species, including M. ancylivorus, M. cingulum, and M. grandii, are economically important as natural enemies of agricultural pests such as the oriental fruit moth, European corn borer, and stalk borers.
Macrocentrus pyraustae
Macrocentrus pyraustae is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae, described by Viereck in 1917. The species epithet 'pyraustae' indicates an association with moths in the family Crambidae (formerly Pyralidae), specifically the genus Ostrinia. It is a specialized parasitoid whose larvae develop within host caterpillars.
Macrochelidae
Macrochelidae is a cosmopolitan family of predatory mites in the order Mesostigmata. The family is primarily associated with ephemeral, nutrient-rich habitats such as animal dung, where they prey on nematodes, oligochaete worms, and arthropod eggs. Phoresy on flying insects—particularly dung beetles and flies—enables dispersal between temporary resource patches. Some species have been developed as biological control agents for pest management.
Macrohomotoma gladiata
Curtain Fig Psyllid
Macrohomotoma gladiata is an invasive Asian psyllid that has established populations across the Mediterranean Basin and California, where it infests ornamental Ficus microcarpa. Nymphs feed on young tissues, producing dense white waxy secretions and honeydew that promotes sooty mould growth and causes twig dieback. The species has a likely bivoltine life cycle with possible partial third generation; young nymphs overwinter under stipules without development, resuming growth in spring. Natural enemies include a Psyllaephagus parasitoid that can achieve high parasitism rates, and the predatory bug Anthocoris nemoralis.
Macrolophus brevicornis
Macrolophus brevicornis is a species of plant bug in the family Miridae, described by Knight in 1926. The genus Macrolophus contains predatory plant bugs that have been studied for their potential in biological control of agricultural pests. This species is part of a genus whose members are known to feed on various arthropod prey including whiteflies, spider mites, and other small insects.
Macrolophus pygmaeus
Macrolophus pygmaeus is a zoophytophagous plant bug in the family Miridae, widely distributed across Europe, North Africa, and Central Asia. It functions as a generalist predator of agricultural pests including whiteflies, aphids, thrips, and spider mites, while also feeding on plant sap and extrafloral nectar. The species has been extensively studied for its potential as a biological control agent in greenhouse vegetable crops, particularly for controlling whiteflies and the tomato leafminer Tuta absoluta. Males produce distinctive vibrational signals during courtship and male-male interactions.
Macrosiphoniella sanborni
Chrysanthemum Aphid, Brown Chrysanthemum Aphid
Macrosiphoniella sanborni, the chrysanthemum aphid, is a phloem-feeding aphid in the family Aphididae. It is an oligophagous pest specialized on Chrysanthemum species and a major economic threat to chrysanthemum cultivation. The species exhibits wing dimorphism, with alate (winged) and apterous (wingless) morphs showing distinct chemosensory gene expression profiles. It vectors chrysanthemum viruses including vein mottle virus and virus B.
Macrosiphum euphorbiae
potato aphid
Macrosiphum euphorbiae, commonly known as the potato aphid, is a polyphagous sap-sucking insect in the family Aphididae. It is a globally significant agricultural pest, particularly of potato (Solanum tuberosum), tomato, lettuce, and numerous other crops across more than 20 plant families. The species exhibits complex life cycle strategies including host alternation between primary (Rosa spp.) and secondary hosts, cyclical parthenogenesis in North America, and obligate asexual reproduction in UK populations. It vectors multiple plant viruses including potato leaf roll virus, potato virus Y, and tomato yellow top virus. The aphid demonstrates notable phenotypic plasticity with green and pink color morphs, and possesses distinctive antipredator behaviors including dropping from host plants followed by tonic immobility.
Macrosiphum rosae
Rose Aphid
Macrosiphum rosae, the rose aphid, is a cosmopolitan pest of cultivated roses. Wingless adults are spindle-shaped, 1.7–3.6 mm long, and variable in color from green to pink to reddish-brown. The species is distinguished from similar aphids by its long, tapered, black siphunculi. It exhibits complex life cycle strategies including both holocyclic (sexual) and anholocyclic (asexual) populations depending on climate. In temperate regions, it alternates between rose primary hosts and secondary hosts such as teasel and valerian; in milder climates like South Australia and Iran, populations remain anholocyclic on roses year-round. The species is a significant horticultural pest causing aesthetic damage through flower and foliage distortion, honeydew production, and sooty mold development.
Macroteleia
Macroteleia is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Scelionidae (historically placed in Platygastridae). The genus contains more than 140 described species worldwide. Species in this genus are believed to be parasitoids of eggs of longhorned grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae). A 2013 revision of Chinese Macroteleia recognized 17 species in that region, including 7 newly described species.
Macrotrachelia nigronitens
minute pirate bug, flower bug
Macrotrachelia nigronitens is a small anthocorid bug, approximately 3 mm in length, native to Central and South America. It has established permanent wild populations in Auckland, New Zealand since at least the 1980s, and is also reported as adventive in North America. The species is a specialised predator of thrips that inhabit leaf-roll galls.
Madremyia
Madremyia is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) in the tribe Eryciini. The genus includes at least three described species, with Madremyia saundersii being a documented parasitoid of the spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana), a major forest pest in North America. Tachinid flies in this genus are larval parasitoids of Lepidoptera.
Malachius aeneus
Scarlet Malachite Beetle
Malachius aeneus, commonly known as the scarlet malachite beetle, is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. It was introduced to North America in 1852 and has since become widespread across the continent. The species is notable for its larvae being predators of the pollen beetle Brassicogethes aeneus in Great Britain.
Malacorhinus
Malacorhinus is a genus of skeletonizing leaf beetles in the family Chrysomelidae, established by Jacoby in 1887. The genus contains approximately 30 described species distributed across North America and the Neotropics. One species, Malacorhinus irregularis, was introduced to Northern Territory, Australia in 2000 as a biological control agent against the invasive weed Mimosa pigra.
Mallophora
Bee-killers
Mallophora is a genus of large, robust robber flies (family Asilidae) commonly known as bee-killers. The genus contains approximately 60 described species distributed primarily in the Americas. Adults are powerful aerial predators that capture bees and other insects in flight, while larvae of at least some species are solitary ectoparasitoids of scarab beetle larvae (white grubs) in soil. Mallophora ruficauda, the best-studied species, is a significant pest of apiculture in the Pampas region of Argentina, where adults prey on honey bees, yet the same species functions as a beneficial biological control agent of agricultural pests through its larval parasitism of scarab grubs.
Mantidae
mantids, mantid mantises
Mantidae is the largest family in the order Mantodea, historically encompassing all mantises before modern classifications split the group into multiple families. Most genera are tropical or subtropical in distribution. The family contains ten recognized subfamilies including Choeradodinae, Hierodulinae, Mantinae, and Stagmomantinae. The term "mantid" technically refers only to members of this family, though it is commonly used more broadly for any mantis.
Mantids
mantids, praying mantises, mantises
Mantids are predatory insects comprising the order Mantodea, characterized by raptorial forelegs adapted for capturing prey, triangular heads with large compound eyes, and highly mobile necks that permit nearly 180-degree head rotation. They exhibit two primary hunting strategies: ambush predation from vegetation and cursorial pursuit of prey on the ground. Over 2,400 species have been described worldwide, occupying diverse habitats from tropical to temperate regions. Mantids are primarily solitary and display remarkable camouflage adaptations, with many species mimicking leaves, flowers, or bark to avoid detection by predators and prey alike.
Mantispidae
mantidflies, mantispids, mantid lacewings, mantis-flies
Mantispidae is a family of neuropteran insects comprising approximately 400 species in around 400 genera, distributed worldwide with highest diversity in tropical and subtropical regions. Adults are predators characterized by raptorial forelegs—convergent with mantises but independently evolved—used to capture small arthropod prey. The family exhibits diverse larval life histories: Mantispinae are ectoparasitoids of spider egg sacs; Symphrasinae parasitize ground-nesting hymenopterans and scarab beetle larvae; Calomantispinae are predatory on small arthropods; and Drepanicinae life history remains largely unknown. First-instar larvae (planidia) employ specialized host-location strategies including direct penetration of egg sacs or phoretic transport on female spiders.
Marava arachidis
Bone-house Earwig
Marava arachidis is a cosmopolitan earwig species in the family Spongiphoridae with probable Indo-Australian origin. It exhibits ovoviviparous reproduction, with females retaining embryos in thin egg envelopes until shortly before hatching. The species has demonstrated predatory capability on tick eggs and larvae in laboratory conditions, suggesting potential as a biological control agent. It is frequently associated with stored organic materials and fennel plants.
Margarodidae
ground pearls, cottony cushion scales, giant coccids, giant scale insects
Margarodidae, commonly known as ground pearls or cottony cushion scales, is a family of scale insects within the superfamily Coccoidea. The family has undergone significant taxonomic revision, with many former subfamilies (including Monophlebidae, Matsucoccidae, Xylococcidae, and others) now elevated to family status. The current Margarodidae sensu stricto is monophyletic and includes genera such as Margarodes, Porphyrophora, and Eurhizococcus. Members exhibit diverse life histories, with some species being subterranean root feeders and others above-ground foliar feeders. Several species are economically important as agricultural pests or historically as sources of natural dyes.
Marietta
Marietta is a genus of chalcidoid wasps in the family Aphelinidae. Species in this genus are obligate hyperparasitoids, attacking primary parasitoids of Hemipteran pests rather than the pest insects themselves. The genus was established by Motschulsky in 1863. Marietta species have been documented in association with parasitoids of psyllids, mealybugs, and other economically important insect pests, making them relevant to biological control programs.
Maruca vitrata
legume pod borer, maruca pod borer, bean pod borer, soybean pod borer, mung moth, spotted pod borer
Maruca vitrata is a pantropical moth and major agricultural pest of leguminous crops, particularly affecting cowpea, pigeon pea, mung bean, and soybean. Larvae feed on flower buds, flowers, and young pods, causing yield losses of 20–80% in susceptible cowpea varieties. The species has low genetic differentiation across its range due to high gene flow, with populations in India showing evidence of recent demographic expansion. It serves as host for several parasitoid wasps (Braconidae, Ichneumonidae) and flies (Tachinidae) that provide biological control.
Mastrus
Mastrus is a genus of ichneumonid wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) containing parasitoid species that attack lepidopteran hosts, particularly tortricid moths. The genus includes species of significant agricultural importance as biological control agents, notably M. ridens and M. ridibundus, which parasitize the codling moth (Cydia pomonella). Species in this genus are gregarious ectoparasitoids that attack host larvae during the cocooning/prepupal stage. Research has focused on their olfactory host-finding mechanisms, thermal biology, and integration into conservation biological control programs.
Matsucoccidae
pine bast scales, pine needle scales
Matsucoccidae is a family of scale insects (Hemiptera) comprising over 40 described species in at least 2 genera. The family was historically classified within Margarodidae but was elevated to family status based on distinct morphological and biological characteristics. Members are specialized feeders on conifers in the genus Pinus, with several species serving as economically significant forest pests. The family exhibits complex life cycles involving winged males and sessile females, and produces sex pheromones that function as kairomones attracting diverse predatory insects.
Mecaphesa celer
swift crab spider
Mecaphesa celer is a crab spider in the family Thomisidae, commonly known as the swift crab spider. It is distributed across much of North and Central America. The species exhibits extreme sexual size dimorphism, with females more than twice the size of males. It is a sit-and-wait predator that hunts on flowers and upper plant parts, and has been studied for its population genetics in fragmented volcanic habitats.
Mecinini
Mecinini is a tribe of true weevils (Curculionidae: Curculioninae) comprising six genera: Cleopomiarus, Gymnetron, Mecinus, Miarus, Rhinumiarus, and Rhinusa. The tribe is distributed across the Palaearctic, Afrotropical, and Neotropical regions, with most diversity in the Palaearctic. Species are specialized herbivores, primarily associated with Campanulaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and Plantaginaceae. Several species have been introduced to North America as biological control agents for invasive toadflax (Linaria spp.).
Mecinus janthinus
Toadflax stem weevil
Mecinus janthinus is a stem-boring weevil used as a classical biological control agent for invasive toadflax species (Linaria spp.) in North America. Originally introduced from Europe in the 1990s, it has established populations on Dalmatian toadflax (Linaria dalmatica) and yellow toadflax (Linaria vulgaris) in the United States and Canada. The species exhibits high host specificity, with postrelease studies in Colorado finding no evidence of nontarget herbivory on native plants even under no-choice starvation conditions. Genetic studies have revealed that M. janthinus as historically defined comprises two cryptic species: M. janthinus sensu stricto associated with yellow toadflax, and M. janthiniformis associated with Dalmatian toadflax.
Medetera bistriata
Medetera bistriata is a species of long-legged fly in the family Dolichopodidae. Adults are commonly observed on tree trunks in pine forests, where they adopt a characteristic tiptoe posture. The larvae are specialized predators of bark beetles, particularly species in the genera Dendroctonus and Ips. The species is recognized as an important biological control agent of the southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis).
Megacerus
Large-horned Bruchids
Megacerus is a genus of seed beetles in the family Chrysomelidae, subfamily Bruchinae, commonly known as large-horned bruchids. The genus contains approximately nine described species in North America. Species in this genus are seed specialists, with larvae developing endophytically within seeds of host plants, primarily in the family Convolvulaceae. Adults are characterized by prominent genal or frontal horns, particularly in males. The genus has been studied for its potential use in biological control of weedy bindweeds.
Megamelus
Water Hyacinth Planthopper (for M. scutellaris)
Megamelus is a genus of delphacid planthoppers in the family Delphacidae, comprising at least 30 described species. The genus is widely distributed and primarily associated with freshwater aquatic environments. Several species, particularly M. scutellaris, have been extensively studied as biological control agents for invasive aquatic weeds such as water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes). The genus exhibits wing dimorphism influenced by population density and host plant quality. Recent phylogenetic studies have clarified interspecific relationships and supported the monophyly of the genus.
Megamelus scutellaris
water hyacinth planthopper, waterhyacinth planthopper
Megamelus scutellaris is a small delphacid planthopper native to South America, where it is monophagous on water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes). The species has been introduced to multiple regions including Florida (2010) and South Africa (2013) as a classical biological control agent for invasive water hyacinth. It exhibits wing dimorphism, with adults occurring as either wingless (brachypterous) or winged (macropterous) forms. Population genetic studies indicate three main lineages in its native range associated with major river basins, shaped by Pleistocene climatic shifts and Holocene hydrological changes.
Megarhyssa
Giant Ichneumonid Wasps, Giant Ichneumons, Stump Stabbers
Megarhyssa is a genus of large ichneumonid wasps comprising 37 species distributed worldwide. Females possess extraordinarily elongated ovipositors—up to 14 cm in some species—that enable parasitism of wood-boring horntail larvae deep within tree trunks. The genus exhibits remarkable ecological specialization, with sympatric species partitioning host resources by ovipositor length, allowing coexistence through vertical stratification of host exploitation. These wasps are idiobiont ectoparasitoids, meaning they paralyze and consume their hosts without allowing further development.
Megarhyssa nortoni
Norton's giant ichneumonid wasp, western giant ichneumonid wasp
Megarhyssa nortoni is a large ichneumonid wasp native to North America, with two recognized subspecies occupying western and eastern ranges. Females possess an extraordinarily long ovipositor reaching 51–76 mm, used to parasitize horntail wasp larvae deep within wood. Despite their formidable appearance, they are harmless to humans and do not sting. The species has been introduced to several countries as a biological control agent for forest pest horntails.
Megarhyssa nortoni nortoni
Western Giant Ichneumonid Wasp
Megarhyssa nortoni nortoni is a subspecies of giant ichneumon wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. Females possess an extraordinarily long ovipositor—among the longest of any insect—that they use to parasitize wood-boring horntail larvae deep within dead or dying hardwood trees. The species is native to western North America and has been introduced to New Zealand as a biological control agent. Despite their formidable appearance, they are harmless to humans and cannot sting.
Megarhyssa nortoni quebecensis
Megarhyssa nortoni quebecensis is a subspecies of giant ichneumon wasp, among the largest members of family Ichneumonidae in North America. Females possess an extraordinarily long ovipositor—often exceeding body length—that they use to parasitize woodboring larvae of the pigeon horntail (Tremex columba) deep within dead or decaying hardwood. The wasp is harmless to humans, lacking a functional stinger; the apparent "stinger" is actually the ovipositor apparatus. Males are smaller, lack the elongated ovipositor, and exhibit distinctive aggregation behaviors around potential emergence sites.
Megaspilidae
Megaspilidae is a small family of parasitoid wasps in the superfamily Ceraphronoidea, comprising approximately 450 described species across 13 genera in two subfamilies. The family remains poorly known biologically, though most species are believed to be parasitoids of sternorrhynchan Hemiptera (particularly aphids), with some functioning as hyperparasitoids attacking other parasitoids. Many species inhabit soil, and several are wingless. The largest genus is Dendrocerus, followed by Conostigmus.
Megastigmus transvaalensis
Peppertree Seed Chalcid
Megastigmus transvaalensis is a minute chalcid wasp native to South Africa that has become invasive in Mexico, Brazil, and Chile. Adults are yellowish-brown with pronounced sexual dimorphism in size. The species is a seed parasite that targets drupes of Rhus species in its native range and has shifted to Schinus species in South America, with significant implications for biological control and native plant conservation.
Megischus
crown wasp
Megischus is a large genus of crown wasps (family Stephanidae) containing over 90 described species with a cosmopolitan distribution centered in subtropical and tropical regions. The genus is characterized by medium to large body size, with adults ranging from approximately 10–40 mm in length (excluding the ovipositor). Females possess an exceptionally long ovipositor that typically exceeds body length, used to parasitize wood-boring beetle and hymenopteran larvae. The genus serves as an important biological control agent for pest populations of hardwood-damaging insects.
Melanagromyza
Melanagromyza is a genus of leaf-miner flies in the family Agromyzidae, established by Hendel in 1920. The genus has cosmopolitan distribution and contains numerous species, many of which are significant agricultural pests. Several species, particularly Melanagromyza sojae (soybean stem fly) and Melanagromyza obtusa (pigeon pea fly), cause substantial economic damage to legume crops through larval mining of stems, roots, and petioles. The genus has been the focus of biological control research, with multiple parasitoid wasp species identified as potential natural enemies.
Melanaphis bambusae
Waxy Bamboo Aphid
Melanaphis bambusae is a bamboo-feeding aphid species in the family Aphididae, commonly known as the Waxy Bamboo Aphid. It is a documented pest of bamboo forests with economic and ecological significance, particularly in regions where bamboo cultivation occurs. The species has been studied for its microbiome interactions with entomopathogenic fungi, specifically Conidiobolus obscurus, which causes natural population mortality. Research indicates that infection by this fungus and starvation stress both significantly alter the aphid's bacterial and fungal community composition.
Melanips
Melanips is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Figitidae. These wasps are solitary endoparasitoids that target fly larvae, with documented association to Leucotaraxis piniperda, a silver fly used as a biological control agent for hemlock woolly adelgid. Research indicates a preference for this host species, though the specificity of this relationship remains under investigation. The genus has been recorded in Europe and is implicated in biocontrol programs in North America.
Melanostoma mellinum
Variable Duskyface Fly
Melanostoma mellinum is a widespread and abundant hoverfly species native to the Palearctic region, with introduced populations in North America. It is one of the most commonly recorded syrphid flies in Britain and Europe, frequently encountered in agricultural landscapes including vineyards, grasslands, and wetlands. The species has been studied for its response to landscape structure, showing increased abundance in areas with greater proportions of seminatural habitats.
Melanotus communis
corn wireworm
Melanotus communis is a click beetle (Elateridae) whose larvae, known as corn wireworms, are significant agricultural pests in the eastern United States. Adults are reddish-brown and approximately 13 mm long. The species has been studied extensively for its pest status in sugarcane, potato, and other crops, with research focusing on entomopathogen susceptibility, pheromone-based monitoring, and soil habitat preferences.
Melanotus cribricollis
Melanotus cribricollis is a click beetle (Coleoptera: Elateridae) whose larvae are the dominant species of bamboo shoot wireworms, causing significant damage to bamboo forests in China. Larvae feed gregariously on fresh bamboo shoots, with up to nearly 20 individuals per shoot and damage rates reaching 80%. The species lives underground throughout its long life cycle, making prevention and control difficult. Research has characterized its innate immune system, including a β-1,3-glucan recognition protein gene that mediates defense against fungal pathogens such as Metarhizium pingshaense.
Melitara
Pricklypear Borers
Melitara is a genus of snout moths (Pyralidae: Phycitinae) established by Francis Walker in 1863. Species in this genus are specialist herbivores of cacti, particularly Opuntia species, with larvae that bore into cactus pads and stems. The genus is taxonomically contentious, with some sources treating it as a synonym of Zophodia while others retain it as valid. Melitara species serve as hosts for parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, and have been studied in the context of biological control of invasive cacti and as potential competitors to the invasive South American cactus moth Cactoblastis cactorum.
Melitara dentata
Blue Cactus Borer, North American Cactus Moth
A pyralid moth native to western North America, ranging from Alberta to southern Arizona and central Texas, with introduced populations in Hawaii. Adults have a wingspan of 32–50 mm. The species has one generation per year and is specialized on Opuntia cacti as larval hosts.
Melittobia
Melittobia is a genus of tiny parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae, notable for extreme polymorphism, complex social behaviors, and highly female-biased sex ratios. Females exhibit three distinct morphs—winged 'fliers,' short-winged 'jumpers,' and wingless 'crawlers'—determined by larval density rather than genetics. Males are blind, flightless, and comprise only about 5% of offspring, produced asexually through arrhenotokous parthenogenesis. The genus attacks prepupae and pupae of solitary bees, wasps, and other insects in their hosts' nests, with some species also parasitizing fruit flies and flesh flies. Several species are well-studied model organisms for genetics, developmental biology, and behavioral ecology, though taxonomic confusion persists due to extreme morphological plasticity.
Mellinus
Mellinus is a genus of solitary digger wasps in the family Crabronidae, containing approximately 16-18 described species distributed across the Palearctic, Nearctic, Neotropical, and Oriental regions. These small wasps (8-10 mm) are specialized predators of muscoid flies, which they hunt primarily near fresh manure and other fly-aggregating resources. Females excavate burrows in sandy soil to provision cells with paralyzed flies for their larvae. The genus is notable for its distinctive petiolate abdomen and feline-like stalking behavior when capturing prey.
Mellinus bimaculatus
Mellinus bimaculatus is a small wasp in the family Crabronidae, known for its specialized predation on flies. The species is rarely encountered and poorly documented in scientific literature. Observations indicate females hunt muscoid flies, paralyze them with a sting, and transport them to underground burrows as provisions for their larvae. The species occurs in sandy habitats across parts of North and Central America.
Meskea
Meskea is a genus of moths in the family Thyrididae, subfamily Siculodinae. Species in this genus are gall-forming herbivores whose larvae develop within stem galls on host plants in the family Malvaceae. The genus includes at least two documented species: Meskea horor, a potential biological control agent studied for its impact on weedy Sida species, and Meskea dyspteraria, which has been recorded as a host for the parasitoid wasp Calliephialtes grapholithae. Adult moths are crepuscular or nocturnal in habit.
Mesochorus
Mesochorus is a large genus of ichneumonid wasps containing approximately 690-900 described species worldwide. Members are obligate hyperparasitoids that attack the larvae of primary parasitoids, typically ichneumonid or braconid wasps, and occasionally tachinid flies. These primary parasitoids are themselves endoparasitoids of larval Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, placing Mesochorus at the fourth trophic level in complex food webs. The genus has been extensively studied in agricultural contexts due to its interactions with biological control agents.
Mesochorus discitergus
Mesochorus discitergus is a hyperparasitoid wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. It parasitizes primary parasitoids—particularly braconid wasps such as Cotesia marginiventris—that are themselves developing inside lepidopteran caterpillars. This species has been studied for its behavioral interactions with host caterpillars, including the tactics it employs to overcome defensive behaviors and the evasive responses of different noctuid species. It has been recorded from both North and South America.
Mesoleius
Mesoleius is a genus of ichneumonid parasitoid wasps containing at least 160 described species. The genus is best known from detailed studies of Mesoleius tenthredinis, a biological control agent introduced to North America to manage larch sawfly populations. Species in this genus are endoparasitoids of sawfly larvae, with females depositing eggs directly into host cocoons or larvae. The genus has been documented from Europe and North America.
Mesoleius tenthredinis
larch sawfly parasite
Mesoleius tenthredinis is a parasitoid ichneumonid wasp introduced from Europe to North America as a biological control agent against the larch sawfly (Pristiphora erichsonii). Its embryonic development has been studied in detail, revealing characteristics of primitive endoparasitoids. The species exhibits a notable host-parasite interaction involving encapsulation immunity in some host populations. A putative baculovirus has been detected in ovarian tissues of females.
Mesostenus gracilis
Mesostenus gracilis is a small ichneumon wasp in the family Ichneumonidae, first described by Cresson in 1864. The species is a parasitoid wasp known to attack caterpillars of several moth families, particularly those that bore into stems, shoots, or bark. It has been recorded from Canada and the United States, with observations in sunflower fields and other habitats. The species is one of approximately ten Mesostenus species occurring in North America north of Mexico.
Mesostenus thoracicus
Mesostenus thoracicus is a species of ichneumon wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. The genus Mesostenus comprises approximately ten species in North America north of Mexico, with bold black, white, and red coloration typical of the group. Members of this genus are parasitoids that target caterpillars, particularly those in the moth families Pyralidae, Crambidae, and Tortricidae. Females possess a long, tail-like ovipositor used to deposit eggs in host insects, while males lack this structure.
Mesostigmata
Mesostigs
Mesostigmata is the largest order of mites in the Parasitiformes, comprising over 8,000 species in 130 families. The group exhibits remarkable ecological diversity, including free-living predators in soil and litter, parasites of vertebrates and arthropods, fungus feeders, and pollen consumers. Many species serve as important biological control agents in agricultural systems, while others such as Varroa destructor are significant economic pests of honey bees. The order is distinguished morphologically by a single pair of lateral spiracles and associated peritrematal grooves.
Metamasius callizona
Mexican bromeliad weevil
Metamasius callizona is an invasive weevil native to southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Panama that was first documented in Florida in 1989. Adult females chew slits in bromeliad leaves near feeding sites and deposit single eggs within these wounds. Larvae mine meristematic tissue and flower stalks, typically killing host plants, while adult leaf feeding is generally non-fatal. Florida populations have grown dramatically larger than native-range densities and now threaten multiple native and endangered bromeliad species.
invasive-speciespestbiological-controlbromeliad-specialistFloridaMexicoGuatemalaPanamaTillandsiaAnanasLixadmontia-frankiholometabolousmultivoltineepiphyteconservation-concernendangered-species-threatgardening-industry-vectorparasitoid-introductionBeauveria-bassiana-(native-range-pathogen-not-present-in-Florida)Metaphycus
Metaphycus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, established by Mercet in 1917. The genus has cosmopolitan distribution and comprises numerous species that are important biological control agents, particularly of scale insects (Coccoidea). Species such as Metaphycus helvolus and M. luteolus have been widely used in classical biological control programs against soft scale pests in agriculture.
Metaphycus matteolus
Metaphycus matteolus is a species of parasitic wasp in the family Encyrtidae, described by Compere in 1947. The species belongs to a genus of primary parasitoids known for attacking scale insects (Coccoidea). Like other Metaphycus species, M. matteolus is likely associated with soft scale hosts, though specific host records for this species are not well documented in available literature. The genus Metaphycus contains numerous species used in classical biological control programs against scale insect pests.
Metcalfa
Metcalfa is a genus of planthoppers in the family Flatidae, tribe Nephesini, native to North and Central America. The genus contains at least five described species, with Metcalfa pruinosa (citrus flatid planthopper) being the most economically significant due to its invasive spread to Europe and Asia. Adults are small, ranging 5.5–8 mm in length with a waxy, often bluish or grayish appearance. The genus is characterized by forewings with parallel cross-veins along the costal margin, distinguishing it from related families.
Meteorinae
meteorine wasps
Meteorinae is a subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps, though since 2015 most scientists have treated this clade as the tribe Meteorini within Euphorinae. The group is characterized by koinobiont endoparasitoid biology, attacking larval Coleoptera and Lepidoptera. The subfamily's name derives from the distinctive pupal stage, in which the cocoon hangs suspended from a long silk thread when parasitizing lepidopteran hosts. Several species have been employed in biological control programs against forest and agricultural pests.
Meteorus rubens
Meteorus rubens is a gregarious larval parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae that attacks significant agricultural pests, particularly the black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon). Female wasps demonstrate strong attraction to host kairomones, with 94.3% responding to hexane extracts of their host compared to only 22.3% of males. The species has been shown to carry Rioviridae RNA viruses, a rare trait among parasitoids. It naturally coexists with other parasitoids such as Apanteles ruficrus, with which it exhibits niche partitioning based on host instar preference.
Metzneria lappella
Burdock Seedhead Moth, Burdock Seed Moth
A small gelechiid moth with a wingspan of 13–19 mm, native to the Palaearctic region and introduced to North America. It is univoltine, with adults active in late spring and summer. The species is tightly associated with burdock plants (Arctium), where larvae feed on developing seeds.
Metzneria paucipunctella
spotted knapweed seed head moth
Metzneria paucipunctella is a gelechiid moth introduced from Europe to North America as a biological control agent against spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa). Adults are small, narrow-bodied moths approximately 8 mm long with brownish-gray coloration, light speckling, and large recurved antennae. Females deposit eggs at the base of knapweed flower heads, where larvae burrow inside to feed on developing seeds and florets. Larvae are small white grubs with dark heads that overwinter within seed heads and pupate the following spring. The species has been established across much of the western United States since its introduction in 1980.
Microctonus
Microctonus is a genus of braconid parasitoid wasps in the subfamily Euphorinae. Species are endoparasitoids of adult beetles, primarily targeting weevils (Curculionidae) and flea beetles (Chrysomelidae). The genus contains approximately 31 species in North America and additional species globally, including several used as classical biological control agents. Notable biocontrol species include M. aethiopoides and M. hyperodae, introduced to New Zealand to control forage pests, and M. aethiops and M. vittatae, used in North American agricultural systems. Many species exhibit parthenogenetic reproduction, with M. hyperodae showing arrhenotokous parthenogenesis (males produced parthenogenetically).
Microgaster
Microgaster is a genus of braconid wasps in the subfamily Microgastrinae containing more than 100 described species with worldwide distribution. Species within this genus are koinobiont endoparasitoids of Lepidoptera larvae, with some exhibiting highly specialized behaviors. The genus includes the first documented microgastrine to dive underwater to parasitize hosts (Microgaster godzilla) and species with distinctive morphological adaptations such as modified tarsal claws. Host associations vary widely, with records from multiple lepidopteran families including Crambidae, Noctuidae, Depressariidae, and Hesperiidae.
Microgastrinae
Microgastrinae is a subfamily of braconid wasps containing approximately 3,000 described species, with an estimated total diversity of 30,000–50,000 species. Members are small koinobiont endoparasitoids of larval Lepidoptera, and represent one of the most species-rich groups of parasitoid wasps. They are distinguished by their 18-segmented antennae and association with polydnaviruses, which are essential for successful parasitism.
Microlarinus
puncturevine seed weevils
Microlarinus is a genus of weevils (Curculionidae) comprising at least two species, M. lareynii and M. lypriformis, specialized on puncturevine (Tribulus terrestris). Both species have been introduced to North America as classical biological control agents. M. lareynii attacks seeds while M. lypriformis feeds on stems. Despite their potential, establishment and impact have been variable due to climatic and biological mismatches with host populations.
Microlarinus lareynii
Puncturevine seed weevil
Microlarinus lareynii is a seed-feeding weevil in the family Curculionidae, native to the Mediterranean region and India. It was introduced to North America in the early 1960s as a biological control agent for puncturevine (Tribulus terrestris), an invasive weed. The species exhibits strong host specificity, with larvae developing exclusively within the seeds of its target host plant. Despite its potential for high reproductive output, field success in controlling weed populations has been variable due to climatic and biological mismatches with the host plant.
Microlarinus lypriformis
Puncture vine stem weevil
Microlarinus lypriformis is a stem-boring weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) introduced to North America as a biological control agent for puncturevine (Tribulus terrestris). Females oviposit into the stems of this host plant, and larvae feed internally on the pith, causing stem damage and plant mortality. Adults emerge through exit holes bored in the stem. The species has been used in combination with the seed-feeding weevil Microlarinus lareynii in biocontrol programs in the United States and Canada.
Micromus
brown lacewings
Micromus is a genus of small brown lacewings in the family Hemerobiidae, containing over 80 and possibly as many as 170 species. These 4–10 mm insects are distributed worldwide and are important predators of agricultural and horticultural pests. Both larvae and adults are predatory, feeding on soft-bodied insects and mites. Several species, particularly Micromus tasmaniae, have been mass-reared and deployed as biological control agents.
Micromus angulatus
brown lacewing
Micromus angulatus is a predatory brown lacewing (Hemerobiidae) distributed across Africa, Europe, Northern Asia (excluding China), North America, and Southern Asia. Both larvae and adults are active predators of aphids and other small soft-bodied insects, with third-instar larvae and female adults showing particularly high predation rates. The species has been extensively studied as a biological control agent against agricultural pests including Aphis craccivora, Illinoia lambersi, and Myzus persicae. Laboratory studies demonstrate temperature-dependent predation efficiency, with stable adult performance across 15–25°C and enhanced larval activity at warmer temperatures. A chromosome-level genome assembly of 1.29 Gb has been published, supporting its potential for augmentative biological control programs.
Micromus posticus
brown lacewing
Micromus posticus is a species of brown lacewing in the family Hemerobiidae. It is a predatory insect found across the Caribbean, Central America, and North America. Both larvae and adults feed on aphids, making it a potentially beneficial species in agricultural and garden settings. The species has been documented through blacklighting observations and is one of the more commonly encountered brown lacewings in its range.
Microplitis
Microplitis is a genus of braconid wasps in the subfamily Microgastrinae, comprising over 190 described species distributed worldwide. These small parasitoid wasps are larval endoparasitoids of Lepidoptera, primarily attacking caterpillars of Noctuidae and related families. Several species are important in biological control programs against agricultural pests, including M. croceipes and M. demolitor which parasitize Heliothis/Helicoverpa species. The genus was revised in 2015 for the Neotropics and in 2019 for India, with new species continuing to be described.
Microterys
Microterys is a large genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae (Chalcidoidea), with its center of distribution in the northern parts of the Northern Hemisphere. Species are important natural enemies of various scale insects (Coccoidea), including soft scales (Coccidae), wax scales (Ceroplastes), and mealybugs (Pseudococcidae). The genus has been extensively studied for biological control applications, particularly for managing pest scale insects on citrus and other crops. Several species have been introduced to new regions as biocontrol agents, including Microterys flavus in California.
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Minute Lady Beetles
Microweisea is a genus of minute lady beetles (family Coccinellidae) established by Cockerell in 1903. These tiny beetles are among the smallest members of the lady beetle family. The genus currently includes approximately twelve described species distributed primarily in the Americas. Microweisea species have been documented as predators of scale insects in urban environments, where they contribute to biological control of these pests.
Microweisea coccidivora
Banded Pinpoint Lady Beetle
Microweisea coccidivora is a minute lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae, measuring only 0.8–1.0 mm in length. The species is recorded from the southeastern United States, specifically Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina. Its specific epithet "coccidivora" indicates a diet specializing in scale insects (family Coccidae). The beetle is associated with scale-infested trees in urban environments, where it functions as a natural enemy of pest scales.
Microweisea minuta
Pinpoint Lady Beetle
Microweisea minuta is an exceptionally small lady beetle (family Coccinellidae) native to Texas. Adults measure under 1 mm in length, making it one of the smallest members of its family. The species has a dark, piceous-colored body with a dark brown ventral surface. Like other members of the genus Microweisea, it is associated with scale insects and likely serves as a predator of these pests in its habitat.
Microweisea misella
Micro Lady Beetle
Microweisea misella is a minute lady beetle (Coccinellidae) native to North America. Adults measure only 1–1.5 mm in length and are darkly colored. The species is a specialized predator of armored scale insects (Diaspididae), particularly on blueberry and other shrubs and trees. It has been documented across southern Canada and much of the United States, and is associated with urban and agricultural habitats where scale infestations occur.
Mimesa
Mimesa is a genus of solitary wasps in the family Crabronidae, subfamily Pemphredoninae. Species are distributed across Europe and North America. As members of Psenini, these wasps are aphid predators that provision their nests with paralyzed aphids for their larvae.
Minotetrastichus
Minotetrastichus is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species are ectoparasitoids of leaf-mining insects, primarily targeting larvae and pupae of Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera. The genus was established by Kostjukov in 1977. Detailed biological information exists primarily for Minotetrastichus frontalis, which parasitizes the lime leaf miner Phyllonorycter issikii.
Minotetrastichus frontalis
Minotetrastichus frontalis is a chalcid wasp in the family Eulophidae. It is an ectoparasitoid of leaf-mining moths in the genus Phyllonorycter, with larvae feeding on both larval and pupal stages of the host. The species has four larval instars and completes preimaginal development in 11–14 days.
Minthoini
Minthoini is a tribe of tachinid flies within the subfamily Tachininae. Members are parasitoid flies that attack various host insects. The tribe contains multiple genera distributed across multiple continents. They are recognized by specific morphological features of the head and thorax.
Miracinae
miracine wasps
Miracinae is a poorly known subfamily of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae. These minute wasps, typically measuring 1–2 mm in length, are rarely collected using traditional methods but appear to be diverse in Australia and other regions. Recent taxonomic work has described multiple new species from Australia, Brazil, India, Colombia, and the Dominican Republic, including three species named through citizen science collaboration with Australian school students.
Mirificarma eburnella
Mirificarma eburnella is a small gelechiid moth with a Palearctic distribution, now established in California as an introduced species. It is associated with leguminous host plants and has been studied as a potential biological control agent for invasive clovers. Adults are active in spring and early summer.
Mirini
Mirini is a large tribe of plant bugs (Hemiptera: Miridae: Mirinae) containing over 180 genera distributed worldwide. The tribe includes economically significant genera such as Lygus, whose members are major agricultural pests of North American crops. Mirini species exhibit diverse ecological associations, including myrmecomorphic (ant-mimicking) forms and specialized relationships with particular host plants.
Monellia caryella
Blackmargined Pecan Aphid, Black Margined Aphid
Monellia caryella, commonly known as the blackmargined pecan aphid, is a small sap-feeding insect and significant pest of pecan (Carya illinoinensis) orchards in North America. Adults are distinguished by a prominent black stripe along the outer margin of their wings, which are held flat over the body. Populations typically increase from June to August, then decline after approximately three weeks; outbreaks on most cultivars usually subside without causing measurable damage, though the 'Cheyenne' cultivar is notably susceptible. The species is subject to substantial mortality from entomopathogenic fungi, particularly during autumn when environmental conditions favor fungal growth.
Monobia
Four-toothed Mason Wasp (for M. quadridens), Carpenter Wasp, Mason Wasp
Monobia is a genus of medium-sized to large potter wasps in the subfamily Eumeninae, distributed primarily across the Neotropical region from the United States to Argentina. The genus is closely related to Montezumia. The most well-documented species, Monobia quadridens (Four-toothed Mason Wasp), is a solitary wasp that provisions nests with paralyzed caterpillars and constructs mud partitions between brood cells.
Monobia quadridens
Four-toothed Mason Wasp, Carpenter Wasp
Monobia quadridens is a solitary potter wasp in the subfamily Eumeninae, native to eastern North America. Adults are striking black-and-white insects with a distinctive broad ivory band across the first abdominal tergite. The species is bivoltine, producing two generations annually, with one generation overwintering as pupae. Females construct multi-celled nests in pre-existing cavities, provisioning each cell with paralyzed caterpillars for their larvae.
Monocesta
larger elm leaf beetle
Monocesta is a genus of skeletonizing leaf beetles in the family Chrysomelidae. The genus contains at least three described species, with Monocesta coryli being the most well-known and commonly encountered in eastern North America. These beetles are characterized by their feeding behavior that removes soft leaf tissue between veins, creating a distinctive skeletonized appearance on host leaves. The genus is primarily associated with elm trees and related woodland vegetation.
Monoctonina
Monoctonina is a subtribe of aphid parasitoid wasps within the subfamily Aphidiinae (Braconidae). Members are small parasitic wasps that develop within aphid hosts, eventually killing them. The subtribe includes genera such as Monoctonus and Falciconus, with species documented from high-elevation mountain habitats in Europe and Asia.
Monoctonus
Monoctonus is a genus of solitary parasitoid wasps in the subfamily Aphidiinae (Braconidae). Species in this genus are specialized parasitoids of aphids, with females laying eggs in the thoracic nerve ganglia of host aphids. Multiple species have been documented, including M. paulensis, M. nervosus, M. paludum, and M. leclanti, with distributions spanning the Palearctic, Nearctic, and Oriental regions.
Monodontomerus
Monodontomerus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Torymidae, distributed globally with greatest diversity in the Holarctic Region. Species in this genus are parasitoids of various insect orders, with documented associations including pollinators such as megachilid bees and other hymenopterans. Some species have economic importance as biological control agents or pests of beneficial insects. The genus includes at least 25 described species in the New World, with ongoing taxonomic revisions revealing additional diversity.
Monolexis fuscicornis
Monolexis fuscicornis is a parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae, subfamily Doryctinae. It has been documented as a larva-pupa parasitoid of the wood-boring beetle Trogoxylon impressum, a pest of fig plants in Turkey. The species represents a potentially significant biological control agent for managing bostrichid beetle infestations in agricultural settings.
Monomorium minimum
Monomorium minimum is a small myrmicine ant species documented as an effective predator of mosquito eggs in urban environments. The species has been observed removing 99.4% of Aedes aegypti eggs from experimental containers within 4 days, demonstrating significant potential for biological control of disease-vectoring mosquitoes. As a member of the genus Monomorium, it belongs to a group often referred to as 'tramp ants' associated with human-modified habitats.
Montandoniola
Montandoniola is a genus of minute pirate bugs in the family Anthocoridae. Species in this genus are predatory, with documented cases of thrips predation. The genus was established by Poppius in 1910. At least two species have received focused study: M. confusa as a predator of gall-forming thrips, and M. moraguesi regarding its distribution in the United States.
Montandoniola confusa
Montandoniola confusa is a minute predatory bug in the family Anthocoridae, described in 2009. It has been studied as a biological control agent targeting gall-forming thrips. The species has been recorded in Hawaii and is associated with environments where its thrips prey occur.
Mordellina ancilla
Tumbling Little-maid Flower Beetle
Mordellina ancilla is a species of tumbling flower beetle in the family Mordellidae. It is native to North America and has been documented as a stem-borer of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) in Ontario, Canada, representing the first known host record for this species on this introduced plant. The beetle feeds on stem pith during late stages of the host plant's biennial life cycle and continues feeding on dead plant material.
Mulsantina hudsonica
Hudsonian lady beetle, Hudsonian Ladybird
Mulsantina hudsonica, known as the Hudsonian lady beetle, is a small predatory beetle in the family Coccinellidae. It is native to North America with a broad transcontinental range. The species is recognized by its distinctive yellow coloration with black markings on the head and pronotum, and brown and black patterns on the elytra. It has been documented as a predator of the balsam woolly adelgid.
Mulsantina picta
Painted Lady Beetle, Pine Lady Beetle
Mulsantina picta is a small lady beetle native to North America, commonly found in pine forest habitats across the United States and southern Canada. The species is a specialized predator of aphids and adelgids associated with conifers. Adults measure 3.3–5.3 mm in length and exhibit variable elytral patterning. The species has been observed to dominate in older pine stands despite low aphid densities in these habitats.
Muscina stabulans
False Stable Fly
Muscina stabulans, commonly known as the false stable fly, is a cosmopolitan synanthropic muscid fly distributed worldwide. Adults are medium-sized flies averaging 8 mm in length, distinguished by four dark thoracic stripes, partially reddish-brown legs, and a pale spot above the thorax. The species exhibits strong synanthropic tendencies, with higher abundance in urban-suburban environments compared to rural areas. It has significant economic and public health importance as a mechanical vector of pathogens, a facultative predator of house fly larvae in poultry facilities, and a forensic indicator species for post-mortem interval estimation. Rare cases of intestinal myiasis in humans have been documented.
Musotiminae
Musotiminae is a subfamily of snout moths (Crambidae) established by Edward Meyrick in 1884. The group comprises approximately 20 genera distributed primarily in tropical and subtropical regions, with notable diversity in the Oriental and Australasian regions. Several species have been studied for their specialized associations with Lygodium climbing ferns, with some investigated as potential biological control agents for invasive fern populations. The subfamily was historically classified within Pyralidae but is now placed in Crambidae.
Mycodiplosis
Rust-eating midges
Mycodiplosis is a genus of gall midges (Cecidomyiidae) whose larvae feed on spores of rust fungi (Pucciniales) and other fungal groups. The genus contains at least 49 described species based on adult male morphology, with phylogenetic analyses suggesting substantial undescribed diversity. Larvae have been detected on 261 rust-infected plant collections across 25 countries, with infestation patterns showing preferential feeding on certain rust species but no strict host-specificity at the clade level.
Myiopharus
Myiopharus is a New World genus of tachinid flies containing at least 15 species north of Mexico. Species in this genus are parasitoids of chrysomelid beetles, with documented hosts including the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) and the sunflower beetle (Zygogramma exclamationis). The genus belongs to the M. dorsalis species group, characterized by distinctive morphological features in females.
Myiopharus doryphorae
Myiopharus doryphorae is a tachinid fly native to North America and a specialized parasitoid of the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata). It develops internally within host larvae, with parasitism rates reaching 45–67% during peak season. The species has been extensively studied for biological control applications against this major agricultural pest.
Mymaridae
Fairy Wasps, Fairyflies
Mymaridae, commonly known as fairy wasps or fairyflies, is a family of microscopic chalcidoid wasps containing approximately 100 genera and 1,400 described species distributed worldwide in temperate and tropical regions. Members are among the smallest known insects, with body lengths ranging from 0.2 to 1.5 mm; the smallest species, Dicopomorpha echmepterygis, measures only 0.139 mm and is the smallest known insect. All known species are solitary, idiobiont endoparasitoids of insect eggs, with hosts primarily in Hemiptera (especially leafhoppers, planthoppers, and true bugs), Coleoptera, and Psocodea. The family is economically significant as biological control agents for agricultural pests, particularly for leafhoppers that vector plant diseases.
Myopitini
Myopitini is a tribe of fruit flies within the family Tephritidae, subfamily Tephritinae. The tribe comprises approximately eleven genera, including the well-known genus Urophora. Members are small to medium-sized flies, many of which are associated with plants in the family Asteraceae. The tribe has a primarily Palearctic distribution with some genera extending into other regions.
Mythimna sequax
wheat armyworm
Mythimna sequax, commonly known as the wheat armyworm, is a noctuid moth species whose larvae are significant agricultural pests of wheat and other cereals. Native to the Americas, it has become established in southern Brazil where it causes substantial damage to winter wheat crops. The species exhibits nocturnal larval behavior, sheltering under soil debris during daylight hours. Climate change research indicates its voltinism (number of generations per year) is sensitive to temperature increases, with nonlinear phenological models providing more accurate predictions than traditional degree-day approaches.
Myzaphis rosarum
Lesser Rose Aphid
Myzaphis rosarum is a small aphid species in the family Aphididae, commonly known as the Lesser Rose Aphid. It colonizes Rosa species and various trees, occurring on both wild and cultivated plants. The species serves as prey for aphidophagous predators including Hippodamia convergens, and has been documented as a suitable host supporting predator development in laboratory studies. It is distinguished from congeners by specific morphological characters.
Myzininae
Myzininae is a subfamily of aculeate wasps within the family Thynnidae (formerly placed in Tiphiidae). The subfamily is best known through the genus Myzinum, which exhibits extreme sexual dimorphism. Females are robust, fossorial parasitoids of scarab beetle grubs, while males are slender, non-stinging, and frequently observed on flowers. Species in this subfamily are found primarily in the Nearctic region, with ten recognized species north of Mexico.
Myzinum
New World Banded Thynnid Wasps
Myzinum is a genus of thynnid wasps containing approximately 63 recognized species, with 10 species occurring in North America. Adults measure 7–24 mm and exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism: males are slender with long, straight antennae and a prominent curled pseudostinger at the abdomen tip, while females are robust with short, coiled antennae and stout legs adapted for digging. These wasps are parasitoids of scarab beetle grubs, particularly Phyllophaga species, and are used as biological control agents. They are most diverse in the Neotropics and are commonly observed visiting autumn wildflowers such as goldenrod and thoroughwort.
Myzinum carolinianum
Myzinum carolinianum is a thynnid wasp species native to North America. Like other members of its genus, it is a parasitoid of scarab beetle grubs, particularly those in the genus Phyllophaga. The species exhibits extreme sexual dimorphism: males are slender with long, straight antennae and a prominent curved pseudostinger (external genitalia), while females are larger-bodied with robust abdomens, stouter legs adapted for digging, and short, coiled antennae. Adults are active in late summer and autumn, frequently visiting flowers such as goldenrod and thoroughwort.
Myzinum frontalis
Myzinum frontalis is a species of thynnid wasp native to North America. Like other members of the genus, it is a parasitoid of scarab beetle grubs, particularly those in the genus Phyllophaga. The species exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism, with males being slender with long, straight antennae and a prominent pseudostinger, while females are larger-bodied with robust abdoments, stouter legs, and short, coiled antennae. Adults are active in late summer and autumn, visiting flowers such as goldenrod and thoroughwort.
Myzinum maculatum
Myzinum maculatum is a species of thynnid wasp native to North America. It is a parasitoid of scarab beetle grubs, particularly Phyllophaga (May beetle) larvae, and has been employed as a biological control agent for turf grass pests. The species exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism: males are slender with long straight antennae and a prominent curled pseudostinger, while females are robust with short coiled antennae and stout legs adapted for digging.
Myzinum obscurum
Myzinum obscurum is a species of thynnid wasp native to the Eastern United States. Like other members of its genus, it is a parasitoid of scarab beetle grubs, particularly those in the genus Phyllophaga. The species exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism: males have slender bodies, long straight antennae, and a prominent curled pseudostinger (modified genitalia), while females are larger and more robust with short coiled antennae and stout legs adapted for digging. Taxonomic placement has shifted historically, with the genus formerly placed in Tiphiidae but now recognized in Thynnidae.
Myzinum quinquecinctum
five-banded thynnid wasp
Myzinum quinquecinctum is a species of thynnid wasp found primarily in eastern North America. Like other members of the genus Myzinum, it is a parasitoid of scarab beetle grubs, with females locating and paralyzing hosts underground to lay eggs. The species exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism: males are slender with long, straight antennae and a prominent pseudostinger, while females are larger and more robust with short, coiled antennae adapted for digging. Males are frequently observed visiting flowers such as goldenrod and thoroughwort, often in aggregations.
Nabidae
Damsel Bugs
Nabidae is a family of predatory true bugs known as damsel bugs, containing over 500 species in approximately 20 genera. These soft-bodied, elongate insects are terrestrial predators that use raptorial forelegs to capture and hold prey, similar to mantids. They are economically important in agriculture due to their predation on crop pests including aphids, lepidopteran eggs, and other small insects. Many species are attracted to lights at night, and some exhibit wing polymorphism with fully winged, short-winged, or wingless forms.
Nabinae
damsel bugs
Nabinae is a subfamily of damsel bugs (Nabidae) within the true bugs (Hemiptera). Members are predatory insects characterized by raptorial forelegs adapted for capturing prey. The subfamily includes both extant species and fossil records from the Cretaceous, including specimens preserved in Burmese amber. Extant species are found across diverse terrestrial habitats.
Nabis
damsel bug
Small predatory true bugs in the family Nabidae. Adults typically under 12 mm. Nocturnal hunters that subdue prey larger than themselves using raptorial front legs. Attracted to artificial lights, possibly to exploit other insects drawn there. Economically significant as natural pest control agents in agricultural systems.
Nabis
damsel bugs
Nabis is a genus of damsel bugs in the family Nabidae, comprising predatory true bugs found worldwide. Members are small, slender insects typically under 12 mm in length, recognized by their raptorial front legs adapted for capturing prey. They are primarily nocturnal predators that use a combination of ambush and active hunting strategies to subdue insects larger than themselves. The genus is economically significant as a biological control agent in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton and greenhouse crops.
Nabis americoferus
Common Damsel Bug
Nabis americoferus, the common damsel bug, is a small predatory true bug in the family Nabidae. It occurs across North America and Central America, with well-documented populations in eastern Ontario and agroecosystems of the United States. The species produces two generations per year in temperate regions, overwinters as adults in field margins, and colonizes crop fields in late spring. It is an economically important biological control agent, feeding on agricultural pests including aphids, leafminers, and mirid bugs.
Nabis flavomarginatus
Broad Damsel Bug
Nabis flavomarginatus is a small predatory true bug in the family Nabidae, commonly known as the Broad Damsel Bug. It exhibits a Holarctic distribution spanning northern Europe, Siberia, Central Asia, East Asia, and North America including Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. The species inhabits wet, open grassland habitats with high proportions of grasses, sedges, and rushes, and shows a preference for cooler microclimates compared to other Nabinae. It is an effective predator in agricultural and natural systems, with cicadas documented as frequent prey.
Nabis lovettii
Lovett's damsel bug
Nabis lovettii is a species of damsel bug in the family Nabidae, a group of small predatory true bugs. Damsel bugs are nocturnal predators that subdue insects larger than themselves using raptorial forelegs. Members of the genus Nabis are among the most abundant small predators in North American ecosystems and are considered economically important for biological pest control in agricultural systems. Nabis lovettii has been documented in western North America.
Nabis roseipennis
sculpted damsel bug, damsel bug
Nabis roseipennis is a small predatory true bug in the family Nabidae, commonly known as the sculpted damsel bug. It is one of the most abundant damsel bugs in cotton and soybean agroecosystems across the southeastern United States. The species is univoltine, with adults active from mid-July through September, and functions as a generalist predator of various agricultural pests. It has been extensively studied for its role in biological control and its tritrophic interactions with resistant crop plants.
Nanophyes
Nanophyes is a genus of small weevils in the family Brentidae, distributed across Europe, Japan, Southern Africa, and parts of Asia. Species are associated with specific host plants, with larvae typically developing inside fruits and adults feeding on leaves, pollen, and nectar. Some species have been studied as potential biological control agents for aquatic weeds, while others are fruit predators of forest trees.
Narraga
Narraga is a genus of geometrid moths established by Walker in 1861. The genus includes at least seven described species, with Narraga fimetaria (the green broomweed looper) being the most thoroughly studied due to its potential as a biological control agent for weedy broomweed in rangelands. Species in this genus are associated with open habitats and have narrow host plant associations.
Nasonia vitripennis
Blowfly Chalcid Wasp
Nasonia vitripennis is a small parasitoid wasp and the best-studied member of the genus Nasonia. It parasitizes pupae of carrion flies, particularly blowflies (Calliphora spp.) and flesh flies. The species exhibits haplodiploid sex determination, with diploid females developing from fertilized eggs and haploid males from unfertilized eggs. It has become a major model organism for studies of genetics, development, behavior, and Wolbachia-mediated cytoplasmic incompatibility. The genome was fully sequenced in 2010, facilitating research on venom proteins, sex pheromones, and epigenetic mechanisms including DNA methylation.
Nemestrinidae
tangle-veined flies
Nemestrinidae, commonly called tangle-veined flies, is a family of brachyceran flies comprising approximately 300 species in 34 genera. The family is distributed worldwide but is most diverse in the southern hemisphere. Adults are characterized by distinctive wing venation with numerous crossveins creating a tangled appearance, and many species possess exceptionally long proboscises adapted for nectar feeding from tubular flowers. Larvae are endoparasitoids, with subfamily Trichopsideinae parasitizing grasshoppers and Hirmoneurinae parasitizing scarab beetles.
Nemorilla
Nemorilla is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) established by Rondani in 1856. Species within this genus are parasitoids of Lepidoptera larvae, with documented hosts including the legume pod borer (Maruca vitrata) and the box tree moth (Cydalima perspectalis). At least one species, N. maculosa, has been studied for its use of herbivore-induced plant volatiles to locate hosts. The genus contains approximately 15 described species distributed across multiple continents.
Neochetina
water hyacinth weevil, waterhyacinth weevils
Neochetina is a genus of weevils native to South America, comprising at least two species: N. eichhorniae (mottled water hyacinth weevil) and N. bruchi (chevroned water hyacinth weevil). Both species are highly host-specific biological control agents used worldwide to manage invasive water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). The genus has been introduced to over 30 countries including the United States, where releases began in Florida in 1972 (N. eichhorniae) and 1974 (N. bruchi).
Neochetina bruchi
chevroned water hyacinth weevil, chevroned waterhyacinth weevil
Neochetina bruchi is a South American marsh weevil introduced to over 30 countries as a biological control agent for invasive water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes, formerly Eichhornia crassipes). First released in the United States in Florida in 1974, it now occurs throughout the Gulf Coast states and California. The species has been studied extensively for its effectiveness in managing water hyacinth infestations, with research showing its performance varies with environmental factors including salinity, temperature, and nutrient availability.
Neochetina eichhorniae
Mottled Waterhyacinth Weevil, Mottled Water Hyacinth Weevil
Neochetina eichhorniae is a host-specific weevil native to Argentina and neighboring South American regions. It was introduced to Florida in 1972 as a biological control agent for the invasive aquatic weed water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and has since been established in more than three dozen countries worldwide. Adults feed on leaves and petioles, producing characteristic feeding scars, while larvae tunnel into petioles and the plant crown. The species has demonstrated substantial suppression of water hyacinth growth, reducing biomass, flower production, and water surface coverage.
Neochrysocharis
Neochrysocharis is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species in this genus are endoparasitoids of leafmining insects, particularly agromyzid flies. Some species exhibit host-feeding behavior and possess both thelytokous (asexual) and arrhenotokous (sexual) reproductive strains. Multiple species have been evaluated as biological control agents for invasive leafminer pests in agricultural systems.
Neochrysocharis formosa
Neochrysocharis formosa is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae. It is a larval parasitoid of leafminers (Agromyzidae) and has been recorded as a parasitoid of Tuta absoluta (Gelechiidae) and Diprion pini (Diprionidae). The species exhibits host-feeding behavior and is widely used as a biological control agent in agricultural systems. Both thelytokous and arrhenotokous strains exist, with thelytokous strains showing superior biocontrol potential. Sex ratios are typically female-biased.
Neodiprion abietis
balsam fir sawfly
Neodiprion abietis, the balsam fir sawfly, is a conifer-feeding sawfly native to North America. Larvae are gregarious defoliators that feed preferentially on balsam fir (Abies balsamea) needles, with outbreaks capable of causing significant tree mortality in eastern Canadian forests. The species exhibits sexual dimorphism in development, with females typically undergoing six instars over 35 days and males five instars over 30 days. Population dynamics are strongly regulated by a host-specific nucleopolyhedrovirus (NeabNPV), which has been developed as a registered biological insecticide (Abietiv™) for outbreak management.
Neodiprion pinetum
White Pine Sawfly
Neodiprion pinetum is a conifer-feeding sawfly native to eastern North America. Adults are broad-bodied, stingless wasps with females bearing a saw-like ovipositor used to insert eggs into pine needles. Larvae are creamy-yellow with black heads and four longitudinal rows of black spots, resembling caterpillars but possessing more prolegs. The species is frequently monophagous on eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), though larvae have been documented on several other pine species. Localized outbreaks occur regularly and can kill small stands of host trees, though natural enemies including egg and larval parasitoids typically provide substantial biological control.
Neodusmetia
Neodusmetia is a genus of encyrtid parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae. The genus contains at least one described species, Neodusmetia sangwani, which has achieved international recognition as one of the most successful examples of classical biological control. This species was introduced from India to multiple countries to control the invasive Rhodes grass scale, Antonina graminis, a major pest of pasture grasses.
Neodusmetia sangwani
Neodusmetia sangwani is a minute encyrtid parasitoid wasp native to India, renowned as one of the most successful classical biological control agents ever deployed. It was introduced to the United States in the 1950s and Brazil in 1967 to combat the Rhodesgrass mealybug (Antonina graminis), a destructive pest of pasture grasses. The species exhibits extreme sexual dimorphism: females are wingless, short-lived, and sedentary, while males are winged. Its introduction saved an estimated $17 million annually in turf management costs in Texas alone.
Neogalea
Catabena moth, Lantana stick moth
Neogalea is a monotypic genus of moths in the family Noctuidae, containing the single species Neogalea sunia. The genus was described by Hampson in 1906. The sole species has been widely introduced outside its native range as a biological control agent.
Neogalea sunia
Lantana Stick Moth, Catabena Moth
Neogalea sunia is a noctuid moth and the sole species in the genus Neogalea. Native to the Americas from the southern United States through the Caribbean to Argentina, it has been introduced to Australia and Hawaii as a biological control agent. The species is notable for its specialized larval diet and its role in classical biological control programs targeting invasive plants.
Neogalerucella calmariensis
black-margined loosestrife beetle, purple loosestrife beetle
A small leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, native to Europe and Asia, that has been introduced to North America as a biological control agent for invasive purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria). Adults and larvae feed on leaves and meristems of their host plant, causing significant damage that reduces plant vigor and seed production. The species is one of several Neogalerucella beetles used in loosestrife biocontrol programs.
Neohydronomus
waterlettuce weevils
Neohydronomus is a genus of subaquatic weevils comprising three species native to South and Central America. All species are obligate specialists on waterlettuce (Pistia stratiotes), an invasive floating aquatic plant. The genus has been utilized as a biological control agent, with N. affinis successfully introduced to Florida in 1987 to manage waterlettuce infestations.
Neohydronomus affinis
Waterlettuce Weevil
Neohydronomus affinis is a subaquatic weevil native to South and Central America that has been deployed as a biological control agent against the invasive aquatic plant waterlettuce (Pistia stratiotes). First introduced to Florida in 1987, it has successfully established populations in peninsular Florida and Louisiana. The weevil's exoskeleton is covered in white scales and lacks water-resistant features, an unusual trait for an insect living in aquatic environments.
Neomolgus
snout mites
Neomolgus is a genus of predatory snout mites in the family Bdellidae, containing more than 20 described species. Members are recognized by their elongated snout-like rostrum used in prey capture. Several species have been investigated or employed as biological control agents against collembolan pests, particularly Sminthurus viridis (lucerne flea). The genus exhibits cool-humid habitat preferences and temperature-dependent developmental rates.
Neomusotima
Neomusotima is a genus of crambid moths established by Yoshiyasu in 1985, containing at least two species: N. conspurcatalis (Warren, 1896) and N. fuscolinealis Yoshiyasu, 1985. The genus is best known for N. conspurcatalis, which has been extensively studied as a biological control agent against the invasive Old World climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum) in Florida. This species exhibits highly specific host associations with ferns, with genomic studies revealing expansions in odorant receptor gene families potentially linked to host plant detection.
Neomusotima conspurcatalis
Lygodium Defoliator Moth
A small crambid moth native to South and Southeast Asia, introduced to Florida as a biological control agent for the invasive Old World climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum). Larvae are specialist feeders on Lygodium ferns, with young larvae skeletonizing leaves and older larvae consuming entire foliage. The species has been extensively studied for its host specificity and is subject to parasitism by multiple native parasitoid species in its introduced range.
Neorhynchocephalus
tangle-veined flies
Neorhynchocephalus is a genus of tangle-veined flies (family Nemestrinidae) first described by Lichtwardt in 1909. The genus comprises seven extant species and three fossil species. Members of this genus are parasitoids whose larvae develop inside grasshopper hosts. Neorhynchocephalus sackenii has been documented as a significant parasite of rangeland grasshoppers in western North America, with parasitism rates reaching up to 24 percent in field studies.
Neorhynchocephalus sackenii
tangle-veined fly
Neorhynchocephalus sackenii is a species of tangle-veined fly in the family Nemestrinidae. It is known primarily as a parasitoid of grasshoppers, with documented associations to at least two rangeland grasshopper species in western North America. The species constructs specialized respiratory pores in its host and has been observed to cause significant mortality in grasshopper populations, with parasitism rates varying from 0 to 40 percent in field studies.
Neorileya
Neorileya is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Eurytomidae, subfamily Rileyinae. These micro-Hymenoptera are egg parasitoids of true bugs (Hemiptera), with documented hosts in Coreidae, Pentatomidae, and Reduviidae. The genus contains at least seven described species distributed across the New World from central California to Argentina. Neorileya species develop as endoparasitoids within host eggs, with some species causing significant mortality in agricultural pest populations.
Neoscapteriscus borellii
Southern Mole Cricket
Neoscapteriscus borellii, commonly known as the southern mole cricket, is a fossorial orthopteran native to South America that has become an established invasive pest in the southeastern United States since its introduction around 1900. Unlike its herbivorous relatives, this species is primarily predatory, feeding on insects and earthworms. Its extensive tunneling in sandy soils damages lawns, pastures, golf courses, and cultivated plants by loosening soil, uprooting vegetation, and promoting desiccation.
Neoscapteriscus vicinus
tawny mole cricket
Neoscapteriscus vicinus, the tawny mole cricket, is a burrowing orthopteran native to South America that has become established in the southeastern United States since its introduction around 1900. The species was reclassified from Scapteriscus to the new genus Neoscapteriscus in 2015 based on morphological differences. It is a significant agricultural and turf pest that damages plants through root feeding and tunneling activities.
Nephaspis
minute lady beetles
Nephaspis is a genus of minute lady beetles in the family Coccinellidae. Species within this genus are specialized predators of whiteflies, particularly Bemisia argentifolii, and have been extensively studied as biological control agents. The genus was established by Casey in 1899. Many species formerly placed in Nephaspis have been reclassified to Clitostethus. The best-studied species, N. oculatus, exhibits a Type II functional response to prey density and completes development from egg to adult in approximately 24 days at 26°C.
Nephaspis oculatus
eyed lady
Nephaspis oculatus is a small coccinellid beetle specialized as a predator of whitefly eggs. Under laboratory conditions at 26°C, development from egg to adult averages 22.7 days. The species exhibits highly specific feeding behavior, consuming only eggs of Bemisia argentifolii and rejecting nymphal and adult stages. Both larvae and adults are predatory, with consumption increasing through larval instars. The species has been evaluated for biological control potential against silverleaf whitefly in agricultural systems.
Nephus
Nephus is a genus of small lady beetles in the family Coccinellidae, subfamily Scymninae. The genus contains more than 25 described species. Several former species have been transferred to the genus Scymnobius. Members of this genus are known as specialized predators of mealybugs and have been investigated for biological control of these pests.
Nesticodes rufipes
Red House Spider
Nesticodes rufipes, commonly known as the Red House Spider, is a cobweb spider in the family Theridiidae and the sole species in its genus. It has been introduced globally and is found on multiple continents including North America, South America, and oceanic islands. The species has been studied extensively for its predatory behavior, exhibiting a type II functional response to prey density. Research indicates that habitat complexity significantly affects its predation efficiency, with reduced capture rates in more complex environments due to prey refuge availability.
Netelia johnsoni
Netelia johnsoni is a species of ichneumon wasp in the subfamily Tryphoninae, described by Ashmead in 1900. It is a nocturnal parasitoid wasp with a painful defensive sting that has been documented from Edmonton, Canada, though the genus Netelia is more broadly distributed across North America north of Mexico with 73 species in six subgenera. Females use their sting primarily to temporarily paralyze caterpillar hosts for oviposition, but will sting humans if handled carelessly or trapped against skin.
Netelia leo
Netelia leo is a species of ichneumon wasp in the subfamily Tryphoninae, first described by Cushman in 1924. Like other members of the genus Netelia, females possess a functional sting and are capable of delivering painful stings when handled or trapped against skin. The species is nocturnal and frequently attracted to artificial lights. Females are koinobiont ectoparasitoids of caterpillars, temporarily paralyzing hosts with their sting before laying stalked eggs on the exterior of the larva.
Neuroptera
net-winged insects, lacewings, antlions, mantidflies, owlflies
Neuroptera is an order of holometabolous insects comprising approximately 6,000 species, commonly known as net-winged insects or lacewings and their allies. The group includes lacewings (Chrysopidae, Hemerobiidae), antlions (Myrmeleontidae), mantidflies (Mantispidae), owlflies (Ascalaphidae), and several other families. Adults possess four membranous wings of similar size with dense, net-like venation that gives the order its name. The group first appeared in the Permian period and diversified through the Mesozoic, with some extinct lineages evolving remarkably large, patterned wings. Neuroptera is grouped with Megaloptera and Raphidioptera in the clade Neuropterida.
Neurostrota
Neurostrota is a genus of small moths in the family Gracillariidae, established by Ely in 1918. The genus contains five described species distributed in the Neotropical region and Australia. At least one species, N. gunniella, has been deployed as a biological control agent for invasive Mimosa pigra. Larvae are leaf miners that feed internally on host plant foliage.
Neurostrota gunniella
mimosa stem-mining moth
Neurostrota gunniella is a gracillariid moth native to the Americas, introduced to Australia in 1989 as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Mimosa pigra. The species exhibits strong microhabitat selection for edge habitats within host plant stands, with larvae causing greater damage to branches at thicket edges than in interior areas. It has been observed in both wet and dry seasons, maintaining consistent attack rates across locations but concentrating feeding activity at habitat margins.
Nezara
Green Vegetable Bugs
Nezara is a genus of plant-feeding stink bugs in the family Pentatomidae, established by Amyot and Serville in 1843. The genus contains approximately 20 described species distributed across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. The most economically significant species is Nezara viridula (Linnaeus, 1758), commonly known as the southern green stink bug or green vegetable bug, which is a major agricultural pest of legumes, cotton, and numerous other crops. Several species have been documented as pests of soybean and other economically important crops in South America, with N. viridula being particularly problematic due to its cosmopolitan distribution and polyphagous feeding habits.
Niesthrea
scentless plant bugs, hibiscus scentless plant bugs
Niesthrea is a genus of scentless plant bugs in the family Rhopalidae, tribe Niesthreini. The genus comprises approximately 20 described species distributed primarily in the New World, from the United States through Central and South America. Species in this genus are associated with plants in the family Malvaceae, with some species serving as important biological control agents against agricultural weeds such as velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti). The best-studied species, Niesthrea louisianica, exhibits striking orange, black, and white coloration and has been extensively investigated for its potential in integrated pest management programs.
Niesthrea louisianica
Hibiscus Scentless Plant Bug
Niesthrea louisianica is a small scentless plant bug in the family Rhopalidae, measuring 6.5-8.5 mm in body length. It is native to North America, ranging from New York to Florida and west to California, with populations also present in Hawaii. The species is a specialist feeder on plants in the mallow family (Malvaceae), including Rose of Sharon (Hibiscus syriacus), cotton, okra, and velvetleaf. It has been investigated as a biological control agent for the agricultural weed velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti), capable of reducing viable seed production by 98-99% through feeding damage to reproductive structures.
Nigma
Nigma is a genus of cribellate araneomorph spiders in the family Dictynidae, established by Pekka T. Lehtinen in 1967. The genus contains approximately fourteen species distributed across Eurasia, North America, and Northern Africa. Members are generally small, with N. walckenaeri being among the largest in the family at up to 5 mm body length. The genus is part of the marronoid spider group, which has been subject to recent phylogenetic revision using genetic data from museum specimens.
Niphograpta
water hyacinth moth
Niphograpta is a monotypic genus of crambid moths established by Warren in 1892. The sole species, Niphograpta albiguttalis, commonly called the water hyacinth moth, has been widely introduced outside its native range as a biological control agent for the invasive aquatic plant water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). The genus is notable for its specialized ecological role and successful establishment in multiple continents.
Niphograpta albiguttalis
Water Hyacinth Moth
Niphograpta albiguttalis is the sole species in its genus, a crambid moth native to the Amazon basin. It has been intentionally introduced to multiple continents as a biological control agent for water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). The moth's larvae tunnel into water hyacinth leaves and petioles, causing damage that can reduce plant vigor and spread. It is established in the southeastern United States, parts of Africa, and eastern Australia.
Notonecta indica
backswimmer
Notonecta indica is a predatory aquatic true bug in the family Notonectidae, commonly known as backswimmers. The species has been documented in eastern Jamaica where it preys on mosquito larvae, particularly Aedes aegypti, with consumption rates increasing exponentially through nymphal development. Adults consume approximately 38 mosquito larvae daily under laboratory conditions. The species occurs across a broad geographic range including the Caribbean, Central America, North America, Oceania, and South America. Development from egg to adult takes approximately 36 days under warm conditions, with shorter development times than temperate backswimmer species attributed to higher temperatures and food availability.
Notonecta undulata
Grousewinged Backswimmer
Notonecta undulata, commonly known as the grousewinged backswimmer, is an aquatic true bug (Hemiptera: Notonectidae) found across North America. Adults measure 10–12 mm in length and are distinguished from other backswimmers by their 4-segmented antennae and wing pattern featuring a large black spot on the wing membrane median line. The species inhabits small ponds and lakes with slow-moving water, swimming upside down beneath the water surface to capture prey. It is a generalist predator with documented preference for mosquito larvae, and has been studied as a potential biological control agent.
Novius
Novius is a genus of ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae) and the sole member of the tribe Noviini. The genus contains over 70 species, most formerly placed in the genera Rodolia and Anovia, which are now considered junior synonyms. Species of Novius are specialist predators of scale insects, particularly cotton cushion scales in the genus Icerya, and have been widely used in classical biological control programs. The best-known species, Novius cardinalis (the vedalia beetle), was introduced from Australia to California in the 1880s and achieved historic success in controlling Icerya purchasi.
Novius cardinalis
Vedalia beetle, cardinal ladybird
Novius cardinalis is a small ladybird beetle native to Australia, notable as one of the earliest and most successful examples of classical biological control. The species was introduced to California in 1888 to combat cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi), a devastating citrus pest, and achieved rapid, dramatic suppression of the pest population. Adults measure 2.5–4 mm with variable red and black coloration. The species has undergone multiple taxonomic revisions, most recently transferred from Rodolia to Novius in 2020.
Novius koebelei
Koebele's ladybird
Novius koebelei is a ladybird beetle native to Australia, first described by Olliff in 1892. The species exhibits notable color variation, having been described as new six times after its original description due to this variation. It has been introduced to New Zealand, where it was first recorded in Auckland in 2006, and to California for biological control purposes alongside N. cardinalis, though it is not believed to persist there now.
Oberea
Oberea is a genus of longhorn beetles (family Cerambycidae) in the tribe Obereini. Most species are stem borers of various plants, with documented associations including blackberries and their relatives, willows, aspen, and Euphorbia species. The genus has a broad distribution across North America, Europe, and parts of Asia and Africa. Several species have been investigated for biological control of invasive plants, including Oberea erythrocephala for leafy spurge management in Canada.
Oberea erythrocephala
Leafy Spurge Stem Boring Beetle, Red-headed Leafy Spurge Stem Borer
Oberea erythrocephala is a slender, elongate longhorn beetle introduced to North America as a biological control agent for leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula). Adults have distinctive red heads, black eyes, and grayish-black hind wings. The species is univoltine and oligophagous, feeding and developing only on certain Euphorbia species in the subgenus Esula. It was approved for release in the United States in 1980 and has since established populations across at least fifteen states and several Canadian provinces. The beetle is considered secondary to Aphthona flea beetles in leafy spurge management due to its narrower host range.
Obolodiplosis robiniae
locust gall midge, black locust gall midge
Obolodiplosis robiniae is a small gall midge (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) native to eastern North America that has become a significant invasive pest in Eurasia. The species is monophagous on Robinia species, particularly black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), forming distinctive leaf margin roll galls through gregarious larval feeding. First described from Pennsylvania in 1847, it was detected in Asia in 2002-2003 (Japan, Korea) and Europe in 2003 (Italy), subsequently spreading explosively to 26 European countries and much of China. Climate modeling predicts substantial northward range expansion under warming scenarios, with suitable habitat potentially increasing by 35% by 2070. The midge reduces host tree growth and productivity, causes early leaf abscission, and facilitates secondary pest attacks by wood-boring beetles.
Ochthera
Mantid Shoreflies
Ochthera is a genus of predatory shore flies (Ephydridae) distinguished by raptorial forelegs modified for seizing prey. Adults and larvae are exclusively predatory, feeding on midge and mosquito larvae. The genus has a global distribution with approximately 37-55 species, including 13 species in North America. Some species have documented significance as predators of disease vectors, including African malaria vectors.
Ochyromera ligustri
ligustrum weevil, Ligustrum Seed Weevil
Ochyromera ligustri is a small seed-feeding weevil (3.0–4.7 mm) in the family Curculionidae. Native to the Palearctic region, it was first detected in North America in North Carolina in 1959 and has since spread across the southeastern United States. The species specializes on Ligustrum species (privets), with adults feeding on foliage and fruits while larvae develop internally within seeds. Its narrow host specificity and seed-feeding habit have led to consideration as a fortuitous biological control agent against invasive privets.
Octotoma
Octotoma is a genus of tortoise beetles and hispines (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) comprising approximately 11–12 described species. Members of this genus are leaf-mining beetles with documented associations to Lantana camara, an invasive weed. Several species, notably O. championi and O. scabripennis, have been extensively studied and employed as biological control agents. The genus exhibits a leaf-mining larval phase followed by free-living, leaf-chewing adults.
Octotoma championi
lantana leafminer, lantana leaf beetle
Octotoma championi is a leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, commonly known as the lantana leafminer or lantana leaf beetle. Native to Central and North America, it has been introduced to Australia, Fiji, Hawaii, and South Africa as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Lantana camara. The species has a leaf-mining larval phase and free-living, leaf-chewing adults. Research indicates its development and consumption rates are sensitive to elevated CO2 and temperature conditions.
Ocyptamus
Ocyptamus is a large and diverse genus of hoverflies (family Syrphidae) comprising over 200 species, predominantly distributed in the Neotropical region. The genus is not monophyletic and is paraphyletic with respect to Eosalpingogaster and Toxomerus; several subgenera have been elevated to full generic status (Hybobathus, Pelecinobaccha, Orphnabaccha, Pseudoscaeva). Many species await formal description, while others are likely to be synonymized upon further study.
Ocyptamus gastrostactus
Spotted Hover Fly
Ocyptamus gastrostactus is a predatory hover fly in the family Syrphidae. Its larvae are specialized predators of aphids, with documented predation on Sarucallis kahawaluokalani on Lagerstroemia indica in Panama. The species serves as a host for the parasitoid wasp Pachyneuron albutius, which parasitizes its pupae. It is widely distributed across Brazil and has been recorded in Panama.
Ocypus
Ocypus is a genus of rove beetles in the subfamily Staphylininae, containing approximately 176 described species distributed across the Palearctic, Nearctic, and Oriental regions. The genus includes the well-known Ocypus olens (devil's coach-horse beetle), a large, predatory species with documented potential for biological control of pest snails. Several species have been introduced outside their native ranges, including O. nitens, which has established in North America and shown rapid range expansion. The genus exhibits considerable diversity in China, with numerous species described from Sichuan, Gansu, Yunnan, and other provinces.
Ocypus olens
Devil's Coach-horse Beetle, Devil's Coach-horse, Devil's Footman, Devil's Steed
Ocypus olens, commonly known as the Devil's Coach-horse Beetle, is a large rove beetle in the family Staphylinidae. Originally described as Staphylinus olens in 1764, this species has a long history of association with folklore and superstition across Europe, particularly in Ireland where it was known as 'Dar Daol' (the Devil's beetle). The beetle is a formidable predator with an intimidating defensive posture—raising its curled abdomen like a scorpion when threatened. In North America, it has been introduced to California where field studies suggest it may serve as a biological control agent for the brown garden snail (Helix aspersa), an agricultural pest.
Odynerus
potter wasps, mason wasps
Odynerus is a primarily Holarctic genus of potter wasps in the subfamily Eumeninae. The genus has been widely used as a root for constructing names of other potter wasp genera with non-petiolated metasoma, including Euodynerus, Acarodynerus, Stenodynerus, Parodontodynerus, and Incodynerus. Species within this genus are solitary wasps that construct nests using mud or soil, often with distinctive turrets or chimneys. The genus contains hundreds of species, with Odynerus spinipes being particularly notable for exhibiting exceptional intrasexual cuticular hydrocarbon dimorphism in females.
Odynerus dilectus
A potter wasp species in the subfamily Eumeninae, recorded from the United States and Alberta, Canada. Females construct distinctive turrets at nest entrances and provision nests with prey, primarily alfalfa weevil larvae in agricultural contexts, though small caterpillars have also been documented as prey. The species has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for alfalfa weevil (Hypera postica) in integrated pest management programs.
Oebalus insularis
island stink bug, coffee-colored rice bug
Oebalus insularis is a stink bug species in the family Pentatomidae that has emerged as a significant agricultural pest in rice-growing regions of the Americas. Originally described from tropical and subtropical regions, it has established populations in Florida rice fields since at least 1932, where it became the second most abundant stink bug species in surveys conducted in 2008-2009. The species feeds on developing rice grains using piercing-sucking mouthparts, causing 'pecky rice' damage that reduces crop yield and quality. Its economic importance has prompted research into biological control agents, including egg parasitoids in the genus Telenomus.
Olesicampe
Olesicampe is a genus of ichneumonid wasps containing at least 130 described species. Species in this genus are parasitoids of sawfly larvae (Hymenoptera: Symphyta), with documented associations to hosts in the genera Pristiphora and Cephalcia. Several species have been introduced as classical biological control agents against larch sawfly and mountain ash sawfly pests in North America, where they have established successfully and achieved significant host population suppression. The genus is native to the Palaearctic region.
Olesicampe benefactor
Olesicampe benefactor is a European ichneumonid wasp introduced to eastern North America as a biological control agent for the larch sawfly (Pristiphora erichsonii), a forest pest. Small numbers (147–388 individuals) were released in Maine, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick in 1967. The species successfully established at multiple sites, surviving two to three winters at several locations. It disperses slowly, which may limit its effectiveness over large areas without multiple release points.
Olibrus
shining flower beetles
Olibrus is a genus of shining flower beetles (family Phalacridae) containing at least 30 described species. Members are small beetles associated with Asteraceae flowers, where they develop and feed. The genus has been studied for its potential in biological control of weedy Asteraceae species. Species occur across Europe and North America, with records from Scandinavia, Denmark, and the northeastern United States.
Oligosita
Oligosita is a genus of minute egg parasitoid wasps in the family Trichogrammatidae, established by Walker in 1851. Members of this genus are cosmopolitan in distribution and have been documented attacking eggs of diverse host groups including Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, and Thysanoptera. Specific species have been recorded as parasitoids of leafhopper eggs (Cicadellidae) in agricultural and natural systems across Italy, China, and North America. The genus is characterized by its small body size typical of trichogrammatids and distinctive morphological features used in species-level identification.
Oligota
Oligota is a genus of small rove beetles in the family Staphylinidae. Multiple species have been documented as predators of mites, particularly spider mites (Tetranychus urticae), and are studied for their potential use in biological control. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution with species recorded across North America, Europe, and Asia. Individual species show specialized predatory behaviors and habitat associations ranging from decaying organic matter to agricultural crop environments.
Olla
Lady beetle
Olla is a genus of lady beetles (Coccinellidae) in the subfamily Coccinellinae. Members of this genus are predatory beetles known for their role in biological control of pest insects. The genus includes species such as Olla v-nigrum, commonly known as the ash-gray lady beetle.
Olla v-nigrum
Ashy Gray Lady Beetle
Olla v-nigrum is a small lady beetle (Coccinellidae) native to the Americas, commonly known as the ashy gray lady beetle. The species exhibits striking color polymorphism, occurring in both gray-with-black-spots and black-with-red-spots forms. It has been widely introduced outside its native range for biological control of psyllids and aphids, though its effectiveness is often compromised by parasitism and competition with other lady beetles. The species name refers to the distinctive V-shaped marking on the pronotum originally described by Mulsant.
Oncideres rhodosticta
Mesquite Girdler
Oncideres rhodosticta is a twig-girdling longhorn beetle (Cerambycidae: Lamiinae) native to the southwestern United States and Mexico. Adults emerge in late summer (August–September) and feed on mesquite foliage. Females engage in distinctive girdling behavior, chewing complete rings through the bark and cambium of living mesquite twigs to create oviposition sites in the dying distal portions. Larvae develop within the dead twigs, completing a one-year life cycle. The species is economically significant as a pest of mesquite in rangeland and agricultural settings.
Onthophagini
Onthophagine dung beetles
Onthophagini is a large and ecologically significant tribe of dung beetles within the family Scarabaeidae. The tribe comprises approximately half of the world's dung beetle fauna, with the genus Onthophagus alone containing over 2,300 species worldwide. Members are found on every continent except Antarctica. The tribe originated from a single common ancestor shared with the Oniticellini, with which it forms a monophyletic group. While many dung beetles are known for ball-rolling behavior, Onthophagini species exhibit diverse feeding strategies including specialization on fungi, carrion, and dead millipedes, with some species living in close association with termites and ants.
Oobius
Oobius is a genus of parasitic non-stinging wasps in the family Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Species are specialized egg parasitoids of wood-boring beetles, particularly in the family Buprestidae (jewel beetles) and Cerambycidae (longhorn beetles). The genus has gained significant attention due to the use of O. agrili as a biological control agent against the invasive emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) in North America. Oobius species are small, morphologically cryptic wasps that are often distinguished by subtle differences in antennal structure and tarsomere count. Several species exhibit parthenogenetic reproduction and undergo diapause to synchronize their life cycles with host availability.
Oobius agrili
Oob
Oobius agrili is a tiny, solitary egg parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae, native to Northeast Asia. It is the only egg parasitoid released for biological control of the invasive emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) in North America, where it has been introduced in over 31 US states. The species is parthenogenic, produces multiple generations annually, and achieves partial phenological synchrony with its host's egg-laying period. Individual females can parasitize more than 60 host eggs, with field parasitism rates reaching 60% in optimal conditions.
Oodera
Oodera is the sole genus in the monotypic family Ooderidae, a group of chalcidoid wasps elevated to family rank in 2022. Species range from 3.6 to 17 mm and are distinguished by raptorial forelegs and a mantis-like habitus. Almost all species are parasitoids of xylophagous beetle larvae in families Buprestidae and Curculionidae. The genus occurs in warm regions of the Palearctic, Afrotropical, and Indomalayan realms, with one introduced species in the Nearctic.
Ooencyrtus
Ooencyrtus is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, established by William Harris Ashmead in 1900. The genus comprises approximately 320 recognized species as of 2017, making it one of the larger genera within Encyrtidae. Species of Ooencyrtus are primarily egg parasitoids, attacking eggs of various insects including true bugs, beetles, and moths. Several species have been investigated for biological control of agricultural pests, including O. kuvanae for gypsy moth control and O. nezarae for kudzu bug management.
Ooencyrtus kuvanae
gypsy moth egg parasitoid, spongy moth egg parasitoid
Ooencyrtus kuvanae is a solitary egg parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae, originally introduced to North America in 1908 for biological control of Lymantria moths. It has since become established as a natural enemy of the spongy moth (Lymantria dispar) and has been documented parasitizing the invasive spotted lanternfly (Lycorma delicatula) in North America. The species exhibits quasi-gregarious development, with females typically laying one offspring per host egg and adjusting sex ratios based on resource availability and local mate competition. Development from egg to adult takes 18–24 days, with males emerging approximately one day earlier than females.
Operophtera
winter moths
Operophtera is a genus of geometrid moths comprising approximately four recognized species, including the economically significant winter moth (O. brumata) and Bruce spanworm (O. bruceata). The genus is notable for its unusual winter-active adult phenology, with adults emerging and mating during cold months when most other Lepidoptera are dormant. Several species have been introduced outside their native ranges, with O. brumata established as an invasive defoliator in North America. The genus has become a model system for studying hybrid zone dynamics, as O. brumata and O. bruceata form a documented clinal hybrid zone in the northeastern United States.
Ophelimus
Eucalyptus gall wasps
Ophelimus is a genus of minute wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species in this genus are gall inducers, causing the formation of leaf galls on Eucalyptus plants. Several species, including O. maskelli and O. eucalypti, have become invasive pests in Eucalyptus plantations outside their native Australian range. The genus is subject to biological control efforts using parasitoids such as Closterocerus chamaeleon.
Ophelimus maskelli
eucalyptus gall wasp, Australian Eucalyptus Leafgall Wasp
Ophelimus maskelli is a minute chalcid wasp (approximately 1 mm long) native to Australia and New Zealand that has become invasive across multiple continents. Females oviposit on immature eucalyptus leaves, inducing leaf galls that host developing larvae. Heavy infestations cause widespread defoliation and growth loss in eucalyptus plantations. The species has been successfully suppressed in some regions through biological control using parasitoids, particularly Closterocerus chamaeleon and Stethynium ophelimi.
Ophiomyia camarae
Herring-bone Leafminer, Herringbone Leaf-miner
Ophiomyia camarae is a small leaf-mining fly (1.5–2 mm) native to the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and Florida. It has been introduced to multiple countries outside the Americas as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Lantana camara. The species exhibits strong host specificity, with larvae mining the leaves of Lantana species. Adults are distinguished by their shiny black bodies and red compound eyes.
Ophiomyia chondrillae
Ophiomyia chondrillae is a species of leaf-mining fly in the family Agromyzidae, described by Spencer in 1986. The species is known as a specialized herbivore of Chondrilla juncea (rush skeletonweed), a perennial weed of Eurasian origin that has become invasive in North America and Australia. It has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for this weed. The specific epithet reflects this host association.
Ophion
nocturnal ichneumon wasps
Ophion is a genus of nocturnal ichneumonid wasps in the subfamily Ophioninae. Members are typically orange to yellow in coloration and are endoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae. The genus exhibits exceptionally high morphological similarity among species, making identification difficult without molecular or detailed morphometric analysis. Most species are attracted to artificial lights at night. The genus has a worldwide distribution with greatest diversity in temperate regions.
Ophioninae
Short-tailed Ichneumonid Wasps
Ophioninae is a cosmopolitan subfamily of ichneumonid wasps comprising approximately 32–33 genera with exceptional diversity in tropical regions. These wasps are primarily koinobiont endoparasitoids of larval Lepidoptera, though at least one species parasitizes Scarabaeidae (Coleoptera). They are notable among parasitic wasps for possessing ovipositors capable of stinging vertebrates in self-defense. Adults are typically large, slender, and orange with compressed, curved abdomens, very large ocelli, and long antennae. They are predominantly nocturnal and strongly attracted to artificial light sources.
Ophraella bilineata
Skeletonizing leaf beetle
Ophraella bilineata is a species of skeletonizing leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. The species is characterized by its distinctive striped elytra and is found across North America. As a member of the Galerucinae subfamily, it exhibits the typical leaf beetle morphology with compact body form and herbivorous feeding habits.
Ophraella communa
ragweed leaf beetle
Ophraella communa is a small leaf beetle native to North America that has been introduced to Europe and Asia as a biological control agent for the invasive weed common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia). Adults and larvae feed on leaves and flowers of Asteraceae, with a strong preference for ragweed. The species has demonstrated rapid adaptive evolution of cold tolerance in newly colonized regions, facilitating northward expansion. Multiple mating is positively associated with fitness in this species, with females preferring larger males that confer reproductive advantages through seminal fluid proteins.
Oplomus
Oplomus is a genus of predatory stink bugs in the family Pentatomidae, subfamily Asopinae, containing approximately nine described species. The genus has been studied for biological control potential, particularly Oplomus dichrous as a predator of agricultural pests. Members are generalist predators with documented preferences for certain prey types.
Oplomus dichrous
Oplomus dichrous is a predatory stink bug in the family Pentatomidae. It has been investigated for its potential as a biological control agent against the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata), a major agricultural pest. The species occurs in Central and North America.
Orchestes
flea weevils
Orchestes is a genus of flea weevils (Curculionidae) comprising six species in North America and additional species in Eurasia. Members are small beetles (2–4 mm) associated with woody host plants, particularly trees in Ulmaceae and Fagaceae. The genus was historically confused with Rhynchaenus, from which it has been redefined. Several species are significant pests: O. steppensis is a destructive invasive of elms in China and North America, O. alni (European elm flea weevil) damages elms in Europe and North America, and O. fagi attacks beech trees. Larval habits vary—most are leaf miners, though O. hustachei uniquely parasitizes aphid galls.
Orgilus
Orgilus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae with nearly cosmopolitan distribution. Species within this genus are internal parasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, with documented hosts including pyralid and gelechiid moth pests. Several species have been studied as biological control agents for agricultural pests.
Oriini
minute pirate bugs
Oriini is a tribe of minute pirate bugs within the family Anthocoridae, comprising approximately 6 genera and more than 60 described species. Members are small predatory true bugs distributed across multiple continents. The tribe includes economically important genera such as Orius, which are widely used in biological pest control.
Orius insidiosus
insidious flower bug, minute pirate bug
Orius insidiosus, commonly known as the insidious flower bug or minute pirate bug, is a predatory true bug widely distributed across the Americas. Adults are approximately 2–3 mm in length, black with distinctive white wing markings. The species is an important biological control agent, mass-reared commercially for management of thrips, aphids, mites, and other agricultural pests in greenhouses and field crops. Both nymphs and adults are predatory, though they also feed on pollen and plant tissues, making them zoophytophagous. Despite their beneficial role, they occasionally bite humans, causing disproportionately painful but harmless irritation.
predatorbiological-controlzoophytophagousthrips-predatoraphid-predatormite-predatoragricultural-beneficialgreenhouse-biological-controloccasional-human-bitermass-rearedcommercial-natural-enemyintegrated-pest-managementurban-insect-ecologydiapauseoverwintering-adultendophytic-ovipositionpollen-feedingOrius vicinus
minute pirate bug
Orius vicinus is a predatory minute pirate bug (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) studied extensively for biological control potential. Under laboratory conditions at 26°C, it completes development from egg to adult in approximately 18–23 days, with females living 15–17 days and producing 31–61 eggs. The species exhibits Type II or Type III functional responses depending on prey stage, with adult prey generally preferred over eggs. It has been observed feeding on spider mites, whiteflies, thrips, and other small arthropods in agricultural settings. Unlike some congeners, O. vicinus does not enter reproductive diapause and continues oviposition through winter conditions.
Ormia
Ormia is a genus of nocturnal tachinid flies renowned for their exceptional sound localization abilities. Females are phonotactic parasitoids that locate hosts by detecting calling songs, then deposit larvae on or near crickets and katydids. The genus has become a model system in auditory neuroscience and bioinspired engineering due to its mechanically coupled ears that achieve directional precision rivaling human hearing despite minute interaural distances. Research has focused primarily on Ormia ochracea, though multiple species have been studied for biological control applications.
Ormiini
Ormiini is a tribe of tachinid flies distinguished by their specialized acoustic hunting behavior. Females possess a prothoracic tympanal hearing organ that enables phonotaxis toward the calling songs of host orthopterans. They are parasitoids of crickets and bush-crickets, depositing planidial larvae on or near hosts. The tribe includes approximately seven genera distributed across multiple continents.
Ormyridae
Ormyridae is a small family of parasitic wasps in the superfamily Chalcidoidea. Members are parasitoids or hyperparasitoids of gall-forming insects, primarily cynipid wasps and tephritid flies. The family comprises approximately 153 species across three subfamilies (Asparagobiinae, Hemadinae, Ormyrinae) and several genera, with the majority in the genus Ormyrus. Ormyridae has a cosmopolitan distribution but is almost entirely absent from South America. Adults of many species exhibit iridescent coloration and distinctive metasomal sculpturing.
Ormyrus
Ormyrus is a genus of small chalcid wasps in the family Ormyridae, containing approximately 145 described species. These wasps are parasitoids primarily associated with gall-forming insects, including cynipid gall wasps, chalcid wasps, gall midges, and tephritid fruit flies. The genus exhibits significant cryptic diversity, as demonstrated by the case of Ormyrus labotus, long considered a single generalist species attacking over 65 host species, but now recognized as a complex of at least 16–18 genetically distinct, morphologically identical specialist species. Ormyrus species are found across the Old World and North America.
Ornidia obesa
Green Jewel Fly
Ornidia obesa is a metallic green syrphid fly widely distributed across the Americas and introduced to the Old World. Adults are frequently observed in association with decomposing organic matter, particularly animal feces and compost. The species has been documented as a host for pteromalid parasitoids and is noted for harboring bacteria of public health significance.
Orphanostigma haemorrhoidalis
Lantana Leaftier
Orphanostigma haemorrhoidalis, commonly known as the lantana leaftier, is a crambid moth native to the Neotropical region including South America, Central America, Mexico, the Antilles, and the southern United States. The species has been deliberately introduced to several regions outside its native range—Hawaii (1956), Queensland (1958), Réunion, and Mauritius—as a biological control agent targeting invasive Lantana species. First described by Achille Guenée in 1854, this moth is also known under the synonym Salbia haemorrhoidalis. Its common name derives from the larval habit of tying leaves together with silk.
Ostrinia nubilalis
European corn borer, European corn worm, European high-flyer
The European corn borer is a non-native moth pest of corn and other crops in North America, Europe, and North Africa. Larvae bore into corn plants, causing damage to stems, ears, and leaves. Two pheromone strains exist: the Z strain (prevalent in the midwestern U.S.) and the E strain (more abundant in the eastern U.S. and Europe). Widespread adoption of Bt corn since 1996 has dramatically reduced populations in North America, with over 90% suppression reported in some regions.
Oulema melanopus
cereal leaf beetle
Oulema melanopus is a leaf beetle native to Eurasia that was introduced to North America in 1962, where it has since become a significant economic pest of small grain crops. The species is particularly damaging to spring wheat and oats, with outbreaks that are sporadic and difficult to predict. Larval feeding causes the most damage by skeletonizing leaves. Management relies on insecticides, though biological control using introduced parasitoids and host plant resistance breeding programs offer promising alternatives.
Oxybelus bipunctatus
square-headed wasp
A square-headed wasp in the family Crabronidae with a broad geographic distribution spanning Africa, Europe, Northern Asia (excluding China), and North America. The species exhibits seasonal variation in nesting behavior and is known to provision nests with paralyzed flies. Two subspecies are recognized: O. b. bipunctatus and O. b. thermophilus.
Oxydia
Oxydia is a genus of geometrid moths in the family Geometridae, first described by Achille Guenée in 1857. Species in this genus are distributed across the Americas, with several species recognized as forest pests of economic importance. The genus includes defoliator species that attack conifers, eucalyptus, and other woody plants. Larvae are commonly known as loopers or measuring worms due to their characteristic looping gait.
Oxydia vesulia
spurge spanworm moth
Oxydia vesulia is a geometrid moth with broad distribution across the Americas. In Brazil, it is a secondary pest of eucalyptus plantations, causing economic damage during population outbreaks. The species has been evaluated as a potential biological control agent for Brazilian peppertree but was rejected due to its wide host range spanning multiple plant families. It serves as host for the parasitoid Tetrastichus howardi, which has been investigated for integrated pest management.
Oxyna
Oxyna is a genus of tephritid fruit flies (Tephritidae) comprising at least 20 described species. Members of this genus are associated with Asteraceae host plants, with some species studied for their potential as biological control agents against invasive weeds. The genus has been documented in northern Europe including Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
Pachnaeus
broad-nosed weevils, citrus root weevils
Pachnaeus is a genus of broad-nosed weevils comprising approximately seven described species. Several species, notably P. litus and P. opalus, are economically significant pests of citrus, commonly referred to as citrus root weevils. The genus has been targeted for biological control research, with studies evaluating parasitoid wasps for management of P. litus populations.
Pachnaeus litus
blue-green citrus root weevil, blue-green citrus weevil
Pachnaeus litus is a broad-nosed weevil in the family Curculionidae, commonly known as the blue-green citrus root weevil or blue-green citrus weevil. It is a pest of citrus in North America, with eggs that serve as hosts for multiple parasitoid wasp species. The species has been studied extensively for biological control potential, particularly targeting its egg stage with parasitoids such as Brachyufens osborni (Trichogrammatidae), Pediobius irregularis, and Horismenus bennetti (Eulophidae).
Pachodynerus
potter wasps
Pachodynerus is a genus of approximately 50 species of solitary potter wasps in the subfamily Eumeninae. The genus exhibits highest diversity in central South America, with species distributed across the Neotropical and Nearctic regions. These wasps are cavity-nesters that construct mud cells in pre-existing holes, including abandoned insect burrows, plant stems, and human-made structures. Several species have been introduced beyond their native ranges, including P. nasidens which has established populations on oceanic islands and caused aviation safety incidents in Australia by nesting in aircraft pitot probes.
Pachodynerus erynnis
Red-marked Pachodynerus Wasp, Red and Black Mason Wasp
Pachodynerus erynnis is a solitary mason wasp that specializes in hunting caterpillars to provision its nests. Unlike social wasps, it does not form colonies but constructs individual nests in pre-existing cavities. The species is valued as a biological control agent, targeting economically significant caterpillar pests including armyworms, cutworms, and loopers. Its frequent visits to flowers for nectar make it a minor pollinator as well.
Pachodynerus guadulpensis
Pachodynerus guadulpensis is a solitary mason wasp native to the Americas, ranging from Mexico through Central America into the southern United States (Arizona, California, Texas). This species belongs to the potter and mason wasp subfamily Eumeninae. Females construct linear nests of cylindrical mud cells in pre-existing cavities, primarily provisioning them with paralyzed caterpillars as food for their larvae. The species exhibits distinctive abdominal coloration with an extra yellow stripe across the front of the abdomen that separates it from its congener P. nasidens.
Pachodynerus nasidens
Keyhole Wasp
Pachodynerus nasidens, commonly known as the keyhole wasp, is a solitary mason wasp in the family Vespidae, subfamily Eumeninae. Native to the Neotropics, it has been introduced to Hawaii, Micronesia, Australia, and the northern United States. The species exhibits remarkable nesting plasticity, utilizing abandoned insect galleries, human-made cavities, and even aircraft pitot tubes. Females provision nests with paralyzed caterpillars as food for their larvae. The species has gained notoriety for causing aviation safety incidents by blocking pitot probes with mud nests, leading to unreliable airspeed readings.
Pachodynerus pulverulentus
Keyhole wasp
Pachodynerus pulverulentus is a solitary mason wasp in the subfamily Eumeninae, commonly known as a keyhole wasp. It belongs to a genus of wasps that utilize pre-existing cavities in wood—such as abandoned beetle galleries, old nail holes, or hollow twigs—as nesting sites. Like other Pachodynerus species, females provision these cavities with paralyzed caterpillars as food for their developing larvae. The species was described by Viereck in 1908 and is part of a group of wasps known for their opportunistic nesting behavior and importance as biological control agents of caterpillar pests.
Pachyneuron
Pachyneuron is a cosmopolitan genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Pteromalidae, comprising approximately 60 valid species. Species are primarily hyperparasitoids of Sternorrhyncha (aphids, coccids, and psyllids), attacking the primary parasitoids of these herbivores. Some species also hyperparasitize predatory insects such as ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae) and lacewings (Chrysopidae) via their parasitoids. Certain species, including P. aphidis and P. albutius, have been documented as direct parasitoids of dipteran larvae or pupae. The genus has been studied in the context of biological control, where hyperparasitism may interfere with pest management programs.
Pachypsylla celtidisumbilicus
Hackberry Disc Gall Psyllid
Pachypsylla celtidisumbilicus is a species of hackberry psyllid that produces distinctive disc-shaped galls on hackberry leaves (Celtis spp.). Adults emerge in fall and seek shelter to overwinter, often becoming household nuisances when they congregate on building exteriors. The species is one of at least seven Pachypsylla species associated with hackberry in North America, each producing a characteristic gall morphology.
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Signal Crayfish
The signal crayfish is a large North American freshwater crayfish introduced to Europe in the 1960s to replace declining native fisheries. It has become one of the most ecologically impactful invasive decapods in Europe, outcompeting native crayfish and serving as a carrier of crayfish plague (Aphanomyces astaci). The species establishes self-sustaining populations rapidly, with six age cohorts documented within a few years of introduction. It shows sex- and size-specific coloration patterns, with males displaying more saturated and brighter ventral claw surfaces than females, suggesting a role in intraspecific communication.
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nigripes
Pagasa nigripes is a small, dark damsel bug in the family Nabidae. Like other members of its genus, it is ground-dwelling and has a compact, beetle-like appearance. The species exhibits wing dimorphism, with individuals either fully winged or having reduced, non-functional wing pads. As a nabid, it is a predatory true bug with raptorial front legs adapted for capturing prey.
Palmodes
Palmodes is a genus of thread-waisted wasps in the family Sphecidae, comprising more than 20 described species. These solitary wasps are known for hunting katydids (Tettigoniidae), particularly large species such as Mormon crickets, which they paralyze and provision in underground burrows for their larval offspring. The genus has attracted scientific attention due to its role as a host for kleptoparasitic wasps in the genus Stizoides.
Panaphis
Panaphis is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, subfamily Calaphidinae. The best-known species, Panaphis juglandis, is a destructive pest of walnut trees (Juglans spp.) and forms mutualistic associations with tending ants. Ants protect these aphids from predators such as lady beetles in exchange for honeydew. The genus has been documented in parts of Europe including Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
Panaphis juglandis
Walnut Aphid, Large Walnut Aphid
Panaphis juglandis, the large walnut aphid, is a phloem-feeding pest of walnut trees (Juglans regia). It colonizes exclusively the upper (adaxial) surface of walnut compound leaves, forming dense colonies along the main vascular veins of the outer leaflets. Native to the Old World (Central Asia and southeastern Europe), it has spread across Europe and was introduced to California in the early 20th century. The species reduces tree vigor, nut yield, and quality, and excretes honeydew that promotes sooty mold growth. It forms mutualistic relationships with ant species that tend and protect colonies from predators.
Pandemis pyrusana
apple pandemis, pandemis leafroller moth
Pandemis pyrusana is a tortricid moth native to western North America, commonly known as the apple pandemis or pandemis leafroller moth. It is a significant pest of deciduous fruit trees and ornamental plants, with larvae feeding on leaves by rolling and tying them together. The species has one or two generations per year depending on location, with adults active in late spring and again in autumn in coastal California.
Panonychus
spider mites
Panonychus is a genus of spider mites in the family Tetranychidae, established by Yokoyama in 1929. The genus comprises approximately 16 described species, including several economically significant agricultural pests. Notable species include Panonychus citri (citrus red mite), a major pest of citrus crops, and Panonychus ulmi (European red mite or fruit tree red spider mite), which attacks deciduous fruit and forest trees. These mites are characterized by their phytophagous feeding habits and have developed resistance to numerous pesticides.
Panonychus citri
Citrus Red Mite
Panonychus citri, commonly known as the citrus red mite, is a major agricultural pest of citrus orchards with a global distribution spanning Asia, the Mediterranean Basin, North America, South America, and Africa. The mite feeds by sucking cytoplasm from plant cells, causing chlorotic spots, premature leaf fall, brown skin discoloration, rough skin texture, and stunted fruit growth. Severe infestations can reduce fruit yields by up to 70%. The species has developed resistance to more than 23 pesticides due to extensive acaricide use, making integrated pest management strategies increasingly important. Research indicates that local factors, particularly citrus plant canopy density, significantly influence population dynamics more than landscape-scale factors.
Panzeria
Panzeria is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) in the tribe Ernestiini, containing approximately 80 described species distributed across the Holarctic region. Species within this genus are parasitoids, with at least one species, Panzeria ampelus, documented as an occasional parasitoid of agricultural pest Lepidoptera. The genus was established by Robineau-Desvoidy in 1830 and includes species described by numerous dipteran taxonomists across the 19th and 20th centuries.
Paracrias
Paracrias is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae, occurring exclusively in the New World with greatest diversity in the tropics. Larvae are gregarious parasitoids of immature stages of beetles, primarily within Curculionoidea. Host records include weevils (Curculionidae), leaf-rolling weevils (Attelabidae), and bruchine seed beetles (Chrysomelidae). The genus has been studied for its potential as a biological control agent of seed and bud pests.
Paradejeania
Spiny Tachinid Fly, Hedgehog Fly
Paradejeania is a genus of tachinid flies comprising four described species. The genus is characterized by an exceptionally spiny abdomen, earning species like P. rutilioides the common name "Hedgehog Fly." These are large, robust flies that visit flowers for nectar and function as parasitoids of caterpillars. The genus occurs in western North America, with adults active primarily in late summer and fall.
Paradejeania rutilioides
spiny tachina fly, hedgehog fly
Paradejeania rutilioides is a large, robust tachinid fly known for its heavily spined abdomen. It is commonly called the "hedgehog fly" due to this distinctive appearance. Adults are active in late summer and fall, frequently visiting flowers for nectar. The species is a documented parasitoid of caterpillars, specifically recorded from Edwards' Glassy-wing moth (Hemihyalea edwardsii).
Paradejeania rutilioides nigrescens
Spiny Tachinid Fly, Hedgehog Fly
Paradejeania rutilioides nigrescens is a subspecies of the spiny tachinid fly, a large, robust parasitoid fly in the family Tachinidae. It is distinguished from the nominate subspecies by darker coloration. The species is known from western North America, where adults are active in late summer and fall, commonly visiting flowers of rabbitbrush and other late-season blooms. Like other tachinids, it parasitizes caterpillars, with documented hosts including tiger moths in the family Erebidae.
Paradejeania rutilioides rutilioides
Spiny Tachinid Fly, Hedgehog Fly
Paradejeania rutilioides rutilioides is a large tachinid fly, the nominate subspecies of the Spiny Tachinid Fly. It is distinguished by its robust build, heavily spined abdomen, and subdued orange coloration. Adults are active in late summer and fall, frequently observed visiting flowers. The species is a known parasitoid of caterpillars, specifically documented from Edwards' Glassy-wing moth (Hemihyalea edwardsii).
Paragus
Grass Skimmer Flies
Paragus is a genus of hoverflies (family Syrphidae) comprising over 100 species distributed worldwide except Antarctica. The genus is notable for its predatory larvae that feed on aphids, making it an important group for biological control. Adults are frequently observed visiting small flowering plants for nectar and pollen. Several subgenera are recognized, including Afroparagus, Pandasyopthalmus, Paragus, and Serratoparagus.
Paragus angustifrons
Narrow-faced Grass Skimmer
Paragus angustifrons is a species of hoverfly (Syrphidae) found in North America. Adults are commonly known as flower flies and visit flowers to obtain nectar and pollen. The species is considered uncommon. The larvae have been reared from aphids, specifically Aphis spiraecola and Aphis spiraephila, indicating a role as a predator of these agricultural pests.
Paraleyrodes
nesting whiteflies, Bondar's nesting whitefly (for P. bondari), fig whitefly (for P. minei)
Paraleyrodes is a genus of whiteflies in the subfamily Aleurodicinae, commonly known as nesting whiteflies due to the woolly wax nests constructed by females around egg masses. The genus includes economically significant invasive species such as P. bondari (Bondar's nesting whitefly) and P. minei, which are pests of coconut, citrus, fig, avocado, and ornamental plants. Species in this genus are characterized by distinctive waxy secretions, sessile nymphal stages, and polyphagous feeding habits on woody plants.
whiteflyinvasive-pestagricultural-pestornamental-pestAleurodicinaecoconut-pestcitrus-pestfig-pestavocado-pestwoolly-wax-nestspolyphagousphloem-feederhoneydew-producersooty-moldFlorida-pestCalifornia-pestIndia-pestBangladesh-pestCroatia-pestGreece-pestnatural-enemiesbiological-controlintegrated-pest-managementParammoplanus
Parammoplanus is a genus of aphid wasps established by Pate in 1939. It contains approximately 19 described species. The genus belongs to the tribe Ammoplanina within the subfamily Pemphredoninae, a group of solitary wasps that specialize on aphid prey. These wasps are small, predatory insects that provision their nests with paralyzed aphids for their larvae.
Parania
Parania is a genus of ichneumonid wasps described by Morley in 1913. Species in this genus function as parasitoids of moth larvae. Parania geniculata has been documented as a parasitoid of Homadaula anisocentra, a plutellid moth that defoliates Albizia trees. The genus has limited observation records and appears to be rarely collected.
Paranthrene tabaniformis
dusky clearwing, dusky clearwing moth, poplar clearwing moth
Paranthrene tabaniformis, the dusky clearwing moth, is a sesiid moth native to the Palearctic and Nearctic realms. The species exhibits Batesian mimicry of wasps, with transparent wings and wasp-like coloration. Adults are active from May to August, with flight activity varying by location. The larvae are wood-borers that develop through 6-7 instars, feeding internally on poplar, willow, and sea-buckthorn before pupating in chambers within larval galleries.
Paraolinx
Paraolinx is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Eulophidae, first described by Ashmead in 1894. The genus belongs to the subfamily Eulophinae and is part of the diverse parasitoid wasp fauna associated with various insect hosts. Records indicate presence in Brazil (Minas Gerais). The genus is included in phylogenetic analyses of the tribe Cirrospilini, a group of eulophine wasps that includes many parasitoids of leaf-mining and other concealed-feeding insects.
Parapoynx
China-mark moths
Parapoynx is a genus of aquatic moths in the family Crambidae, subfamily Acentropinae, established by Jacob Hübner in 1825. The genus contains approximately 60 described species distributed across Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Americas. Many species have aquatic or semi-aquatic larvae that feed on submerged aquatic plants. Several species are of economic importance as pests of rice and other aquatic crops, while others have been investigated as potential biological control agents for invasive aquatic weeds such as hydrilla.
Parapoynx diminutalis
Hydrilla leafcutter moth
Parapoynx diminutalis is an Asian aquatic moth in the family Crambidae, first described from southeast Asia in 1880. The species has established adventive populations in North America (first recorded Florida 1976), Central America (Panama), Africa, and Europe (United Kingdom). Larvae are aquatic and feed on submerged macrophytes, with documented development on Hydrilla verticillata, Chara vulgaris, Ottelia alismoides, Blyxa auberti, and Cyperus rotundus. Despite early interest as a biological control agent for invasive hydrilla, its generalist feeding habits precluded intentional release.
Parasetigena
Parasetigena is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) containing at least two described species: P. silvestris and P. takaoi. Species in this genus are larval parasitoids, with P. silvestris documented as a specialized parasitoid of gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) larvae. These flies contribute to natural biological control of forest lepidopteran pests. The genus has been recorded from northern Europe (Denmark, Norway, Sweden) and is associated with woodland habitats where host larvae occur.
Parasetigena silvestris
Parasetigena silvestris is a tachinid fly and specialist parasitoid of the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar). Females deposit macrotype eggs directly onto host larvae, with strong selectivity for host instar—first instars are rejected, while second through fifth instars are accepted with increasing preference for larger hosts. The species exhibits a bimodal diel activity pattern with oviposition peaks in early morning and late afternoon. It locates hosts by searching vegetation and responds to host silk trails and frass as orientation cues. Superparasitism occurs in the field, with parasitoid eggs aggregated on certain hosts rather than randomly distributed.
Parasitiformes
mites and ticks
Parasitiformes is a superorder of arachnids constituting one of two major mite lineages, alongside Acariformes. The group includes ticks (Ixodida), the highly diverse predatory and parasitic Mesostigmata, the small scavenging Holothyrida, and the large segmented Opilioacarida. Over 12,000 species have been described, with estimates of 100,000–200,000 total species. Recent phylogenomic analyses indicate Parasitiformes is more closely related to other chelicerates (spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs) than to Acariformes, challenging the traditional unification of all 'mites' as a single natural group.
Parasitoidea
Parasitoidea is a superfamily of predatory mites in the order Mesostigmata, containing the single family Parasitidae. These relatively large mites are found worldwide in soil, humus, and forest floor litter. They prey on microarthropods and nematodes, with individual species typically specializing on a narrower range of prey. The group contains approximately 400 species across 29 genera and two subfamilies.
Parasteatoda tepidariorum
Common House Spider, American House Spider, Domestic Spider, Common Gray House Spider
Parasteatoda tepidariorum, the common house spider, is a small cobweb-weaving spider native to the Americas that has achieved cosmopolitan distribution through human commerce. It is strongly synanthropic, rarely found outside human-built structures. Females measure 5–8 mm in body length, males 3.8–4.7 mm, with variable coloration from tan to nearly black. The species constructs irregular three-dimensional webs in dark corners of buildings and has become a model organism for developmental biology research due to its short lifecycle, ease of laboratory culture, and accessible embryology.
Parasyrphus
Bristleside Flies
Parasyrphus is a genus of hoverflies (Syrphidae) comprising 31 described species distributed across the Holarctic region. Adults are small to medium-sized (5.6–11 mm) with characteristic yellow abdominal markings. The genus exhibits notable larval trophic diversity: most known larvae are aphid predators on trees, while at least two species (P. nigritarsis and P. melanderi) are specialist predators of leaf beetle eggs and larvae. This dietary specialization is unusual among syrphid flies and involves sophisticated chemical ecology where predators exploit prey defensive secretions as foraging cues.
Pareuchaetes
Pareuchaetes is a genus of arctiine tussock moths in the family Erebidae, erected by Augustus Radcliffe Grote in 1866. The genus contains six described species distributed from the southern United States to northern Argentina. Several species have been employed as biological control agents against the invasive weed Chromolaena odorata in Africa and Asia, with varying degrees of establishment success. The genus is notable for its specialist association with Chromolaena host plants and its use in classical biological control programs.
Pareuchaetes insulata
yellow-winged pareuchaetes
Pareuchaetes insulata is a moth in the family Erebidae, subfamily Arctiinae, first described by Francis Walker in 1855. Native to the Caribbean and southern United States, it has been introduced to South Africa as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Chromolaena odorata. The species exhibits high host specificity, with larvae feeding primarily on C. odorata. Adult moths have a wingspan of 26–38 mm and are active year-round, peaking from April to November.
Paropsis
tortoise beetles
Paropsis is a genus of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) comprising over 70 described species. Members are small, brightly colored, and hemispherical in shape, leading to frequent misidentification as ladybirds (Coccinellidae). The genus is native to Australasia and has become established in some regions outside its native range through accidental introduction. Several species are significant defoliators of Eucalyptus and are considered economic pests in forestry plantations.
Paropsis atomaria
Dotted Paropsine Leaf Beetle
Paropsis atomaria is a leaf beetle in the subfamily Chrysomelinae, native to eastern Australia. The species name 'atomaria' refers to its speckled or freckled appearance. It has become an economically significant pest of Eucalyptus plantations in Queensland and New South Wales, and has been introduced to the west coast of North America. Females produce up to 600 eggs, deposited at leaf or twig tips. The species typically completes two generations per summer across most of its range.
Paropsisterna
leaf beetles, eucalyptus leaf beetles
Paropsisterna is a genus of chrysomelid leaf beetles containing over 120 species native to Australia and Papua New Guinea. Many species exhibit bright aposematic coloration and feed on Myrtaceae, particularly Eucalyptus. Several species have become invasive pests in New Zealand and Europe, causing significant defoliation of eucalypt plantations and ornamental trees. The genus was redefined in 2006 to include species formerly placed in Chrysophtharta and other genera.
Passaloecus
Picket-boring Aphid Wasps
Passaloecus is a genus of small solitary wasps in the family Crabronidae, commonly known as picket-boring aphid wasps. The genus comprises approximately 40-48 species worldwide, with strong representation in both the Nearctic and Palearctic regions. These diminutive wasps, typically 6-8 mm in body length, are specialized predators of aphids and serve as important biological control agents. Females construct nests in pre-existing cavities such as beetle borings in dead wood, hollow stems, and artificial trap nests, provisioning cells with paralyzed or dead aphids for their larval offspring.
Passaloecus annulatus
Passaloecus annulatus is a small solitary wasp in the family Crabronidae, subfamily Pemphredoninae. Females hunt aphids as food for their larval offspring and also feed on aphid honeydew. The species nests in pre-existing cavities such as beetle borings in dead wood, hollow stems, or vacant galls, partitioning these into linear series of cells. It occurs across North America.
Patelloa
Patelloa is a genus of tachinid flies established by Townsend in 1916. At least 17 species are recognized, distributed primarily in North America. One well-studied species, P. pachypyga, is a larval parasitoid of the forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria) and uses host-damaged foliage as a kairomone cue for host location.
Patelloa pachypyga
Patelloa pachypyga is a tachinid fly and a principal larval parasitoid of the forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria) in Canada. The species locates hosts using olfactory cues, including volatiles from host frass and specific host plant species. It has been documented to preferentially locate hosts on aspen poplar (Populus tremuloides) compared to balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera).
Pediobius alcaeus
Pediobius alcaeus is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae, first described by Walker in 1839. It belongs to a genus known for biological control of agricultural pests. The species has been recorded in multiple Canadian provinces including Alberta, British Columbia, Nova Scotia, and Ontario. Like other Pediobius species, it likely functions as a parasitoid of insect hosts, though specific biological details for this species remain poorly documented in available sources.
Pelecinobaccha costata
Cobalt Hover Fly
Pelecinobaccha costata, commonly known as the cobalt hover fly, is a North American hoverfly in the family Syrphidae. The species is recognized by its distinctive coloration and is distributed across southern Ontario and the eastern United States. Its larvae are specialized predators of scale insects, making it a beneficial species in agricultural and natural ecosystems.
Peleteria
Peleteria is a widespread genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising approximately 100 described species distributed across multiple continents. Members of this genus are larval endoparasitoids of various insect hosts, including caterpillars and other herbivorous insects. The genus is taxonomically divided into several subgenera based on morphological characters. Peleteria species contribute to natural biological control of agricultural and forest pests.
Peleteria anaxias
Peleteria anaxias is a species of tachinid fly in the family Tachinidae. As a parasitoid, its larvae develop inside host insects, typically consuming them from within. The species is found in North America and has been documented visiting flowers, including lavender. Tachinid flies in this genus are recognized by distinctive morphological features and serve as biological control agents against various pest insects.
Peleteria haemorrhoa
Peleteria haemorrhoa is a species of tachinid fly in the family Tachinidae. Like other tachinids, it functions as a parasitoid, with larvae developing inside host insects. The genus Peleteria is characterized by two prominent setae positioned in front of the lower part of the eye. Adults have been observed visiting flowers, including lavender, where they may feed on nectar and function as pollinators.
Peleteria iterans
Peleteria iterans is a tachinid fly species native to North America. As a parasitoid, its larvae develop inside and consume host insects, typically killing them in the process. Adult females have been observed visiting flowers, including lavender, where they feed on nectar and may search for hosts. The species belongs to a genus characterized by distinctive bristle patterns near the eyes.
Pemphredon
Typical Aphid Wasps, Aphid Wasps
Pemphredon is a genus of small to medium-sized solitary wasps in the family Crabronidae, commonly known as aphid wasps. The genus contains approximately 37 recognized species distributed across the Holarctic and northern Oriental regions. Females are specialized predators of aphids, which they hunt to provision nest cells for their larvae. These wasps are considered beneficial insects in agricultural and garden settings due to their role in aphid population control.
Pemphredon inornata
aphid wasp
Pemphredon inornata is a small solitary wasp in the family Crabronidae, commonly known as an aphid wasp. The species hunts aphids as prey for its larvae, paralyzing them and transporting them to nest cavities in hollow stems, twig pith, or pre-existing holes in wood. It is one of approximately 20 recognized Pemphredon species in North America north of Mexico. The wasp has been documented exhibiting rapid, evasive flight that allows it to bypass ant guards at aphid colonies.
Pemphredonina
Pemphredonina is a subtribe of small aphid-hunting wasps within the family Crabronidae. Members are solitary predators that provision nests with aphids as food for their larvae. The subtribe includes genera such as Passaloecus, which are notable for their ecological role in aphid population control and their use of pre-existing cavities for nesting.
Pemphredoninae
Aphid Wasps
Pemphredoninae is a large subfamily of solitary, parasitoidal wasps in the family Crabronidae, containing over 1,000 species. Members are commonly known as aphid wasps due to the prevalence of aphid predation in many genera, though prey preferences vary consistently by genus. The subfamily has historically been treated as a separate family. Most species nest in pre-existing cavities including hollow stems, twigs, beetle borings, or excavated tunnels in soil or plant material. Several genera exhibit social or communal nesting behaviors, including Microstigmus and Spilomena.
Pemphredonini
Pemphredonini is a tribe of small, solitary wasps within the subfamily Pemphredoninae (family Crabronidae). These apoid wasps are commonly known as aphid wasps due to their specialized predation on aphids and other small Hemiptera. The tribe contains multiple genera, including the widespread Pemphredon. Adults are often observed visiting flowers for nectar.
Pentatomoidea
stink bugs, shield bugs, jewel bugs, giant shield bugs, burrower bugs
Pentatomoidea is a superfamily of true bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) comprising approximately 7,000 species across 21 families (16 extant, 5 extinct). Members are characterized by a prominent scutellum, five-segmented antennae, and tarsi with two or three segments. The group includes economically significant agricultural pests such as the brown marmorated stink bug, as well as predatory species that serve as biological control agents.
Pentelicus
Pentelicus is a genus of parasitic wasps in the family Encyrtidae, subfamily Encyrtinae. The genus was established by Howard in 1895. Species in this genus are parasitoids, though specific host associations remain poorly documented in available literature. The genus is represented in museum collections including the UCR Encyrtidae collection, which holds specimens of Pentelicus aldrichi and additional undetermined Pentelicus species.
Penthobruchus
Penthobruchus is a genus of bruchine beetles (formerly placed in family Bruchidae, now subfamily Bruchinae within Chrysomelidae) established by Kingsolver in 1973. At least one species, Penthobruchus germaini, has been investigated as a biological control agent for the invasive tree Parkinsonia aculeata. The genus is poorly documented in public sources, with limited biological information available beyond host associations.
Penthobruchus germaini
Palo Verde seed beetle
Penthobruchus germaini is a seed beetle in the family Chrysomelidae (formerly placed in Bruchidae, now treated as the subfamily Bruchinae). It has been studied as a biological control agent for Parkinsonia aculeata, a woody legume invasive in rangelands. The species specializes on seeds of this host plant, with larvae developing inside pods.
Pentodontini
rhinoceros beetles
Pentodontini is the most diverse tribe within the subfamily Dynastinae (rhinoceros beetles), containing over 100 genera distributed across multiple biogeographic regions. Most genera are restricted to a single biogeographic region. The tribe is characterized by substantial morphological diversity, with generic-level identification often relying on mouthpart morphology in females and secondary sexual characters (horns, claw modifications, antennal club length) in males.
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hconnectivity-conservationcorridorbuffer-zoneprotected-areanational-parknature-reservewildlife-refugewilderness-areaworld-heritage-sitebiosphere-reserveRamsar-siteImportant-Bird-AreaKey-Biodiversity-AreaAlliance-for-Zero-Extinction-siteconservation-priorityhotspotcrisis-ecoregionglobal-200last-of-the-wildhuman-footprintcumulative-impactthreat-indexvulnerability-indexadaptive-capacityexposuresensitivityresilienceresistancerecoveryrestorationrehabilitationreintroductiontranslocationex-situin-situcaptive-breedingbotanic-gardenzoogene-bankseed-banktissue-banksperm-bankoocyte-bankembryo-bankDNA-bankfrozen-zooarkinsurancesafety-netde-extinctiongenetic-rescuegenetic-restorationgenetic-augmentationgenetic-managementpopulation-managementmetapopulationsource-sinkpatchmatrixlandscapeseascapeecosystembiomeecoregionprovincezoneregiondistrictsitelocalityhabitatmicrohabitatnicheecological-nichefundamental-nicherealized-nichetrophic-nichespatial-nichetemporal-nichebiotic-nicheabiotic-nichemultidimensional-nichen-dimensional-nicheHutchinsonian-nicheGrinnellian-nicheEltonian-nicheresourcerequirementlimitationstressdisturbanceperturbationfluctuationvariabilityheterogeneitycomplexitydiversityredundancystabilitypersistenceadaptationacclimationplasticityevolvabilityheritabilityselectiondriftflowmutationrecombinationspeciationcoalescencedivergenceconvergenceparallelismhomoplasyanalogyhomologysynapomorphysymplesiomorphyautapomorphyapomorphyplesiomorphyderivedancestralprimitiveadvancedbasalcrownstemnodebranchcladegradesubfamilyfamilysuperfamilyinfraordersuborderordersuperorderinfraclasssubclassclasssuperclasssubphylumphylumsuperphylumkingdomdomainlifeorganismindividualetc.Pergamasus
Pergamasus is a genus of predatory mites in the family Parasitidae, comprising approximately 70 described species distributed across the Northern Hemisphere. These soil-dwelling gamasid mites inhabit forest litter, mosses, and upper soil layers, where they function as generalist predators of small invertebrates. Several species have been documented as predators of tick nymphs, suggesting potential ecological significance in tick population control. The genus exhibits notable morphological diversity, with species groups defined primarily by male genital and leg characters.
Pergidae
pergid sawflies
Pergidae is the third-largest family of sawflies (Hymenoptera: Symphyta), with approximately 450 described species. The family is distributed primarily in the Australasian and Neotropical regions, with South America and Australia representing the greatest diversity. Members exhibit considerable morphological variation in antennae structure, ranging from simple to pectinate or bipectinate forms, and frequently display sexual dimorphism. Several species are economically significant as agricultural pests or livestock toxins, while others have been evaluated as biological control agents.
Perilampus
Perilampus is a genus of minute parasitic wasps in the family Perilampidae, ranging from 1.3–5.5 mm in length. Many species exhibit brilliant metallic green or blue coloration, though some are entirely black. The genus is notable for its complex hyperparasitic life cycle, involving a mobile planidium larva that actively seeks hosts. Approximately 260–277 species are recognized worldwide, with 36 species recorded from North America north of Mexico.
Perilitini
Perilitini is a small tribe of braconid wasps in the subfamily Microgastrinae. Members are koinobiont endoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, primarily associated with hosts in the family Noctuidae (owlet moths). The tribe is characterized by reduced wing venation and a compact body form. Taxonomic boundaries within Perilitini have been historically unstable, with some genera transferred to or from related tribes based on molecular phylogenetic studies.
Perillus
predatory stink bugs
Perillus is a genus of predatory stink bugs in the family Pentatomidae, native to North America. The genus contains approximately seven described species, with Perillus bioculatus (two-spotted stink bug) being the most extensively studied due to its use as a biological control agent against the Colorado potato beetle. Members of this genus are characterized by their predatory habits, using piercing-sucking mouthparts to immobilize prey with toxic venom before liquefying and consuming tissues. Several species have been introduced to Europe and Asia for biocontrol purposes, with P. bioculatus establishing expanding populations in southeastern Europe.
Perillus bioculatus
two-spotted stink bug, double-eyed soldier bug
Perillus bioculatus is a predatory stink bug native to North America that has been introduced to Europe and Asia as a biological control agent. Both nymphs and adults are specialized predators of Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) eggs and larvae, using toxic venom and digestive enzymes to subdue and liquefy prey. The species has established expanding populations in southeastern Europe, with recent records from Serbia, Hungary, Romania, and Turkey. Research demonstrates its ability to locate prey by detecting volatile compounds released by beetle-damaged potato plants.
Perillus circumcinctus
Perillus circumcinctus is a predatory stink bug in the family Pentatomidae, native to North America. It is one of several predatory species in the genus Perillus, closely related to the well-studied two-spotted stink bug (Perillus bioculatus). Like other predatory pentatomids, it hunts insect prey using piercing-sucking mouthparts to inject digestive enzymes and consume liquefied tissues. The species has been documented from Vermont and other parts of North America.
Perillus confluens
Perillus confluens is a species of predatory stink bug in the family Pentatomidae. It is found in Central America and North America. As a member of the genus Perillus, it is a predaceous true bug that actively hunts and kills prey using toxic venom and digestive enzymes.
Perillus lunatus
Perillus lunatus is a species of predatory stink bug in the family Pentatomidae, described by Knight in 1952. Like other members of the genus Perillus, it belongs to the subfamily Asopinae, which contains predatory rather than phytophagous stink bugs. The genus Perillus is best known for P. bioculatus, the two-spotted stink bug, a significant biological control agent of the Colorado potato beetle. Perillus lunatus shares the predatory habits characteristic of this genus, though specific details of its biology are less documented than those of its congener P. bioculatus.
Perillus strigipes
Perillus strigipes is a predatory stink bug in the family Pentatomidae, native to North America. It belongs to the subfamily Asopinae, a group of predatory stink bugs that actively hunt insect prey. Like its congener Perillus bioculatus (the two-spotted stink bug), it is presumed to be a beneficial predator in agricultural and garden ecosystems, though specific ecological studies on this species are limited. The genus Perillus is notable for including species that prey on pest insects such as Colorado potato beetle.
Perithous scurra pleuralis
Perithous scurra pleuralis is a subspecies of ichneumon wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. As a member of the genus Perithous, it is a parasitoid wasp known to target the nests of solitary wasps, particularly those of aphid-hunting Pemphredon wasps. The species was described by Cresson in 1868.
Peucetia
Green Lynx Spiders
Peucetia is a genus of lynx spiders (family Oxyopidae) distributed worldwide, containing approximately 47 species as of 2025. The genus is notable for its association with plants bearing glandular trichomes, a specialized ecological relationship that has evolved independently across multiple continents. North American species include P. viridans, the largest lynx spider on the continent, and P. longipalpis in the southwestern United States. Several species exhibit complex maternal care behaviors and occupy distinct microhabitats that facilitate coexistence of sympatric congeners.
Phaenocarpa
Phaenocarpa is a genus of koinobiont endoparasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae (subfamily Alysiinae, tribe Alysiini). Species are known to parasitize dipteran larvae, with documented hosts including families Anthomyiidae, Chloropidae, Clusiidae, Drosophilidae, Muscidae, Scathophagidae, Sciomyzidae, and Syrphidae. Adults emerge from host puparia using specialized exodont mandible teeth. The genus has cosmopolitan distribution with records from Europe, Asia, and Australia, and has been studied for potential biological control applications against pest flies.
Phalacrotophora
scuttle flies
Phalacrotophora is a genus of scuttle flies (Diptera: Phoridae) comprising at least 50 described species. Species in this genus are parasitoids of ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae), attacking host pupae. Documented hosts include Anatis ocellata, Olla v-nigrum, and Harmonia axyridis. The genus has been recorded from Europe and the Pacific region.
Phalangium opilio
European Harvestman, Common Harvestman, Brown Harvestman, Daddy Longlegs
Phalangium opilio is the most widespread harvestman species globally, native to Europe and much of Asia and introduced to North America, North Africa, and New Zealand. It is a synanthropic species that thrives in human-modified environments including agricultural fields, gardens, and urban green spaces. The species has become a model organism for arachnid developmental biology and comparative genomics due to its ease of laboratory culture and continuous life cycle. Adults are generalist predators and scavengers that contribute to biological pest control in agricultural systems.
Phanacis hypochoeridis
Catsear Gall Wasp
Phanacis hypochoeridis is a gall wasp in the family Cynipidae. It induces galls on plants in the Asteraceae family, specifically on catsear (Hypochaeris radicata) and related species. The species is native to Europe and has been introduced to other regions including Oceania. As a gall-former, it manipulates host plant tissue to create a protective structure for its developing larvae.
Phanerotoma
Phanerotoma is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Cheloninae, with at least 190 described species. Species within this genus are primarily larval or ovo-larval parasitoids of Lepidoptera, particularly moths in families Pyralidae, Gracillariidae, and Olethreutidae. Several species have been studied for their potential as biological control agents of agricultural pests, including stored product pests and crop pests on cowpea, citrus, pecan, and litchi. The genus exhibits host-specificity at the species level, with different Phanerotoma species attacking distinct host groups.
Pharoscymnus
Pharoscymnus is a genus of lady beetles in the family Coccinellidae, established by Bedel in 1906. The genus comprises approximately 11 described species and is widely distributed across Asian and Afrotropical regions. Several species have been introduced to other regions, including Europe and the Americas, for biological control of scale insects. Members of this genus are recognized as specialized predators of scale insects (Coccoidea), with documented utility in agricultural pest management.
Phasgonophora
Phasgonophora is a genus of chalcidid wasps in the family Chalcididae, with at least two described species: Phasgonophora sulcata and Phasgonophora rugithorax. Members of this genus are solitary endoparasitoids of woodboring beetle larvae. Phasgonophora sulcata, the better-studied species, is native to North America and has been documented attacking Agrilus planipennis (emerald ash borer) as a novel host, as well as Agrilus bilineatus (twolined chestnut borer). The genus has gained attention for its potential role in biological control of invasive forest pests.
Phasgonophora algerti
Phasgonophora algerti is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Chalcididae. It belongs to the subfamily Phasgonophorinae, a group of chalcidid wasps that includes species associated with wood-boring beetles. The genus Phasgonophora contains native North American parasitoids that attack various wood-boring beetle larvae in trees.
Phasgonophora sulcata
Phasgonophora sulcata is a native North American chalcidid wasp and solitary endoparasitoid of woodboring beetles in the genus Agrilus. It has adopted the invasive emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) as a novel host and is under investigation as a biological control agent. Adult emergence occurs 20–24 days after host emergence at 21°C, with females emerging 5–6 days before males. Field parasitism rates range from 12% to 34%, with activity concentrated in ash trees below 360 cm height.
Phasia
Phasia is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) containing approximately 100 described species worldwide. Species are parasitoids of adult true bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera), particularly members of families Miridae and Pentatomidae. The genus was comprehensively revised in 2002, with six species-groups defined and 31 new species described from the Palearctic, Oriental, Afrotropical, and Australasian regions. Several genera previously treated as distinct have been synonymized with Phasia.
Phasiinae
bug-killing flies
Phasiinae is a subfamily of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising endoparasitoid species that primarily attack Heteroptera (true bugs). Members are commonly known as "bug-killing flies" and include important biological control agents of agricultural pests. The subfamily contains multiple tribes including Phasiini, Gymnosomatini, Trichopodini, Strongygastrini, and Parerigonini. Most species possess specialized adaptations for parasitoid life, including piercing structures for direct egg insertion into host tissues.
Phenacoccus
mealybug
Phenacoccus is a genus of mealybugs (family Pseudococcidae) containing at least 180 described species. Species in this genus are economically significant agricultural pests, with several species causing major damage to crops including cassava, cotton, and various ornamentals. The genus includes notable invasive species such as Phenacoccus manihoti (cassava mealybug), P. solenopsis (cotton mealybug), and P. madeirensis (Madeira mealybug). These insects are characterized by their soft bodies covered with white, powdery wax secretions. Several species have been targets of successful biological control programs, most famously the cassava mealybug control program in Africa that averted a major food crisis.
Phenacoccus aceris
apple mealybug, maple mealybug
Phenacoccus aceris, commonly known as the apple mealybug or maple mealybug, is a widespread polyphagous mealybug species in the family Pseudococcidae. Native to Europe, it has become established across the Holarctic region including North America and Asia. The species is a significant agricultural and horticultural pest, feeding on phloem sap of numerous host plants including apple, maple, grapevine, ash, and prickly ash. Recent molecular and morphological studies have revealed that P. aceris represents a species complex containing multiple cryptic species, with taxonomic confusion arising from co-occurring putative species that cannot be reliably separated by host-plant associations alone. The species is also an important vector of grapevine viruses, transmitting six ampeloviruses and two vitiviruses.
Phenacoccus solani
Solanum Mealybug
Phenacoccus solani, commonly known as the solanum mealybug, is a parthenogenetic mealybug species in the family Pseudococcidae. It reproduces via thelytokous parthenogenesis, with females producing viable offspring without males. The species has a broad host range including plants in Solanaceae, Amaryllidaceae, and Compositae families, and is recognized as a pest of tomato, cotton, and ornamental plants. Historically confused with P. defectus due to morphological similarity, molecular and morphometric analyses confirmed these as conspecific in 2016, with P. defectus synonymized under P. solani. The species has a cosmopolitan distribution spanning the Nearctic, Mediterranean basin, Asia, South America, Africa, Australia, and Pacific islands.
Pherbellia
snail-killing flies
Pherbellia is a genus of marsh flies in the family Sciomyzidae, comprising approximately 95 species with a global distribution except the Subantarctic region. The genus is notable for its specialized malacophagous ecology: larvae are predators or parasitoids of gastropod mollusks. Species exhibit diverse host associations, targeting both terrestrial and freshwater snails across multiple families including land snails (Anguispira, Succinea), glass snails (Zonitoides), pond snails (Stagnicola), and even operculate freshwater snails (Valvata). This genus represents one of the most extensively studied groups within Sciomyzidae regarding life cycle biology.
Philodromus cespitum
Turf Running Spider, Running Crab Spider
Philodromus cespitum is a small running crab spider in the family Philodromidae, widely distributed across the Holarctic region. It is the dominant spider species in Central European fruit orchards, where it functions as an important biological control agent. Males measure 3.5–5.0 mm, females approximately 5.3 mm. Body coloration is variable, typically in shades of brown or yellow with spotted patterns. The species exhibits distinctive reproductive biology including male courtship tapping behavior and the use of genital plugs during copulation.
Philolema latrodecti
widow spider parasitoid wasp
Philolema latrodecti is a parasitoid wasp in the family Eurytomidae that specializes in attacking egg sacs of widow spiders in the genus Latrodectus. Originally described from Hawaii, it has been introduced to several regions as a biological control agent for invasive widow spiders. The wasp has been observed parasitizing brown widow spiders (Latrodectus geometricus) in French Polynesia and the Cook Islands, and the southern black widow (Latrodectus mactans) in Mexico. Infestation rates can be substantial, with one study finding the wasp in 31% of dissected brown widow egg sacs in Tahiti.
Philonthus cognatus
Philonthus cognatus is a relatively large rove beetle (8–11 mm) in the family Staphylinidae. Native to the western Palearctic, it has been introduced to North America where it is now established in the USA and Canada. Adults are primarily black with metallic bronze or greenish elytra and a distinctive yellow underside to the first antennal segment. The species is an important predator of agricultural pests, particularly aphids.
Phloeotribus
Phloeotribus is a genus of crenulate bark beetles in the family Curculionidae, comprising at least 150 described species. Species within this genus exhibit diverse host associations, with some specializing on olive (Olea europaea), others on stone fruits (Prunus spp.), and some on broom (Cytisus scoparius). The genus includes economically significant pests such as Phloeotribus scarabaeoides, which damages olive trees through feeding and breeding gallery construction. Reproductive systems vary among species, with both monogynous and bigynous mating systems documented.
Pholcidae
cellar spiders, daddy long-legs spiders, carpenter spiders, vibrating spiders, gyrating spiders
Pholcidae is a large family of araneomorph spiders containing over 2,000 species across 94+ genera. Members are commonly known as cellar spiders or daddy long-legs spiders due to their extremely long, thin legs and tendency to inhabit dark, undisturbed spaces. The family exhibits remarkable diversity in habitat use, from caves and tropical forests to human dwellings, with some species showing specialized adaptations including troglomorphism and communal web-sharing. Several species have become globally distributed through human transport, notably Pholcus phalangioides.
Pholetesor
Pholetesor is a genus of microgastrine braconid wasps containing more than 50 described species, distributed primarily in the Holarctic region. The genus was established by Mason in 1981 and includes species previously placed in Teremys, which has been tentatively synonymized. All known species are koinobiont endoparasitoids of concealed-feeding Lepidoptera larvae, with the majority specializing on leafmining and needlemining species in families such as Gracillariidae.
Pholetesor ornigis
Pholetesor ornigis is a braconid parasitoid wasp specialized on Phyllonorycter blancardella, the spotted tentiform leafminer. It is a significant biological control agent in apple orchards. Adult flight peaks occur in mid-June and late August, with males emerging earlier than females. The species demonstrates clear host age discrimination, preferentially parasitizing intermediate instar larvae.
Phoracantha
Eucalyptus Longhorn Beetles
Phoracantha is a genus of longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae) comprising approximately 40 species, native to Australia and New Guinea. The genus was revised by Wang (1995), who synonymized Tryphocaria with Phoracantha and described nine new species. Species in this genus are primarily associated with Eucalyptus trees, with several species—particularly P. semipunctata and P. recurva—having achieved global distribution as invasive pests following introduction to regions where eucalypts have been planted. These beetles colonize the phloem of host trees and can cause significant mortality, especially during drought conditions when tree defenses are compromised.
Phoridae
scuttle flies, humpbacked flies, coffin flies
Phoridae is a family of small, hump-backed flies commonly known as scuttle flies, humpbacked flies, or coffin flies. The family contains approximately 4,000 described species in 230 genera, making it one of the most diverse families of Diptera. Members are characterized by their distinctive escape behavior of running rapidly across surfaces rather than flying, and by a pronounced thoracic hump visible in lateral view. The family exhibits extraordinary biological diversity, with lifestyles ranging from scavenging and fungivory to parasitism of social insects, including highly specialized ant parasitoids in the genus Pseudacteon that are used for biological control of invasive fire ants.
Phorocera
Phorocera is a genus of tachinid flies comprising approximately 13 described species. Species in this genus are parasitoids of various insect hosts, particularly sawflies and lepidopteran larvae. Several species have been investigated for biological control of forest pests, including conifer-feeding sawflies and the spruce budworm. The genus is characterized by specific adult and immature morphological features used in identification.
Photinus ignitus
Ignited Firefly
Photinus ignitus is a North American firefly species distinguished by its bioluminescent courtship displays. Males produce characteristic flash patterns to attract females, who respond from perches in vegetation. Research has documented seasonal plasticity in female mate choice behavior, with females becoming less selective as the breeding season progresses. Like other Photinus species, it produces defensive compounds called lucibufagins that protect against predators.
fireflybioluminescencemate-choiceseasonal-plasticitynuptial-giftaggressive-mimicryLampyridaeColeopteraNorth-Americaflash-communicationlucibufaginsexual-selectionoperational-sex-ratiocold-lightphotocytesluciferinluciferasenocturnalcourtshippredation-defenseinsect-declinelight-pollutionhabitat-lossinsecticide-exposuresoil-dwelling-larvaeglowwormpredatory-larvaesoft-bodied-preysnailsslugswormssoil-insectsbiological-controlflash-patternfemale-choicemale-choicebody-sizelantern-sizereproductive-investmentegg-provisioningspermatophoreflash-signalmating-successselectivitybreeding-seasondusknightvegetationgrasslawnsforestsfieldsedgescanopyairspaceColumbia-MarylandWashington-Baltimore-areaUniversity-of-Virginia-studylight-pollution-impactmating-disruptionurbanizationresidual-insecticideslawn-treatmentweather-cyclesfood-availabilitylarval-predationpopulation-fluctuationbanner-yearspectacleJuly-4thIndependence-DayMother-Nature's-fireworkspyrotechnictwinklinggalaxycold-light-efficiencyno-heat-productionphotocyte-cellsspecialized-light-organterminal-abdominal-segmentslightly-coloredgiant-eyesflash-detectionvisual-acuitynocturnal-visionchemical-ecologydefensive-chemistrysteroidal-pyronestoad-toxinsspider-repellentbird-repellentfemme-fatalepredatory-exploitationchemical-acquisitiondefense-sequestrationnuptial-feedingreproductive-successsexual-conflictflash-manipulationphotographic-challengeflash-rechargefemale-contortionflash-directionalityaimed-signalmale-expendabilityfemale-investmentoffspring-productionbattery-lifeconservation-concernpopulation-monitoringcitizen-scienceBoston-Museum-of-Sciencefirefly-data-projectAllegheny-National-Forestsynchronous-firefliesPhotinus-carolinusPhoturis-pennsylvanicaPennsylvania-Firefly-FestivalFIRE-TeamLynn-FaustSara-LewisThomas-EisnerAerial-FirebaughKyle-Hayneschemical-ecology-pioneerexperimental-studyfield-observationnatural-historybehavioral-ecologyethologyjournal-articlepeer-reviewed-researchscientific-investigationinsect-conservationnocturnal-insectbeetlesoft-winged-beetlenot-true-bugnot-flyElateroideaPolyphagaElateriformiaLampyrinaeLucidotiniaccepted-nameFall-192736-observationsiNaturalistGBIFCatalogue-of-LifeNCBIWikipediaBug-of-the-WeekEntomology-Todayincomplete-informationdata-limitedresearch-opportunityfurther-study-neededPhrydiuchus
Phrydiuchus is a genus of true weevils (Curculionidae) comprising at least two described species: P. tau and P. topiarius. Species in this genus are specialized herbivores associated with Salvia species (Lamiaceae), with documented use as biological control agents against invasive sage weeds. The genus is characterized by small, dark-colored weevils with distinctive dorsal markings.
Phrydiuchus tau
Mediterranean sage root weevil
Phrydiuchus tau is a small weevil in the family Curculionidae, commonly known as the Mediterranean sage root weevil. It is native to southern Eurasia and has been introduced to the western United States as a biological control agent targeting the invasive weed Mediterranean sage (Salvia aethiopis). The species derives its scientific name from the distinctive white T-shaped marking on its dorsal surface, resembling the Greek letter tau.
Phycitinae
Knot-horn Moths
Phycitinae is a subfamily of snout moths (Pyralidae) representing the most diverse lineage within its family, encompassing over 600 genera and more than 4,000 species—more than three-quarters of living snout moth diversity. Together with Epipaschiinae, they form the most advanced lineage of snout moths. Adults are typically small, slender-bodied moths with well-developed proboscises and often elongated labial palps forming a 'snout.' The subfamily exhibits remarkable ecological diversity, with larvae occupying roles as leaf rollers, seed feeders, gall inquilines, aquatic predators, and agricultural pests.
Phygadeuon
Phygadeuon is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae with nearly cosmopolitan distribution. Species in this genus are primarily parasitoids of dipteran hosts, with documented associations including root maggot flies (Anthomyiidae) in agricultural systems. The genus has been recorded from Europe and North America, with some species occasionally utilized in biological control contexts.
Phyllocnistis
Phyllocnistis is a genus of microlepidopteran moths in the family Gracillariidae, containing approximately 126 described species as of 2012. The genus is notable for its highly specialized larval biology: early instars are sap-feeding leaf miners that create distinctive serpentine subepidermal mines with median frass trails, while the fourth instar is a non-feeding, apodal stage specialized for cocoon construction. Adults are minute moths with wingspans generally under 5 mm, characterized by reduced compound eyes, vestigial maxillary palpi, and lanceolate white wings marked with yellow to orange striae.
Phyllocnistis citrella
Citrus Leafminer, CLM
Phyllocnistis citrella, commonly known as the citrus leafminer or CLM, is a small moth in the family Gracillariidae. Native to tropical Asia, it has become a globally distributed agricultural pest of citrus since its discovery in Florida in 1993. The larvae create distinctive serpentine mines in citrus leaves, protected within the leaf epidermis from many topical insecticide treatments. The species is managed through integrated pest management strategies including biological control with introduced parasitoids, mating disruption using sex pheromones, and cultural practices.
Phyllonorycter crataegella
Apple Blotch Leafminer Moth
Phyllonorycter crataegella is a microlepidopteran in the family Gracillariidae, commonly known as the apple blotch leafminer moth. It is a significant pest of apple orchards in northeastern North America, where larvae create blotch mines in leaves. The species exhibits a primarily diurnal activity pattern with sex-specific flight timing: males fly intensely in the morning for mating, while females fly in the afternoon and evening for oviposition. It has three generations per year in its core range, with overwintering adults emerging in spring triggered by accumulated degree-days above 5°C.
Phyllonorycter elmaella
western tentiform leafminer
Phyllonorycter elmaella, the western tentiform leafminer, is a small moth in the family Gracillariidae. It is a documented pest of apple (Malus) in commercial orchards across western North America. Larvae create tentiform (blotch-shaped) mines within apple leaves, feeding between the upper and lower epidermis. The species serves as host to a diverse community of parasitoid wasps, with at least 14 species recorded, supporting natural biological control in orchard ecosystems.
Phytobius
Phytobius is a genus of weevils in the family Curculionidae. At least one species, Phytobius vestitus, has been investigated as a biological control agent for invasive aquatic vegetation. The genus is recorded from northern Europe including Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
Phytodietus
Phytodietus is a species-rich genus of ichneumonid wasps in the subfamily Tryphoninae, distributed across all zoogeographical regions. Members are koinobiont ectoparasitoids of semi-concealed Lepidoptera larvae, with documented associations primarily to Tortricidae and Pyralidae. The genus was recently recorded from Thailand for the first time, expanding Oriental region documentation. Several species have been investigated for biological control of agricultural pests.
Phytoliriomyza melampyga
Jewelweed Leaf-miner Fly
Phytoliriomyza melampyga is a small fly in the family Agromyzidae, commonly known as the Jewelweed Leaf-miner Fly. The species is recognized by distinctive yellow markings on the mesonotum, scutellum, and frons. Its larvae are leaf miners that feed on Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera). The species has been recorded across North America and Europe.
Phytoseiidae
predatory mites
Phytoseiidae is a large family of predatory mites in the order Mesostigmata, comprising over 2,700 described species across 90 genera and three subfamilies (Amblyseiinae, Phytoseiinae, and Typhlodrominae). These mites are primarily recognized for their role as biological control agents against agricultural pests, particularly spider mites (Tetranychidae), thrips, and other small arthropods. Their effectiveness in integrated pest management programs has driven substantial research interest, with species such as Phytoseiulus persimilis, Neoseiulus californicus, and Amblyseius swirskii among the most widely studied and commercially deployed predatory mites.
biological-controlpredatory-mitesintegrated-pest-managementagricultural-acarologyspider-mite-predatorspollen-feedingintraguild-predationWolbachiaaugmentative-biocontrolconservation-biological-controldomatiaglandular-trichomespesticide-compatibilitymass-rearingTetranychidaeThysanopteraMesostigmatacrop-protectionsustainable-agriculturemite-ecologyPhytoseioidea
Phytoseioidea is a superfamily of mesostigmatic mites within the order Mesostigmata. It encompasses several families including Phytoseiidae (predatory mites widely used in biological control), Blattisociidae, Podocinidae, and the recently established Africoseiulellidae. Members exhibit considerable morphological diversity, with some genera showing highly specialized adaptations. The superfamily has been subject to ongoing taxonomic revision, with family-level boundaries being redefined based on comparative morphological analysis.
Picromerus
Picromerus is a genus of predatory shield bugs in the family Pentatomidae. Species in this genus are predatory throughout their life cycle, feeding primarily on lepidopteran larvae and other soft-bodied insects. Several species, particularly P. bidens and P. lewisi, have been studied extensively for their potential as biological control agents against agricultural and forest pests. The genus exhibits specialized adaptations for predation, including well-developed olfactory systems for locating prey and host plants.
Picromerus bidens
spiny shieldbug, spiked shieldbug
Picromerus bidens is a predatory shield bug in the family Pentatomidae, notable for its large size and distinctive spiny pronotal projections. It is univoltine, with summer dormancy (aestivation) ensuring synchronization of its life cycle with seasonal conditions. The species is native to the Palaearctic region but has been introduced to North America, where it has established populations. Both adults and nymphs are predatory, feeding primarily on insect larvae, and the species has been investigated as a potential biological control agent.
Pimeliaphilus
Pimeliaphilus is a genus of parasitic mites in the family Pterygosomatidae. Species within this genus are ectoparasites of insects and reptiles, with documented hosts including reduviid bugs (Triatoma, Meccus), tenebrionid beetles (Trachyderma), and geckos (Hemidactylus). The genus exhibits host specificity ranging from oligoxenous to stenoxenous patterns. Several species have been investigated for their potential as biological control agents against triatomine vectors of Chagas disease.
Pimpla
black slip wasps
Pimpla is a large, cosmopolitan genus of ichneumonid wasps comprising approximately 200 species. Members are idiobiont endoparasitoids that develop within the pupae or prepupae of holometabolous insects, primarily Lepidoptera. The genus is characterized by sturdy black bodies with orange or reddish markings, and females possess a short, stout ovipositor used to deposit eggs into host pupae. Several species have documented importance in biological control and biomedical research.
Pimpla aquilonia
Pimpla aquilonia is a species of ichneumon wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. It is a parasitoid wasp that targets moth caterpillars, including several agricultural and forestry pests. The species has been recorded in western North America, with distribution records from multiple Canadian provinces including Alberta and British Columbia.
Pimpla pedalis
Pimpla pedalis is a species of ichneumon wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. It is a pupal parasitoid that targets the geometer moth Iridopsis ephyraria. The species has been recorded primarily from the Canadian prairies region, with observations concentrated in Alberta.
Pimpla turionellae
Pimpla turionellae is a solitary idiobiont endoparasitoid wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. Females parasitize the larvae and pupae of lepidopteran hosts, particularly Galleria mellonella, by injecting venom that suppresses host immune responses before oviposition. The species has been extensively studied as a laboratory model organism due to its pharmacologically significant venom, which exhibits cytotoxic, immunomodulatory, and potential anticancer properties. It is widely distributed across Europe and has been introduced to other regions including the Azores.
Pimplinae
Pimplinae is a worldwide subfamily of parasitoid wasps within Ichneumonidae. Members are primarily parasitoids of Holometabola, especially Lepidoptera pupae, with some species attacking spider egg sacs and adults. The subfamily includes 72 genera organized into four tribes: Delomeristini, Ephialtini, Pimplini, and Theroniini. Species are generally sturdy black wasps with orange markings and possess a diagnostic box-like first tergite with the spiracle positioned anterior to the middle.
Pionini
Pionini is a tribe of ichneumonid wasps within the subfamily Pioninae. These parasitoid wasps are characterized by distinctive morphological features including elongated bodies and specialized ovipositor structures. The tribe comprises multiple genera of moderate to large-sized wasps. They are primarily known from the Northern Hemisphere with limited published biological data.
Piophila casei
cheese skipper, ham skipper, cheese fly
Piophila casei is a detritivorous fly in the family Piophilidae, commonly known as the cheese skipper or ham skipper. It is a significant pest of cured meat production, particularly Parma ham in Italy, where its larvae infest high-protein substrates and cause substantial economic damage. The species has forensic importance as an indicator for post-mortem interval estimation on human remains. Its mature larvae exhibit a distinctive "skipping" escape behavior, propelling themselves by curling into a U-shape and releasing suddenly. The fly is also a public health concern due to its ability to cause enteric myiasis when larvae are accidentally ingested.
Pipiza puella
Sumac Gall Pithead
Pipiza puella is a small hoverfly (Syrphidae) known by the common name 'sumac gall pithead.' Adults are active flower visitors, feeding on nectar and pollen. The species has been documented in eastern and central North America as well as Norway. Larvae are reported to be aphid predators, though detailed life history information remains limited.
Pipizinae
Pitheads & Kin
Pipizinae is a subfamily of hoverflies (Syrphidae) containing approximately 70 species across eight extant genera. Formerly classified as a tribe within Eristalinae, molecular phylogenetic studies published in 2015 reinstated it as a distinct subfamily, sister to Syrphinae. Members are small to medium-sized flies, predominantly black in coloration with some species displaying orange abdominal markings. The subfamily is notable for its specialized larval predation on aphids, particularly wax-secreting species.
Pipunculidae
Big-headed Flies
Pipunculidae is a family of flies (Diptera) commonly known as big-headed flies, distinguished by their large holoptic compound eyes that cover nearly the entire head. The family has a worldwide distribution with over 1,400 described species. Larvae develop as parasitoids almost exclusively in Auchenorrhyncha (leafhoppers, planthoppers, and cicadas), with the exception of the genus Nephrocerus, which parasitizes adult crane flies (Tipulidae). Molecular analysis indicates the family originated in the Maastrichtian age of the Late Cretaceous, with the oldest fossils dating to the Eocene. Some species are used as biological control agents in rice fields.
Pissodes
Pine Weevils
Pissodes is a genus of weevils in the family Curculionidae containing at least 140 described species. These insects are specialized inhabitants of coniferous forests, with their distribution across the Northern Hemisphere closely tracking that of Pinaceae host trees. Several species, including Pissodes strobi, P. nemorensis, and P. terminalis, are recognized as significant forest pests due to the damage they inflict on economically important trees. The genus was first described by Ernst Friedrich Germar in 1817.
Platycorypha nigrivirga
tipu psyllid
Platycorypha nigrivirga, the tipu psyllid, is a Neotropical psyllid species that has become invasive in multiple temperate regions. It exhibits strict host specificity to Tipuana tipu (Fabaceae), feeding on phloem and causing leaf curling and premature defoliation. The species was first documented in Southern California in 2008 and has established populations in Europe and Africa. It is subject to biological control by a complex of generalist arthropod predators.
Platygaster
Platygaster is a large genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Platygastridae, containing over 560 described species. These wasps are primarily parasitoids of gall midges (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), attacking host eggs or larvae. The genus exhibits diverse reproductive strategies, with species showing solitary, gregarious, or polyembryonic development. Platygaster species have been documented from multiple continents and play significant roles in regulating gall midge populations in both natural and agricultural ecosystems.
Platygastridae
Platygastridae is a family of minute parasitoid wasps in the superfamily Platygastroidea, comprising approximately 1100-2000 described species. Members are exclusively parasitoids, with most species measuring only 1–2 mm in length. The family is divided into two traditional subfamilies: Platygastrinae, which are koinobiont parasitoids of cecidomyiid (gall midge) eggs and larvae, and Sceliotrachelinae, which are generally idiobionts attacking eggs of beetles or Hemiptera. Several genera, including Synopeas, Trimorus, and Telenomus, contain species of agricultural importance as biological control agents.
Platygastrinae
Platygastrinae is a subfamily of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Platygastridae. Members are characterized by their extremely small size, often under 2 mm, and specialized parasitoid biology targeting gall midges (Cecidomyiidae). The subfamily includes approximately 50+ genera, with Synopeas, Leptacis, and Platygaster being among the most studied. Many species exhibit elongated metasomas, though the functional significance of this trait remains unknown. Several species have been documented as biological control agents for agricultural pests, including the recently confirmed parasitoid of soybean gall midge, Synopeas ruficoxum.
Platynus
Platynus is a genus of ground beetles in the family Carabidae containing over 180 described species. Species in this genus are primarily nocturnal predators with well-developed olfactory capabilities. The genus has been extensively studied in ecotoxicological research due to its role as a beneficial predatory insect in agricultural ecosystems. Several species have been used as model organisms to assess sublethal effects of insecticides on non-target beneficial arthropods.
Platypalpus
dance fly, hybotid dance fly
Platypalpus is a large genus of hybotid dance flies comprising at least 580 described species worldwide, with over 200 species in Europe alone. These small predatory flies are characterized by their compact bodies, enlarged compound eyes that occupy most of the head, and raptorial front legs adapted for seizing prey. Adults are active predators that feed on small insects, while larvae occupy diverse microhabitats including leaf litter, soil, and aquatic environments. The genus has been documented in agricultural ecosystems, particularly cereal crops and greenhouses, where they may contribute to pest regulation.
Platysoma
clown beetles
Platysoma is a genus of clown beetles (family Histeridae) comprising over 80 described species. Members are small, compact beetles that inhabit subcortical environments beneath tree bark. They are predatory throughout their life cycle, specializing in bark beetle prey. The genus is notable among Histeridae for exhibiting facultative egg predation behavior in adults.
Platysoma cylindricum
clown beetle
Platysoma cylindricum is a small predatory beetle in the family Histeridae. It inhabits forested regions of North America, where it lives under bark and preys on the larvae of flies and other beetles. The species is associated with coniferous wood, particularly pine logs, and contributes to natural pest control in forest ecosystems.
Plega
Plega is a genus of mantidflies in the subfamily Symphrasinae, recently transferred from Mantispidae to Rhachiberothidae. Species in this genus are known to be parasitoids or predators of other insects during their larval stages. Plega banksi larvae are obligate predators of spider eggs, while Plega spinosa has been documented as an ectoparasitoid of sawfly larvae (Monoctenus cuauhtemoci). The genus exhibits diverse host associations across different life history strategies.
Pleidae
pygmy backswimmers, pleids
Pleidae, the pygmy backswimmers, is a family of minute aquatic true bugs (Hemiptera: Nepomorpha) containing approximately 52 species in four genera. Adults measure only 2–3.5 mm and inhabit stagnant or slow-moving freshwater with abundant vegetation. They are predatory, feeding on mosquito larvae and other small arthropods, and swim upside-down while carrying an air reserve beneath the body. The family is distributed worldwide except polar regions and remote oceanic islands, with genus Plea in the Old World, Neoplea in the Americas, Paraplea globally in warmer regions, and the recently described Heteroplea from Venezuela.
Pleolophus
Pleolophus is a genus of ichneumonid parasitoid wasps established by Townes in 1962. Species are native to Europe and have been introduced to North America for biological control of sawfly pests. The genus is notable for its ground-dispersing behavior and density-dependent host discrimination. At least one species, P. basizonus, has been extensively studied for its population dynamics and behavioral ecology in forest ecosystems.
Plexippus paykulli
Pantropical Jumping Spider
Plexippus paykulli is a cosmopolitan jumping spider native to Southeast Asia, now established across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Commonly called the pantropical jumping spider, it is strongly associated with human-built structures, particularly building exteriors near light sources where it hunts insects. The species exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism: males display black bodies with bold white stripes, while females are brownish-grey with tan markings. It is an active diurnal predator that does not construct prey-capture webs, relying instead on acute vision, stalking, and jumping to subdue prey.
Pluto
Pluto is a genus of aphid wasps (family Crabronidae) comprising at least 50 described species. These solitary wasps are small, predatory insects that hunt aphids to provision nests for their larvae. The genus was established by Pate in 1937 and belongs to the subfamily Pemphredoninae within the tribe Psenini. Species in this genus are found across various regions, though specific distribution patterns vary by species.
Pnigalio
Pnigalio is a genus of chalcidoid wasps in the family Eulophidae containing nearly 100 described species, of which approximately half are considered valid. Species within this genus are parasitoids of other insects, with documented hosts including beetles, flies, hymenopterans, and lepidopterans. The genus exhibits considerable biological diversity: some species are ectoparasites, others are parasitoids, and some function as hyperparasitoids. Several species have been studied as biological control agents for agricultural pests, particularly leaf-mining insects.
Podabrus brunnicollis poricollis
soldier beetle
Podabrus brunnicollis poricollis is a subspecies of soldier beetle in the family Cantharidae. Like other members of the genus Podabrus, it is an elongate beetle with soft, flexible wing covers. The species is found in California and contributes to biological control of aphids and other soft-bodied insects in gardens and agricultural settings.
Podalonia
Cutworm Wasps
Podalonia is a genus of solitary, thread-waisted wasps in the family Sphecidae, commonly known as cutworm wasps. The genus contains approximately 67 described species distributed worldwide except South America. Females hunt soil-dwelling caterpillars (cutworms), paralyze them, and provision underground burrows with a single prey item per cell. Unlike most sphecid wasps, Podalonia females dig their burrow after capturing prey rather than before. The genus is most abundant in western North America.
Podalonia melaena
cutworm wasp
Podalonia melaena is a solitary thread-waisted wasp in the family Sphecidae, described by Murray in 1940. As a member of the cutworm wasp genus, females hunt soil-dwelling caterpillars, paralyze them with venom, and provision underground burrows with this prey for their larvae. The species occurs in western North America, with records from British Columbia, Canada. Like other Podalonia species, it is active in spring and early summer and is considered a beneficial insect in agricultural settings due to its predation on pest caterpillars.
Podalonia pubescens
cutworm wasp
Podalonia pubescens is a solitary thread-waisted wasp in the family Sphecidae, subfamily Ammophilinae. Like other members of the genus, females hunt soil-dwelling caterpillars (cutworms), paralyze them, and provision underground burrows as food for their larvae. This species occurs in North America and Central America. Species-level identification requires examination of minute morphological characters such as the presence or absence of arolia (small pads between the claws), making field identification to species difficult.
Podalonia robusta
cutworm wasp, cutworm hunter wasp
Podalonia robusta is a solitary, thread-waisted wasp in the family Sphecidae, subfamily Ammophilinae. Females hunt soil-dwelling caterpillars (cutworms), paralyze them with venom, and provision underground burrows as food for their larvae. Unlike most sphecid wasps, this species digs the burrow after capturing prey rather than before. The species has been observed in aggressive nest usurpation, where one female steals a paralyzed caterpillar from another's burrow. Both sexes aggregate in sheltered spaces, with hundreds of individuals sometimes clustering together.
Podisus
spined soldier bugs, predatory stink bugs
Podisus is a genus of predatory stink bugs in the family Pentatomidae containing approximately 17-20 described species. The genus is best known for the spined soldier bug (Podisus maculiventris), a native North American predator widely used in biological control programs. Species in this genus are generalist predators that feed on diverse arthropod prey, with documented predation on over 70 insect species including major agricultural pests. They possess distinctive spiny projections on the shoulders and have been extensively studied for their potential in integrated pest management.
Podisus maculiventris
Spined Soldier Bug
Podisus maculiventris, the spined soldier bug, is a native North American predatory stink bug widely studied for biological control applications. It is a generalist predator of over 70 insect species, including agricultural pests such as the Colorado potato beetle, Mexican bean beetle, and brown marmorated stink bug. Unlike plant-feeding stink bugs, it actively hunts and kills prey using toxic venom and digestive enzymes. Adults overwinter and become active on warm winter days. The species has been extensively researched for augmentative release in agricultural systems, particularly against coleopteran and lepidopteran larvae.
Poecilanthrax
Poecilanthrax is a large genus of bee-flies (family Bombyliidae) primarily distributed in the Nearctic region. Adults are robust flies with body lengths of 8–14 mm, characterized by large, elongate patterned wings with 2–3 submarginal cells and the absence of vein M2. The genus is notable for its parasitic life history, with larvae developing inside caterpillars of noctuid moths. Approximately 35 species were recognized as of 1960, with greatest diversity in the Great Basin region.
Poecilanthrax sackenii
Poecilanthrax sackenii is a North American bee fly in the family Bombyliidae. The genus Poecilanthrax contains approximately 35 species distributed from Canada through Central America, with greatest diversity in the Great Basin region. Larvae of Poecilanthrax species develop as parasitoids within caterpillars of cutworms and armyworms (family Noctuidae). The species P. sackenii specifically has been documented as a parasitoid of grasshoppers, with the tangleveined fly Neorhynchocephalus sackenii (originally described as Sackenia sackenii) being a principal dipterous parasite of the valley grasshopper (Oedaleonotus enigma) and ebony grasshopper (Boopedon nubilum).
Poecilus chalcites
Poecilus chalcites is a predaceous ground beetle in the family Carabidae, commonly found in agricultural systems and croplands across North America, Central America, and the Caribbean. The species is recognized for its role as a biological control agent, feeding on multiple crop pests including corn rootworm, corn earworm, and cutworm species. Sexual dimorphism in foretarsus shape allows straightforward sex identification: males possess a heart-shaped proximal foretarsus, while females have a thinner structure. Laboratory rearing studies have established protocols for maintaining colonies, though laboratory-reared adults typically fail to reproduce.
Polistes annularis
Ringed Paper Wasp, Jack Spaniard Wasp, Red Paper Wasp
Polistes annularis is a primitively eusocial paper wasp native to the eastern United States, distinguished by its large size and distinctive red-and-black coloration with a prominent yellow ring on the abdomen. The species exhibits complex social behavior including cooperative nest founding by multiple foundresses, dominance hierarchies, and unique overwintering strategies involving honey storage. Nests are constructed in aggregations under overhangs near water bodies, with colonies typically containing 500 or more cells. Unlike many temperate Polistes species, P. annularis shows relatively robust cold tolerance and has been extensively studied as a model organism for social insect behavior and kin recognition.
social-wasppaper-waspprimitively-eusocialnest-aggregationoverwinteringhoney-storageMüllerian-mimicryfoundress-associationdominance-hierarchykin-recognitioncold-tolerancemodel-organismcaterpillar-predatorriparian-habitatannual-colony-cyclequeen-successioncuticular-hydrocarbonssubgenus-AphanilopterusPolistinaeVespidaeHymenopteraeastern-United-Statesred-and-black-colorationringed-abdomenorange-antennaecliff-nestinghibernaculausurpationaltruismreproductive-competitionjuvenile-hormoneovarian-developmentmicrosatellite-markersmaternity-assignmentbehavioral-ecologysocial-insectnest-architecturepetiole-constructionfoundress-evictionworker-emergencesexual-dimorphismstructural-sex-determinationtrehalosecold-survivalant-predationparasitoidElasmus-polistisChalcoela-iphitalisbiological-controlpollinatorsting-allergenantigen-5Linnaeus-1763Fabricius-1804etymology-Greek-polistesLatin-annularis-ringedPolistes aurifer
Golden Paper Wasp
Polistes aurifer is a social paper wasp native to western North America, ranging from southern Canada to northern Mexico. The species exhibits pronounced geographic color variation, from predominantly black northern forms to yellow southwestern forms and ferruginous southern populations. It constructs exposed paper nests in sheltered locations and is a generalist predator of caterpillars and other insects. The species has been subject to taxonomic revision, having been treated as a subspecies of P. fuscatus in some classifications, though recent treatments maintain it as distinct.
Polistes bahamensis
Bahamian Paper Wasp
Polistes bahamensis is a large, colorful paper wasp native to the Bahamas, with populations also established in Florida, Louisiana, and coastal areas of the southeastern United States. First described in 1931, this species has undergone extensive taxonomic revision, having been treated as varieties of P. exclamans before being re-elevated to full species status in 1983. It builds characteristic umbrella-shaped paper nests suspended by a stalk, typically under building eaves or palm fronds. The species is notable for its taxonomic complexity, with three originally described color varieties based on geographic distribution within the Bahamas.
Polistes carolina
Fine-backed Red Paper Wasp, Red Paper Wasp, Paper Wasp
Polistes carolina is a social paper wasp native to the eastern United States, distinguished by its reddish-brown coloration and finer propodeal ridges compared to its congener P. rubiginosus. The species constructs large, exposed, umbrella-shaped paper nests and exhibits independent founding behavior with multiple foundresses establishing dominance hierarchies through behavioral conventions rather than size alone. It is an important predator of caterpillars and other insects, contributing to natural pest control in its range.
Polistes dominula
European Paper Wasp
Polistes dominula is a highly successful invasive social wasp native to Eurasia that has established populations across North America, South America, New Zealand, South Africa, and other regions. First detected in North America near Boston in 1978, it has become one of the most abundant wasps on the continent. The species builds small, exposed paper nests in protected locations and preys primarily on live insects, particularly caterpillars. Unlike yellowjackets, it does not scavenge for meat or sugar. Its rapid spread has been attributed to ecological flexibility, superior competitive ability, and tolerance of human-altered environments.
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fuscatus
Northern Paper Wasp, Dark Paper Wasp, Golden Paper Wasp
Polistes fuscatus is a primitively eusocial paper wasp native to eastern North America, ranging from southern Canada through the United States. It builds exposed, umbrella-shaped paper nests suspended from a single stalk, typically in semi-protected locations near human structures or in woodlands. The species exhibits a linear dominance hierarchy centered on a single dominant foundress, with remarkable individual recognition capabilities based on variable facial and abdominal markings. P. fuscatus has experienced significant population decline due to competition from the invasive European paper wasp, Polistes dominula.
Polynema
fairyflies, fairy wasps
Polynema is a genus of fairyflies in the family Mymaridae, comprising approximately 270 described species. These are among the smallest known insects, with adults typically measuring less than 1 mm. The genus is taxonomically challenging, currently treated as a conglomerate of poorly defined related groups classified into subgenera including P. (Polynema), P. (Doriclytus), and P. (Dorypolynema). Members are idiobiont endoparasitoids of insect eggs, attacking hosts across multiple orders including Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, Psocoptera, and Odonata. The genus has cosmopolitan distribution with significant diversity in the Neotropical, Palaearctic, and Oriental regions.
Ponometia candefacta
Olive-shaded Bird-dropping Moth
Ponometia candefacta, commonly known as the olive-shaded bird-dropping moth, is a small noctuid moth native to North America. It has been deliberately introduced to Russia as a biological control agent for common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia). The species inhabits dry, disturbed, weedy areas at low elevations and is active during summer months.
Potter and Mason Wasps
Potter Wasps, Mason Wasps
Eumeninae is a cosmopolitan subfamily of solitary wasps within Vespidae, commonly known as potter and mason wasps. The group includes approximately 3,579 described species worldwide, making it the most diverse group within Vespidae. Adults are primarily nectar-feeders, while larvae are predatory, developing on paralyzed caterpillars or beetle larvae provided by females. Nesting strategies are diverse: many species use pre-existing cavities in hollow stems, wood, or abandoned insect burrows, while others construct free-form mud nests or excavate burrows in soil. Females typically lay a single egg suspended by a silken thread before provisioning cells with prey, a distinctive trait among solitary wasps.
Praini
Praini is a tribe of koinobiont aphid parasitoids in the subfamily Aphidiinae (Braconidae). The tribe comprises four genera: Praon, Areopraon, Pseudopraon, and Dyscritulus. In India, the tribe is represented solely by the genus Praon, with 16 species including five endemics. These parasitoids attack 79 aphid species across 13 states and union territories. The genus Praon is distinguished by conical apical spines on the ovipositor sheath, an apomorphic character state.
Praon
Praon is a genus of braconid wasps in the subfamily Aphidiinae containing at least 70 described species. Species are solitary parasitoids of aphids, with females laying eggs inside living hosts. Several species are important biological control agents in agricultural systems. Notable species include P. pequodorum, a native North American parasitoid that outcompeted introduced Aphidius ervi on bacterially-defended pea aphids, and P. volucre, a commercially produced biocontrol agent that exhibits facultative pupal diapause.
Pristaulacus niger
Pristaulacus niger is a species of aulacid wasp found in North America. Aulacid wasps are parasitoids of wood-boring beetle larvae, particularly longhorned beetles (Cerambycidae) and jewel beetles (Buprestidae). They are often overlooked due to their superficial resemblance to ichneumon wasps. The genus Pristaulacus includes some of the larger species in the family Aulacidae.
Pristiphora geniculata
mountain ash sawfly, rowan leaf sawfly, Ebereschen-Blattwespe
Pristiphora geniculata is a sawfly species in the family Tenthredinidae, native to the Palaearctic region and introduced to North America. It is a specialized herbivore of Sorbus species, particularly mountain ash (rowan). The species exhibits facultative parthenogenesis and shows pronounced sexual dimorphism in larval development, with females having five instars compared to four in males. In eastern Canada, it typically produces two generations annually, though only one in northern Quebec and at higher elevations in Europe. The species has been the target of successful classical biological control programs using the parasitoid wasp Olesicampe geniculatae.
Procecidochares
gall flies
Procecidochares is a genus of tephritid fruit flies comprising approximately 20 described species. All members are gall-formers on Asteraceae plants, with larvae developing within stem or branch galls. The genus has gained significant attention for the species P. utilis, widely deployed as a biological control agent against the invasive weed Ageratina adenophora. Research on Procecidochares has contributed to understanding host selection genetics and sympatric speciation mechanisms in phytophagous insects.
Prochiloneurus
Prochiloneurus is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, established by Silvestri in 1915. Species in this genus are primarily known as hyperparasitoids, attacking other parasitoids that develop within mealybugs (Pseudococcidae). The genus has been documented from multiple continents including Africa, Asia, and the Americas, with recent new country records from China. Some species have been studied for their role in biological control systems, particularly in cassava mealybug management where they act as secondary parasitoids of primary parasitoids like Anagyrus lopezi.
Proconiini
sharpshooters
Proconiini is a large tribe of xylem-feeding leafhoppers (Cicadellidae: Cicadellinae) comprising approximately 422 species in 58 genera, restricted to the New World. Members are commonly known as sharpshooters due to their rapid, directed flight patterns. The tribe includes major agricultural pests and vectors of Xylella fastidiosa, a phytopathogenic bacterium causing diseases in citrus, grapes, almonds, and other crops. Proconiini species exhibit distinctive morphological adaptations including brachyptery in high-altitude Andean forms and unique egg brochosome production for offspring protection.
Proctotrupidae
Proctotrupidae is a family of small parasitoid wasps in the superfamily Proctotrupoidea, comprising approximately 400 described species across more than 30 genera with an estimated total diversity of around 675-1200 species. Members are primarily endoparasitoids of coleopteran larvae, particularly in families Carabidae, Staphylinidae, and Elateridae, though some genera parasitize fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae, Sciaridae) and concealer moths (Oecophoridae). Females in many species are wingless and soil-dwelling, capable of detecting host larvae in burrows. The family has a cosmopolitan distribution with notable Gondwanan relict elements in the subfamily Austroserphinae.
Prodiplosis
Prodiplosis is a genus of gall midges (Cecidomyiidae) comprising approximately 11 described species. Several species are economically significant agricultural pests, notably P. longifila, which infests citrus, solanaceous crops, and ornamental foliage. Members of this genus are characterized by complete metamorphosis and larval feeding on reproductive and vegetative tissues of host plants, causing necrosis and yield loss. Some species exhibit host specialization and cryptic genetic differentiation across geographic ranges.
Profenusa thomsoni
amber-marked birch leaf miner, amber-marked birch leaf-miner sawfly
Profenusa thomsoni is a small sawfly native to the Palearctic realm that has become invasive in North America. Adults are black, approximately 3 mm long, and fly-like in appearance. The species is notable for its all-female parthenogenetic reproduction and for creating distinctive blotch-shaped leaf mines in birch foliage. Larval feeding damage can cause significant defoliation, though populations in parts of North America have declined due to parasitoid pressure.
Propylea
fourteen-spotted lady beetles
Propylea is a genus of small lady beetles (Coccinellidae) containing four recognized species. The most widely known member, Propylea quatuordecimpunctata, is native to the Palearctic region and has become invasive in North America. Propylea japonica is an important biological control agent in Chinese agroecosystems, where it preys on aphids, whiteflies, and other soft-bodied pests. Species in this genus exhibit complex behaviors including selective foraging, intraguild predation, and mating-related dietary shifts.
Propylea quatuordecimpunctata
14-spotted ladybird beetle, Fourteen-spotted Lady Beetle, P-14
A small lady beetle (3.5–4.5 mm) native to the Palearctic and introduced to North America as a biological control agent for aphids. Exhibits remarkable color polymorphism with over 100 documented pattern variations, ranging from cream-yellow to nearly black. A generalist predator of aphids and other soft-bodied insects, with demonstrated invasive capacity in North America.
Prosena siberita
Prosena siberita is a tachinid fly with a distinctive elongated proboscis that folds beneath the body. Adults feed on nectar and pose no threat to humans or plants. The species was introduced to the United States in 1925 as a biological control agent targeting scarab beetle larvae, particularly the Japanese beetle. It has established populations across a broad geographic range spanning Eurasia, Australasia, and North America.
Prostephanus truncatus
Larger Grain Borer, Greater Grain Borer
Prostephanus truncatus, commonly known as the larger grain borer or greater grain borer, is a highly destructive beetle in the family Bostrichidae. Native to Mexico and Central America where it evolved as a wood-boring insect, it adapted to become a major pest of stored maize. The species was accidentally introduced to Tanzania, Africa in the late 1970s and subsequently spread throughout sub-Saharan Africa, where it additionally adapted to cassava as an alternate host. Populations can destroy up to 40% of stored maize in three months and cause estimated losses of 52-74% of stored cassava. Climate modeling indicates potential for further range expansion into the southern United States, South America, and tropical Asia.
Pselliopus
orange assassin bugs
Pselliopus is a genus of assassin bugs in the family Reduviidae, subfamily Harpactorinae. The genus contains 27 described species restricted to the New World. Several species, particularly Pselliopus barberi, are noted for their bright orange and black coloration and relatively large size. Members of this genus are predatory insects that have been observed feeding on various arthropod prey including aphids, leafhoppers, and bees. Some species are considered potential biological control agents for pest management.
Pselliopus
orange assassin bug
Pselliopus sp-near-barberi is an assassin bug in the family Reduviidae, closely related to or conspecific with Pselliopus barberi. It is a predatory true bug characterized by orange and black coloration, serving as aposematic warning coloration. This species is an active predator of small insects including leafhoppers and aphids, and has been documented as a natural enemy of crapemyrtle aphids in urban landscapes.
Pselliopus barberi
Orange Assassin Bug
Pselliopus barberi is a predatory assassin bug in the family Reduviidae, commonly known as the orange assassin bug. It is distinguished by its striking orange and black coloration, which serves as aposematic warning coloration. The species is found in North America and is active from spring through autumn. It is a generalist predator that hunts on flowers and vegetation, using stealth to capture small insects such as leafhoppers.
Pselliopus cinctus
Ringed Assassin Bug
Pselliopus cinctus is a species of assassin bug in the family Reduviidae, commonly known as the Ringed Assassin Bug. It is found in North America and is a predatory true bug that hunts other insects. The species has been documented in ambush predation behavior, including stalking bees and other prey on flowers.
Pselliopus punctipes
ringed assassin bug
Pselliopus punctipes is a predatory assassin bug in the family Reduviidae, commonly known as the ringed assassin bug. It is characterized by its long legs, elongated beak, and distinctive ringed coloration pattern on its body. The species is an ambush predator that hunts small insects by stalking and stabbing them with its venom-injecting proboscis. It belongs to a genus of assassin bugs known for their stealthy hunting behavior and importance in natural pest control.
Psen
Psen is a genus of aphid wasps comprising at least 90 described species. These solitary wasps are placed in the family Crabronidae (subfamily Pemphredoninae, tribe Psenini) and are characterized by their specialized predation on aphids. The genus was established by Latreille in 1796 and has a primarily Holarctic distribution.
Pseneo
aphid wasps
Pseneo is a genus of aphid wasps in the family Crabronidae (subfamily Pemphredoninae, tribe Psenini). The genus was established by Malloch in 1933 and contains more than 20 described species. These wasps are part of the apoid wasp lineage, characterized by their specialized predatory behavior on aphids.
Pseudacteon
Ant-Decapitating Flies
Pseudacteon is a genus of phorid flies comprising over 70 described species, commonly known as ant-decapitating flies. These parasitoids are specialized on ants, particularly Solenopsis fire ants, with females injecting eggs directly into host workers. The larval development occurs entirely within the ant's head capsule, culminating in decapitation and pupation inside the detached head. Several species have been introduced to the United States as biological control agents against invasive red imported fire ants.
Pseudacteon curvatus
fire ant decapitating fly, little decapitating fly
Pseudacteon curvatus is a small phorid fly parasitoid known as the 'little decapitating fly' due to its life cycle in which mature larvae cause decapitation of host fire ants upon emergence. Native to South America, it has been introduced to the United States as a classical biological control agent against invasive imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta and S. richteri). The species exhibits host specificity toward Solenopsis fire ants and has been the subject of extensive research on laboratory rearing methods, host preference behavior, and field establishment following releases.
Pseudacteon tricuspis
fire ant decapitating fly, phorid fly
Pseudacteon tricuspis is a parasitoid phorid fly that specifically targets the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta). Adult females deposit eggs directly into worker ants, and the developing larvae eventually decapitate the host. The species was introduced to the United States in the late 1990s as a biological control agent against this invasive ant. Native to South America, it has now established populations across the southeastern United States.
Pseudacysta perseae
Avocado Lace Bug
Pseudacysta perseae is a lace bug in the family Tingidae, originally described by Heidemann in 1908. It is a significant foliar pest of avocado (Persea americana), causing characteristic damage to leaves. The species has undergone substantial range expansion from its original Caribbean distribution to include Mexico, the southern United States, and Central America. It has been introduced to California, where population genetic studies indicate at least two separate invasion events. The species passes through four nymphal instars and exhibits sexual dimorphism in antennal coloration, with adult males having a substantially darker fourth antennal segment.
Pseudanidorus bicolor
Pseudanidorus bicolor is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae. The genus Pseudanidorus belongs to the diverse chalcidoid wasp family Encyrtidae, which contains numerous species used in biological control programs. This species is represented in the University of California, Riverside (UCR) Encyrtidae collection, one of the largest and most important collections of this family worldwide.
Pseudiastata
Pseudiastata is a genus of vinegar flies in the family Drosophilidae, containing approximately 11 described species. The genus was established by Coquillett in 1908 and belongs to the subfamily Steganinae. At least one species has been documented as a predator of mealybugs in agricultural settings.
Pseudodynerus quadrisectus
Pseudodynerus quadrisectus is a solitary mason wasp native to eastern North America. First described by Thomas Say in 1837, this species is frequently mistaken for the similar Four-toothed Mason Wasp (Monobia quadridens). Females construct multi-celled nests in pre-existing wood cavities, provisioning each cell with paralyzed caterpillars as food for their larvae. The species is considered beneficial in gardens due to its pollination activity and caterpillar predation.
Pseudogonatopus
Pseudogonatopus is a genus of dryinid wasps established by Perkins in 1905. Species in this genus are parasitoids of planthoppers (Hemiptera: Delphacidae), particularly Nilaparvata lugens (brown planthopper), a major rice pest in Asia. The genus exhibits sexual dimorphism: females are wingless with ant-like morphology, while males are winged. Members possess strong mandibles used for host feeding. The genus has been studied extensively for its role in biological control of rice planthoppers and for assessing non-target effects of transgenic Bt rice.
Pseudogonatopus herbarum
Pseudogonatopus herbarum is a species of dryinid wasp in the family Dryinidae. These wasps are parasitoids of planthoppers in the family Delphacidae. The species has been recorded from Europe and parts of Asia. Like other members of its genus, females possess raptorial forelegs adapted for capturing hosts.
Pseudolampsis
Pseudolampsis is a genus of flea beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Alticini) established by G.H. Horn in 1889. The genus has been subject to taxonomic revision regarding distribution patterns and synonymy. The most studied species, Pseudolampsis guttata, has been evaluated as a biological control agent for invasive aquatic ferns.
Pseudolampsis guttata
Waterfern Flea Beetle
A flea beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, evaluated as a potential biological control agent for the invasive aquatic fern Azolla filiculoides (red water fern) in South Africa. Laboratory host range testing has been conducted to assess its feeding specificity and suitability for introduction as a natural enemy.
Pseudoligosita
Pseudoligosita is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Trichogrammatidae, first described by Girault in 1913. Species in this genus are egg parasitoids, attacking the eggs of various insects including leafhoppers and planthoppers. Several species have been studied for their potential as biological control agents against agricultural pests. The genus is distributed across multiple continents including North America, South America, Asia, and the Middle East.
Pseudophanerotoma
A genus of solitary endoparasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Cheloninae. Species are known to parasitize tortricid moths, including agricultural pests. The genus occurs from southern Texas through Mexico and Central America to South America (Brazil, Peru, French Guiana). At least four species have been described: P. huichol (Mexico), P. austini (Guatemala), P. paranaensis (Brazil, French Guiana), and P. thapsina (Texas, French Guiana).
Psilepyris californicus
Psilepyris californicus is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). The genus Psilepyris is a small group within the Encyrtidae, a family known for their role as biological control agents of scale insects and other hemipteran pests. The specific epithet 'californicus' indicates this species was described from California. Encyrtid wasps are typically minute, with most species under 5 mm in length, and are characterized by reduced wing venation and geniculate (elbowed) antennae. Like other members of its family, P. californicus likely functions as a parasitoid, though specific host associations remain undocumented in the provided sources.
Psilophryoidea
Psilophryoidea is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, established by Compere in 1928. The genus is represented in the UCR Encyrtidae collection by at least one species, Psilophryoidea comesor, which appears in both pinned and slide-mounted specimens. Encyrtidae are minute wasps, typically under 5mm, that parasitize other insects, particularly scale insects and other Hemiptera. The UCR collection contains one of the largest Encyrtidae holdings in the world, with extensive slide preparations and host records.
Psorophora
gallinipper
Psorophora is a genus of large mosquitoes in the subfamily Culicinae, tribe Aedini, described by Robineau-Desvoidy in 1827. The genus comprises approximately 50 species distributed across the Americas, with three recognized subgenera: Psorophora, Janthinosoma, and Grabhamia. Several species, notably Psorophora ciliata and P. ferox, are among the largest mosquitoes in the world and are known for aggressive biting behavior. Larvae of some species are obligate predators with specialized anatomical adaptations for capturing prey.
Psyllaephagus
Psyllaephagus is a large genus of chalcid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, containing approximately 245–246 described species as of 2019, with greatest diversity in Australia (~100 described species, possibly ~1,000 total). The genus was established by William Harris Ashmead in 1900. Most species are primary parasitoids of psylloids (Hemiptera: Psylloidea), with some secondary parasitoids. Three Australian species—P. pilosus, P. bliteus, and P. yaseeni—have been successfully deployed as biological control agents against invasive psylloids in California, Europe, Hawaii, and southeast Asia.
Psyllaephagus bliteus
Red gum lerp psyllid parasitoid
Psyllaephagus bliteus is an internal nymphal parasitoid in the family Encyrtidae, native to Australia and widely introduced as a classical biological control agent against the red gum lerp psyllid Glycaspis brimblecombei, a major pest of Eucalyptus plantations. The species has been established in California, Brazil, Mexico, Italy, Portugal, and Uganda. Females become sexually receptive at 48 hours post-emergence, with males initiating courtship through antennal contact and thorax-abdomen tapping. Development is delayed until the host reaches the fifth instar, with a pupal period of approximately 12.6 days at 26°C. The pupa is protected by three distinct layers: a thickened lerp basal wall, host mummification, and a melanized pupal sheath.
Psyllaephagus pilosus
Bluegum Psyllid Encyrtid Wasp
Psyllaephagus pilosus is an Australian encyrtid wasp introduced as a biological control agent for the eucalyptus psyllid Ctenarytaina eucalypti. It has been successfully released and established in Ireland, Chile, and other regions outside its native range. The species is known for rapid population establishment and high parasitism rates, reaching nearly 100% in some release sites within months of introduction.
Psylliodes
flea beetles
Psylliodes is a large cosmopolitan genus of flea beetles comprising approximately 200 described species worldwide. Members are characterized by enlarged hind femora adapted for jumping, a trait shared with other Alticini. Approximately half of all species are specialized feeders on Brassicaceae, with the remainder associated with roughly 24 other plant families. Several species are economically significant agricultural pests, including the cabbage stem flea beetle (P. chrysocephala) and potato flea beetle (P. affinis). The genus includes rare endemic species such as the Lundy Cabbage Flea Beetle (P. luridipennis), a globally Critically Endangered species restricted to a single island off the coast of England.
Psylliodes chalcomera
flea beetle
Psylliodes chalcomera is a flea beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, native to Europe and investigated as a biological control agent for invasive musk thistle (Carduus nutans). Field trials in Italy demonstrated high host specificity, with no feeding or oviposition on Cirsium species or economic crops under free-choice conditions. The species has been evaluated for introduction to North America to manage musk thistle infestations.
Pterolonchidae
Pterolonchidae is a small family of minute moths in the superfamily Gelechioidea, comprising approximately 19 species across seven genera. The family has undergone substantial taxonomic revision, with genera reassigned from multiple other families based on cladistic analysis. Species are distributed across every continent except Australia and Antarctica, with notable concentrations in the Mediterranean region, western North America, and southern Africa. Several species have significant ecological and economic importance, including one used as a biological control agent for invasive knapweeds and another that is a major agricultural pest of cereal crops.
Pteromalidae
Pteromalidae is a large family of chalcidoid wasps containing approximately 3,450 described species in about 640 genera. The family underwent major taxonomic revision in 2022, when it was split into 24 families due to recognition of its polyphyletic nature; the remaining Pteromalidae now comprises 8 subfamilies. Members are predominantly parasitoids of other insects, with life history strategies spanning solitary to gregarious, ectoparasitoid to endoparasitoid, and primary parasitoid to hyperparasitoid. Several species are important biological control agents of agricultural and nuisance pests.
Pteromalus puparum
white butterfly pupal parasitoid wasp
Pteromalus puparum is a gregarious endoparasitoid wasp that attacks the pupal stage of butterflies, particularly pierids and papilionids. It is widely distributed and has been extensively studied for biological control of agricultural pests, notably Pieris rapae, the small white cabbage butterfly. The species exhibits sophisticated host manipulation through venom injection during oviposition, which suppresses host immunity and regulates development. It is a model organism for studying parasitoid venom biochemistry, reproductive strategies, and innate immunity.
Pterophorinae
plume moths
Pterophorinae is a subfamily of plume moths (family Pterophoridae) containing over 500 species across seven tribes. Members are characterized by wings divided into feathery plumes, a distinctive trait within Lepidoptera. The subfamily has a cosmopolitan distribution with highest diversity in tropical and subtropical regions. Many species are associated with specific host plants, with larvae feeding on various angiosperms.
Pterostichus melanarius
Rain Beetle
Pterostichus melanarius, commonly known as the rain beetle, is a ground beetle native to Europe that has become established in North America following introduction in the 1920s. Adults are 12–18 mm long, black with straight elytral striations, and exhibit wing dimorphism with both flight-capable (macropterous) and flightless (brachypterous) morphs. The species is a generalist predator of invertebrates, with documented preference for slugs including the invasive gray garden slug Deroceras reticulatum. It occupies diverse habitats including forests, meadows, urban areas, and agricultural fields, and has been widely studied for its potential as a biological control agent.
Pulverro
Pulverro is a genus of aphid wasps in the family Crabronidae, subfamily Pemphredoninae. The genus was established by Pate in 1937 and contains approximately 13 described species. These wasps are specialized predators of aphids, a characteristic trait of the Ammoplanina group within the Pemphredoninae.
Pygostolus
Pygostolus is a genus of braconid wasps in the subfamily Blacinae, comprising approximately eight described species. The genus is best known through studies of P. falcatus, an endoparasitoid of weevils in the genus Sitona. These wasps exhibit thelytokous parthenogenesis and develop as solitary endoparasitoids within the haemocoele of their hosts. The genus has been investigated for biological control applications, particularly against sweetclover weevil (Sitona cylindricollis), though effectiveness is limited by phenological asynchrony and diapause.
Pyrrhocoridae
Red Bugs, Cotton Stainers
Pyrrhocoridae is a family of true bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) comprising over 300 species worldwide. Members are commonly known as 'red bugs' due to their frequent bright red coloration, with some species called 'cotton stainers' for their economic impact on cotton crops. The family includes the well-known firebug (Pyrrhocoris apterus) in Europe. Pyrrhocorids are distinguished from similar families by the absence of ocelli on the head. They occupy diverse ecological roles: many feed on seeds and fruits, particularly of Malvales, some are predatory, and a few are significant agricultural pests.
Quadrastichus
Quadrastichus is a genus of small parasitic wasps in the family Eulophidae, subfamily Tetrastichinae. The genus includes species with diverse ecological roles: some are gall-inducing pests of trees, while others are ectoparasitoids used in biological control programs. Notable species include Quadrastichus erythrinae, an invasive gall wasp that damages Erythrina (coral trees) in tropical and subtropical regions, and Q. mendeli, an obligate ectoparasitoid of the eucalyptus pest Leptocybe invasa that has been successfully established for biological control across multiple countries.
Raphidioptera
snakeflies
Raphidioptera, commonly known as snakeflies, is an order of predatory holometabolous insects comprising approximately 260 species in two families: Raphidiidae and Inocellidae. The order is distinguished by an elongated prothorax that creates a 'neck-like' appearance, giving rise to their common name. Snakeflies are considered living fossils, with modern species closely resembling forms from the early Jurassic period 140 million years ago. They are primarily arboreal predators of small insects, most commonly associated with wooded habitats and tree bark.
Raphignathoidea
Raphignathoidea is a superfamily of mites in the order Trombidiformes, comprising approximately 1,087 species across 62 genera and 12 families. The group exhibits diverse feeding strategies, including predation on small invertebrates, herbivory, and parasitism. Many species have commercial value in biological pest control. The superfamily occupies varied microhabitats from soil and leaf litter to aquatic environments and agricultural crops.
Ravinia
Ravinia is a genus of flesh flies (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) established by Robineau-Desvoidy in 1863. Species within this genus exhibit diverse life history strategies: some are predators of other dipteran larvae in cattle dung, while others have forensic importance. Larvae of at least one species, Ravinia lherminieri, demonstrate strong host resistance to nematode parasitism through haemocytic encapsulation. The genus has been recorded in North America, Europe (Denmark, Norway, Sweden), and Brazil.
Resseliella
Resseliella is a genus of gall midges in the family Cecidomyiidae containing at least 50 described species. The genus includes economically significant agricultural pests, notably R. maxima (soybean gall midge) which threatens soybean production in the north-central United States, as well as R. citrifrugis, a major citrus pest in China, and R. theobaldi (raspberry cane midge), an important pest of cultivated red raspberry in Europe. Some species exhibit mutualistic relationships with plants, such as R. kadsurae which pollinates Kadsura longipedunculata in China.
Rhinacloa
plant bugs
Rhinacloa is a genus of plant bugs in the family Miridae, established by Reuter in 1876. The genus comprises more than 30 described species distributed primarily in the Nearctic and Neotropical regions. Some species exhibit facultative predatory behavior on soft-bodied arthropods, while others are strictly phytophagous. One species, R. callicrates, was introduced to Australia as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Parkinsonia aculeata.
Rhinacloa callicrates
Rhinacloa callicrates is a plant bug (Miridae) native to the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. It was introduced to Australia as a biological control agent for the invasive woody weed Parkinsonia aculeata. The species has been observed to feed and oviposit almost exclusively on P. aculeata, and established populations are present in Queensland, Australia.
Rhinocyllini
Rhinocyllini is a tribe of weevils within the subfamily Lixinae, characterized by their association with thistles (Asteraceae: Cardueae). Members are recognized by their distinctive rostrum structure and have been studied for their potential as biological control agents against invasive thistle species. The tribe includes economically significant genera such as Rhinocyllus, which has been introduced to multiple countries to manage thistle populations.
Rhinocyllus
thistle head weevil
Rhinocyllus is a small genus of true weevils (Curculionidae) comprising four described species. The genus is notable for its specialized association with thistles in the subtribe Carduinae. The most widely known species, R. conicus, was introduced to North America in the 1960s as a biological control agent for invasive thistles including musk thistle (Carduus nutans), but subsequently revealed significant non-target impacts on native North American thistles, including threatened and endangered species. The genus is sister to Bangasternus.
Rhinoncomimus
Rhinoncomimus is a genus of minute seed weevils in the family Curculionidae, established by Wagner in 1940. The genus comprises approximately eight described species distributed in Eastern Asia, with China representing a center of diversity. One species, R. latipes (the mile-a-minute weevil), has been extensively studied and deployed as a biological control agent for the invasive vine Persicaria perfoliata in North America. The genus is characterized by host associations with Polygonaceae, particularly Persicaria and Polygonum species.
Rhinoncomimus latipes
mile-a-minute weevil
Rhinoncomimus latipes is a specialist weevil in the family Curculionidae, native to Asia and introduced to North America in 2004 as a biological control agent for the invasive vine Persicaria perfoliata (mile-a-minute weed). The species exhibits strict host specificity, having been found to successfully reproduce only on this plant. Adults overwinter in leaf litter and emerge in spring to feed and mate. The weevil has proven effective at reducing mile-a-minute populations where established, though its dispersal rate is relatively slow at approximately 4.3 km per year.
Rhinusa antirrhini
toadflax seedhead weevil, toadflax capsule weevil, seed-gall weevil, Toadflax Seed Weevil
Rhinusa antirrhini is a seed-parasitic true weevil (Curculionidae) native to Europe that has been introduced to North America. It specializes on toadflax species (Linaria spp.), particularly Dalmatian toadflax (L. dalmatica) and yellow toadflax (L. vulgaris). Despite intentional redistribution as a biological control agent in the 1990s, it has not proven effective at suppressing invasive toadflax populations. Population genetic studies reveal host-associated genetic differentiation driven by associations with different Linaria species.
Rhinusa neta
Rhinusa neta is a seed-feeding weevil in the family Curculionidae, native to Europe and introduced to North America as a biological control agent for invasive toadflax species. Adults are active from May to August. Larvae develop inside seed capsules of host plants, feeding on immature seeds. The complete development cycle from egg to adult averages approximately 60 days under standard laboratory conditions.
Rhinusa tetra
Mullein Weevil, European Curculionid Weevil
Rhinusa tetra is a true weevil in the family Curculionidae, tribe Mecinini, commonly known as the mullein weevil. It is a European species that has been proposed as a potential biological control agent for invasive Common Mullein (Verbascum thapsus) in North America. The species was first described by Fabricius in 1792 and belongs to the taxonomically revised R. tetra species complex, which includes three closely related species: R. comosa, R. moroderi, and R. verbasci.
Rhodacaroidea
Rhodacaroidea is a superfamily of predatory mites in the order Mesostigmata, comprising six families and over 900 described species worldwide. These mites are predominantly soil-dwelling, with highest abundance and diversity in soil and litter habitats. They have received attention as potential biological control agents due to their predatory habits. The group is among the more studied mesostigmatid superfamilies, though detailed biological and ecological knowledge remains limited for many species.
Rhopalidae
Scentless Plant Bugs
Rhopalidae, commonly known as scentless plant bugs, is a family of true bugs in the order Hemiptera. The family comprises approximately 30 genera and over 240 species worldwide. Members are distinguished from related coreids by the absence of well-developed scent glands, and from similar lygaeids by the numerous veins in the hemelytral membrane. Most species feed on plants, with some exhibiting host specificity on particular plant families. The family includes several species that aggregate in large numbers and occasionally enter buildings, such as boxelder bugs (Boisea spp.) and red-shouldered bugs (Jadera haematoloma).
Rhopalosiphum padi
bird cherry-oat aphid, oat-bird cherry aphid, apple-grain aphid
Rhopalosiphum padi is a globally distributed aphid species and major pest of temperate cereal crops. It exhibits a complex life cycle involving host alternation between a woody primary host (Prunus padus, bird cherry) and herbaceous secondary hosts including barley, oats, wheat, and other grasses. The species is the principal vector of barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) and several other economically important plant viruses. Unlike some cereal aphids, it does not inject toxins while feeding, so direct damage from feeding is generally less severe than virus transmission losses.
Rhopus
Rhopus is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, subfamily Tetracneminae. The genus was established by Förster in 1856. Species within this genus are known to parasitize mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), with documented host associations including Tridiscus sporoboli and Trionymus species. The genus is represented in major entomological collections including the University of California Riverside Encyrtidae holdings, which contains multiple described species.
Rhyacionia zozana
Ponderosa Pine Tip Moth
Rhyacionia zozana is a tortricid moth commonly known as the ponderosa pine tip moth. The species is a specialist herbivore of ponderosa pine, with larvae feeding on terminal shoots. It serves as host to a diverse community of parasitoids, with documented parasitism rates averaging 47% in California and Oregon populations. Males locate females using pheromone cues, a behavior that has been successfully disrupted using aerially applied synthetic pheromone for population management.
Rhynocoris
Flower Assassin Bugs
Rhynocoris is a genus of assassin bugs in the family Reduviidae, subfamily Harpactorinae. Species occur across Asia, mainland Europe, Africa, and North America. The genus exhibits subsocial behavior with parental care of egg masses, a trait that has evolved independently only six times in Heteroptera. Multiple species have been investigated as biological control agents for agricultural pests, particularly in cotton and other crop systems.
Rhysipolis
Rhysipolis is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the subfamily Rhysipolinae (Braconidae), comprising approximately 22 described species. Species are small, with body lengths of 2.5–4.0 mm and fore wing lengths of 2.2–4.0 mm. The genus is distributed across the East Palaearctic and Oriental regions, with records from China, Russia, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and parts of Europe. Members are koinobiont ectoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, with documented hosts including bagworm moths (Psychidae) and snout moths (Pyralidae).
Rhyssa
Rhyssa is a genus of large ichneumon wasps in the subfamily Rhyssinae, characterized by exceptionally long ovipositors used to parasitize wood-boring larvae. The genus name derives from Greek meaning "wrinkled." Species in this genus are parasitoids of siricid woodwasps and related wood-boring insects, with females drilling through timber to locate and oviposit on hosts concealed deep within wood. They are distributed across Europe, North Africa, the Near East, North America, the Indomalayan realm, and Australia.
Rhyssa howdenorum
Rhyssa howdenorum is an ichneumonid wasp that parasitizes Sirex nigricornis, a siricid woodwasp pest of pine trees. It was described by Townes in 1960 and has been studied in central Louisiana pine plantations. The species has a single generation per year, with adults emerging from infested loblolly pine logs between mid-August and early November. It serves as a biological control agent against its host, which damages pine timber.
Rhyssa persuasoria
Sabre Wasp, Giant Ichneumon
Rhyssa persuasoria is a large ichneumonid wasp and one of the largest in Europe, commonly known as the sabre wasp or giant ichneumon. Females possess an exceptionally long ovipositor used to drill into wood and parasitize larvae of wood-boring insects, particularly siricid woodwasps and longhorn beetles. The species has been introduced to several countries as a biological control agent for invasive woodwasps. It exhibits geographic variation in coloration patterns correlated with host tree bark characteristics, suggesting adaptive cryptic coloration.
Rhyssella nitida
Rhyssella nitida is a diurnal ichneumon wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. The female possesses an exceptionally long ovipositor used to drill into wood and locate host larvae. It is an external parasitoid of wood-wasp larvae in the genus Xiphydria. The species has been documented at blacklight traps, though this appears to be an exception to its normally diurnal activity pattern.
Rhyssinae
Rhyssinae is a subfamily of parasitoid wasps within Ichneumonidae, comprising approximately 450 described species across eight genera worldwide. Members are characterized by extremely long ovipositors used by females to drill into wood and parasitize larvae of wood-boring insects, particularly Siricidae (woodwasps) and wood-boring beetles. The subfamily shows highest species diversity in the Oriental region, with significant representation in tropical forests of South America and Africa. Fossil evidence dates the subfamily to the Eocene, approximately 47 million years ago.
Rhyssomatus
Rhyssomatus is a genus of true weevils (Curculionidae) containing at least 180 described species. The genus includes significant agricultural pests, particularly of soybean and other leguminous crops. Several species have been intensively studied due to their economic impact, including R. nigerrimus (Mexican soybean weevil), R. subtilis (black soybean weevil in Argentina), and R. lineaticollis (milkweed stem weevil in North America). Species exhibit diverse life histories ranging from monophagous specialists to oligophagous generalists on legumes.
Rhyzobius
Rhyzobius is a genus of small lady beetles (Coccinellidae) in the tribe Coccidulini. The genus was established by J.F. Stephens in 1829 (published 1832) and contains approximately 106 recognized species worldwide. Members are specialized predators of scale insects (Coccoidea), particularly armored scales (Diaspididae). Several species, notably R. lophanthae and R. ventralis, have been widely introduced as biological control agents against scale pests in temperate regions globally.
Rhyzobius forestieri
Forestier's lady beetle
Rhyzobius forestieri is a small lady beetle native to Australia, introduced to Europe and North America in the 1980s as a biological control agent for scale insects. The species has been evaluated for its efficacy in controlling Olive Scale (Saissetia oleae) and other scale pests, with variable success reported in different regions. It exhibits colour variation and wax production across all life stages, and displays specialized defensive and feeding behaviours. The species is now established in multiple continents outside its native range.
Rhyzobius lophanthae
purple scale predator, scale-eating ladybird
Rhyzobius lophanthae is a small coccidophagous ladybird beetle native to Queensland and Southern Australia, widely introduced as a biological control agent. Adults and larvae prey on armored scales (Diaspididae) and mealybugs, with younger larvae crawling beneath protective scale covers to feed on nymphs. The species has established populations across the southern United States since its 1892 introduction to California, as well as in Europe and Pacific islands including Guam and Rota. It exhibits temperature-dependent development with optimal reproductive performance at 28°C.
Rileyinae
Rileyinae is a subfamily of small wasps within Eurytomidae (Chalcidoidea), comprising parasitoids primarily associated with insect eggs and gall-formers. Members include the genus Neorileya, known as endoparasitoids of eggs from diverse Hemipteran families (Coreidae, Pentatomidae, Reduviidae) and even Tettigoniidae. The subfamily also includes Gatesina, a genus that parasitizes Eurytominae gall-formers in fruits of Myrtaceae. Rileyinae species are typically minute (2-3 mm), solitary, and part of the 'micro-Hymenoptera' fauna.
Rogadinae
Mummy Wasps
Rogadinae is a large, cosmopolitan subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps commonly known as "mummy wasps." Members are koinobiont endoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, uniquely characterized by causing their host caterpillars to mummify—the wasp larva pupates within the desiccated host remains. The subfamily contains six tribes (Aleiodini, Betylobraconini, Clinocentrini, Rogadini, Stiropiini, Yeliconini) and is especially diverse in the genus Aleiodes. Several species are important natural biological control agents of agricultural pest caterpillars.
Sabulodes aegrotata
Omnivorous Looper
Sabulodes aegrotata, commonly known as the omnivorous looper, is a geometrid moth native to northwestern North America. The species is notable for its broad larval diet spanning multiple plant families, including alder, willow, and California bay laurel. Adults are active year-round and possess a wingspan of 35–44 mm. The species serves as a host for egg parasitoids in the families Mymaridae and Trichogrammatidae.
Sagotylus
Sagotylus is a genus of leaf-footed bugs in the family Coreidae, established by Mayr in 1865. The genus contains a single described species, S. confluens. Members of this genus are true bugs (Hemiptera) within the suborder Heteroptera.
Saissetia
soft scales, black scales
Saissetia is a genus of soft scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccidae) containing at least four described species. The genus includes economically important pests, notably Saissetia oleae (black scale) and Saissetia coffeae (hemispherical scale), which attack citrus, olive, coffee, and numerous ornamental plants. Saissetia species are phloem-feeding insects that produce honeydew, facilitating ant associations and sooty mold growth. Several species have been introduced globally through trade in infested nursery plants.
Saissetia coffeae
hemispherical scale, helmet scale, coffee brown scale
Saissetia coffeae is a polyphagous soft scale insect (Coccidae) with a cosmopolitan tropical and subtropical distribution. Adults are sessile, hemispherical, and helmet-shaped, ranging 2–4.5 mm in diameter depending on host plant. The species reproduces parthenogenetically; all individuals are female. It is a significant agricultural pest of coffee, citrus, avocado, fig, guava, and numerous ornamental plants, causing damage through phloem sap feeding and honeydew secretion that promotes sooty mold growth. Multiple parasitoid wasps and predatory insects are associated with natural population regulation.
Salbia
Salbia is a genus of crambid moths (family Crambidae, subfamily Pyraustinae) established by Achille Guenée in 1854. The genus contains leaf-rolling species, including Salbia lotanalis, which has been studied as a potential biological control agent for the invasive tree Miconia calvescens. Larvae feed on Melastomataceae and construct leaf rolls for shelter.
Salpingogaster
Salpingogaster is a genus of hoverflies (family Syrphidae) containing at least 30 described species. At least one species, S. nigra, has been documented as a predator of froghopper nymphs (Hemiptera: Cercopidae) in pasture ecosystems. The genus belongs to the tribe Syrphini within the subfamily Syrphinae.
Samea
Samea is a genus of moths in the family Crambidae, subfamily Spilomelinae, established by Achille Guenée in 1854. The genus comprises approximately 25 described species distributed across tropical and subtropical regions. Samea multiplicalis, commonly known as the Salvinia moth, has been extensively studied for its potential use as a biological control agent against the invasive aquatic fern Salvinia. Most species in this genus appear to be associated with aquatic or semi-aquatic habitats.
Samea multiplicalis
salvinia stem-borer moth
Samea multiplicalis is an aquatic moth native to the Americas, ranging from the southern United States to Argentina, and introduced to Australia in 1981 as a biological control agent for invasive water ferns. Adults are small, tan moths with darker wing markings and a wingspan of approximately 20 mm. The species completes its entire life cycle on or near aquatic host plants, with larvae feeding internally on stems and externally on leaves, often causing plant death. High rates of parasitism by native wasps and flies limit its effectiveness as a weed control agent in introduced ranges.
Sarcophaga
Common Flesh Flies
Sarcophaga is a large genus of true flies (Diptera) comprising over 1000 species worldwide. These flies are commonly known as flesh flies due to the necrophagous habits of many species. Adults are medium to large-sized with characteristic gray coloration, three longitudinal dark stripes on the thorax, and checkered abdominal patterning. Species identification requires microscopic examination of male genitalia due to uniform external morphology. The genus exhibits diverse life histories including necrophagy, coprophagy, parasitism, and parasitoidism.
Sarcophaga aldrichi
Friendly Fly, Large Flesh Fly
Sarcophaga aldrichi is a parasitoid flesh fly commonly known as the friendly fly or large flesh fly. It is a specialized parasitoid of the forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria), depositing live larvae into host cocoons where they consume the pupating caterpillars. The species exhibits distinctive delayed population dynamics, with outbreaks occurring one year after peak host caterpillar abundance. Adults are frequently encountered in large numbers during outbreak years, sometimes becoming a nuisance to humans despite being harmless.
Sasajiscymnus
Sasajiscymnus is a genus of small lady beetles (Coccinellidae) established by Vandenberg in 2004. The genus contains over 100 species distributed across Asia, Africa, and Oceania. Molecular evidence suggests an origin in the Late Cretaceous, approximately 78 million years ago. The genus includes S. tsugae, which has been widely studied and deployed as a biological control agent against the hemlock woolly adelgid in North America.
Sasajiscymnus tsugae
hemlock woolly adelgid lady beetle
Sasajiscymnus tsugae is a small black lady beetle native to Japan that was introduced to eastern North America as a biological control agent against the invasive hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). First described in 1997 and released in the United States beginning in 1995, this predator has established populations in forest and urban environments. The species exhibits high host specificity, feeding primarily on three adelgid species. Field studies demonstrated 47–88% reduction in adelgid densities within five months of beetle introduction.
Scaeva
Scaeva is a genus of hoverflies (family Syrphidae) comprising approximately seven described species distributed across the Palaearctic region. The genus has been subject to taxonomic revision alongside related genera Simosyrphus and Ischiodon. Adults are pollinators, while larvae are predominantly aphidophagous predators. Scaeva pyrastri has been extensively studied for its biological control potential against agricultural aphid pests.
Scaptomyza flava
European leaf miner, yellow scaptomyza
Scaptomyza flava is an obligate herbivorous leaf-mining fly in the family Drosophilidae, representing an evolutionary transition to herbivory from the ancestral microbe-feeding habit of drosophilids. Adults are 2.5 mm in length and amber to dark brown in color. The species is native to the Palearctic region with a Holarctic distribution across Europe, Asia, and North America, and has been introduced to New Zealand and Australia where it is a significant agricultural pest of Brassicales crops. Larvae feed internally on leaf mesophyll, creating serpentine mines that mature into blotches. The species is unusual among Drosophilidae in having lost yeast-associated odorant receptors and evolved specialized detoxification mechanisms for mustard oils. It is being developed as a model organism for studying plant-herbivore interactions.
Scarabaeinae
true dung beetles, dung beetles
Scarabaeinae is a subfamily of scarab beetles comprising the true dung beetles. Adults typically feed on dung, though some species consume carrion, decaying fruit, or fungi. The subfamily is divided into three functional guilds—rollers (telecoprids), tunnelers (paracoprids), and dwellers (endocoprids)—based on dung processing behavior. Members exhibit modified mouthparts with an expanded clypeus covering the mandibles, and possess a space between the middle legs for dung manipulation. The subfamily originated in the Lower Cretaceous (115–130 million years ago) and is hypothesized to have co-evolved with dinosaurs.
Scarites
big-headed ground beetle
Scarites is a genus of large ground beetles in the family Carabidae, containing over 190 described species distributed across the Palearctic, Near East, North America, and North Africa. These beetles are characterized by their disproportionately large heads, prominent mandibles, and elongated, somewhat flattened bodies that superficially resemble tropical stag beetles, though they are not closely related. Both adults and larvae are active predators that hunt soil-dwelling invertebrates. When disturbed, Scarites beetles exhibit thanatosis—folding their legs and arching their backs to feign death.
Scarites vicinus
Large-jawed Pedunculate Ground Beetle
Scarites vicinus is a large ground beetle in the Carabidae family, native to North America. It belongs to the quadriceps group and was previously considered a junior synonym of S. quadriceps but has been revalidated as a distinct species. Phylogenetic analysis of Cox1 genes identifies S. vicinus as the closest relative to S. subterraneus. It is one of two Scarites species recorded from Nebraska.
Scathophagidae
Dung Flies
Scathophagidae is a small family of calyptrate flies within the superfamily Muscoidea, comprising approximately 500 described species in 66 genera. Commonly called 'dung flies,' this name is misleading as only a few species in the genus Scathophaga actually develop in animal dung. The family exhibits diverse larval biology including plant feeding, aquatic predation, and predation on other insect larvae in moist organic substrates. Adults are predatory on small insects and are frequently observed hunting on flowers rather than pollinating. The family is predominantly distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, with exceptional diversity in the Russian Far East and strong representation in Arctic tundra habitats.
Scelio
Scelio is a large genus of parasitoid wasps containing at least 240 and possibly 500 species, making it the most diverse genus within the family Scelionidae. These wasps are solitary egg parasitoids of grasshoppers (Acrididae, Orthoptera), including economically important pest locusts such as Schistocerca. They have a cosmopolitan distribution and have been studied extensively for their potential as biological control agents against orthopteran agricultural pests.
Scelioninae
Scelioninae is a large subfamily of parasitoid wasps in the family Scelionidae, containing over 3,000 described species across approximately 160 genera. These wasps are exclusively parasitoids, primarily attacking the eggs of insects, spiders, and other arthropods. They are generally idiobionts—parasitoids that prevent further host development after attack—and several genera have evolved winglessness or adaptations for aquatic environments, including underwater attack of insect eggs.
Sceliotrachelinae
Sceliotrachelinae is a subfamily of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Platygastridae, established by Brues in 1908. The subfamily was significantly revised in 1989 when 26 genera were reassigned from the former Inostemmatinae based on morphological and phylogenetic analyses. Members are primary endoparasitoids, specifically egg parasitoids (ooparasitoids), of whiteflies (Aleyrodidae). The subfamily contains 26 accepted genera including Allotropa, Amitus, Fidiobia, and Sceliotrachelus, with a global distribution spanning six continents.
Sceliphron caementarium
Yellow-legged Mud-dauber Wasp, Black and Yellow Mud Dauber, Black-waisted Mud-dauber
Sceliphron caementarium is a solitary sphecid wasp renowned for constructing nests from mud. Females build multi-celled mud nests in sheltered locations, provision each cell with paralyzed spiders, and deposit a single egg before sealing the chamber. The species exhibits remarkable geographic plasticity, having established populations across multiple continents through human-mediated dispersal. Adults feed on nectar and are generally non-aggressive, with stings being rare.
Scenopinidae
window flies
Scenopinidae, commonly known as window flies, comprise approximately 400 described species of small brachyceran flies distributed worldwide. Adults are typically found on windows in buildings, giving rise to their common name. The family includes three subfamilies: Caenotinae, Proratinae, and Scenopininae. Larvae are predatory, inhabiting diverse environments from sandy arid soils to decaying organic matter, animal nests, and synanthropic settings. Two species, Scenopinus fenestralis and S. glabrifrons, have achieved cosmopolitan distributions through association with human trade.
Scenopinus fenestralis
window fly, House Windowfly
Scenopinus fenestralis, commonly known as the window fly, is a small predatory fly in the family Scenopinidae. Adults are frequently observed resting on windows of old buildings and outhouses, where their behavior appears relatively inactive. The species has been recorded across Europe, including Central Europe and Southern England. Its larvae are notable predators of clothes moth and flea larvae.
Schizocerella
purslane sawflies
Schizocerella is a genus of sawflies in the family Argidae containing at least two species: Schizocerella pilicornis and Schizocerella lineata. Both species are associated with purslane (Portulaca) as host plants. The genus was historically confused, with S. lineata only recognized as distinct from S. pilicornis in 2007 based on mitochondrial DNA analysis. Males are readily identified by their uniquely forked terminal antennal segments.
Schizocerella lineata
Outer Purslane Sawfly
Schizocerella lineata is a sawfly species in the family Argidae, historically confused with S. pilicornis until mitochondrial DNA analysis confirmed their separation in 2007. Unlike its congener, whose larvae are internal leaf miners, S. lineata larvae feed externally on purslane leaves. The species occurs widely across the New World from southern Canada to at least Central America, with multiple generations annually in warmer regions.
Schizocerella pilicornis
purslane sawfly, portulaca sawfly
Schizocerella pilicornis is a sawfly in the family Argidae whose larvae are internal leaf miners of Common Purslane (Portulaca oleracea). The species was described in 1868 and is notable as the only Argidae species worldwide with endophagous larvae. Adults are small wasp-like insects with distinctive sexual dimorphism: males possess forked terminal antennal segments, while females have characteristic black markings on the thorax. The species may be adventive in North America, with its native range possibly centered in South America.
Schizoprymnus
Schizoprymnus is a genus of braconid parasitoid wasps in the subfamily Brachistinae, comprising 126 extant species distributed worldwide except the Neotropical region. Species are ovo-larval koinobiont endoparasitoids of coleopterous larvae, particularly weevils and related beetle families. The genus is characterized by a distinctive carapace formed by the fusion of the anterior three metasomal tergites.
Schlettererius
Schlettererius is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Stephanidae. The best-studied species, S. cinctipes, is a parasitoid of wood-boring insects, particularly the invasive woodwasp Sirex noctilio in pine forests. Adults possess extremely long ovipositors used to drill through wood to reach host larvae. The genus has been used as a biological control agent and has shown evidence of transcontinental movement across North America, tracking the spread of its hosts.
Schlettererius cinctipes
Schlettererius cinctipes is a parasitoid wasp in the family Stephanidae, native to western North America and recently introduced to the eastern United States. It parasitizes wood-boring insects, with documented success in biological control programs against Sirex noctilio in pine plantations. The species possesses an elongated ovipositor adapted for reaching hosts deep within timber.
Schreckensteiniidae
Bristle-legged Moths
Schreckensteiniidae is a small family of microlepidopteran moths commonly known as bristle-legged moths, named for the stout spines on their hindlegs. The family was described by Thomas Bainbrigge Fletcher in 1929 and constitutes the sole family within the superfamily Schreckensteinioidea. Its phylogenetic position within the Apoditrysia remains uncertain. The family includes the blackberry skeletoniser (Schreckensteinia festaliella), a European species introduced to Hawaii for biological control, and species of Corsocasis in Southeast Asia.
Sciomyza
snail-killing flies
Sciomyza is a genus of marsh flies (Sciomyzidae) whose larvae are specialized predators or parasitoids of freshwater snails. Adults inhabit moist environments near gastropod populations. The genus includes seven described species distributed across northern Europe and North America.
Sciomyzini
snail-killing flies
Sciomyzini is a tribe of snail-killing flies within the family Sciomyzidae. Larvae are specialized predators and parasitoids of freshwater nonoperculate pulmonate snails. The tribe exhibits variable degrees of specialization: some species are highly specialized parasitoids with eggs laid directly on snail shells and puparia modified to fit tightly within host shells, while others are less specialized with eggs laid on vegetation and larvae acting as parasitoid-predator-saprophages. The tribe includes at least 13 genera and has been documented in both Palearctic and Nearctic regions.
Sciomyzoidea
Kelp, Marsh, Thick-headed Flies and Allies
Sciomyzoidea is a superfamily of acalyptrate flies (Diptera: Acalyptratae) comprising at least 11 families, including the well-known Sciomyzidae (snail-killing or marsh flies), Sepsidae (scavenger flies), and Coelopidae (seaweed flies). The superfamily exhibits diverse ecological specializations, with some families associated with marine or coastal habitats and others with freshwater or terrestrial environments. The family Sciomyzidae is particularly notable for its larval predation and parasitism on gastropods.
Sciota rubescentella
Sciota rubescentella is a small moth in the family Pyralidae, subfamily Phycitinae. The genus Sciota includes several leafroller species, with larvae that feed on various tree species. This species is part of a group of moths whose caterpillars are known prey for the Four-toothed Mason Wasp (Monobia quadridens), which hunts them to provision its nest cells.
Scleroderminae
Scleroderminae is a subfamily of small parasitoid wasps within the family Bethylidae. Members of this subfamily are characterized by their compact body form and reduced wing venation compared to other bethylids. They are primarily known as parasitoids of beetle larvae, particularly those in wood-boring and stem-boring families. The subfamily includes genera such as Sclerodermus, which has been studied for its potential in biological control.
Sclerodermus
Flat wasp
Sclerodermus is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Bethylidae, comprising at least 20 described species. These wasps exhibit quasi-social behavior rare among parasitoids: multiple females cooperate to paralyze hosts and provision shared broods with extended maternal care. Most individuals are wingless, leading to frequent misidentification as ants. The genus is notable for extremely female-biased sex ratios (often 86-97% female) and has significant value as biological control agents against wood-boring beetles, particularly in forestry systems.
Scolia
digger wasps, blue-winged digger wasps
Scolia is a genus of digger wasps in the family Scoliidae. Adult females hunt scarab beetle grubs in soil, paralyze them with a sting, and deposit eggs on the living host. The wasp larvae consume the grub from the outside, eventually pupating in the burrow and overwintering before emerging the following summer. Several species are common in North American lawns and gardens, where they serve as important biological control agents of turf pests.
Scolia bicincta
Double-banded Scoliid Wasp, double-banded scoliid
Scolia bicincta is a large, conspicuous scoliid wasp native to eastern and central North America. Adults are active from late summer through autumn, where they visit flowers for nectar. Females are parasitoids of scarab beetle grubs, digging underground to locate hosts, paralyzing them, and laying single eggs on the immobilized prey. The species is considered beneficial for biological control of lawn and garden pests known as "white grubs."
Scolia dubia
Blue-winged Scoliid Wasp, Two-spotted Scoliid Wasp, Blue-winged Digger Wasp
Scolia dubia is a medium-sized scoliid wasp, 20–25 mm in length, with striking iridescent blue-black wings and a black-and-red body marked by two yellow spots on the abdomen. The species ranges across eastern and central North America, from New England to Florida and west to California. It is a specialist parasitoid of scarab beetle grubs, particularly the green June beetle (Cotinis nitida), and has been observed attacking Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica) larvae. Adults are nectar feeders, frequently visiting flowers of the mint and aster families.
Scolia dubia haematodes
Blood-tailed Scoliid Wasp, Blue-winged Digger Wasp
Scolia dubia haematodes is a subspecies of digger wasp in the family Scoliidae. Adults are recognized by iridescent blue-black wings, black body, and reddish-brown terminal abdominal segments. Females hunt scarab beetle grubs in soil, paralyze them with a sting, and deposit eggs on the living hosts. The developing wasp larvae consume the grubs, making this taxon a significant biological control agent of turfgrass and garden pests.
Scolia nobilitata tricincta
Scolia nobilitata tricincta is a subspecies of digger wasp in the family Scoliidae. As a parasitoid of scarab beetle grubs, it locates white grubs beneath the soil surface, tunnels through dirt to reach them, delivers a paralyzing sting, and deposits an egg on the grub's skin. The larva consumes the living grub before spinning a silken cocoon to overwinter, emerging as an adult the following August. Adults are distinguished from the related Scolia dubia by having four yellow or off-white spots on the abdomen rather than two.
Scoliini
Scoliini is a cosmopolitan tribe within the family Scoliidae, a group of large-bodied parasitoid wasps commonly known as mammoth wasps or scoliid wasps. The tribe includes genera such as Scolia, Megascolia, Triscolia, and Microscolia. Recent phylogenetic studies indicate that Scoliini is closely related to the genus Colpa, with which it forms a clade sister to the remaining Campsomerini. Many genera within Scoliini, including Megascolia and Scolia, have been inferred to be non-monophyletic based on molecular data.
Scolothrips
six-spotted thrips
Scolothrips is a genus of predatory thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) established by Hinds in 1902. Species within this genus are obligate predators of spider mites (Tetranychidae) and related mite families (Tenuipalpidae). The genus includes economically important species such as S. longicornis and S. sexmaculatus, which have been studied for biological control potential. Some species show apparent host specificity, while others feed on multiple mite prey species. Development, reproduction, and survival are strongly influenced by environmental factors including temperature and photoperiod.
Scutellista
Scutellista is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Eunotidae. Members are parasitoids of scale insects (Coccoidea), with several species used as biological control agents. The genus is characterized by a distinctive scutellum that projects as a roof over much of the gaster. Species occur across multiple continents including Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia.
Scutellista caerulea
Scutellista caerulea is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Pteromalidae, widely used as a biological control agent against soft scale insects (Coccoidea). The species is an ectoparasitoid, with larvae feeding externally on host eggs concealed beneath the adult scale insect's body. Laboratory studies have established optimal rearing conditions at 30–33°C with 12–14 hours of daylight and supplementary carbohydrate nutrition for adults. The species demonstrates particular effectiveness in tropical environments where other parasitoids may fail.
Scutigera
house centipede
Scutigera is a genus of centipedes in the family Scutigeridae, commonly known as house centipedes. The genus comprises more than 30 species, with Scutigera coleoptrata being the most widespread and well-studied. Members of this genus are characterized by exceptionally long legs and antennae, true compound eyes, and remarkable speed. They are primarily synanthropic, having spread globally through human commerce from their presumed Mediterranean origin.
Scymninae
Scymnine lady beetles, Minute lady beetles
Scymninae is a subfamily of minute lady beetles within Coccinellidae, comprising at least 170 described species globally. Members are recognized as efficient biological control agents, particularly in agricultural systems. The subfamily is taxonomically diverse, represented by 5 tribes, 15 genera, and 138 species in the Indian subcontinent alone. Species within Scymninae exhibit morphological characteristics distinct from other coccinellid subfamilies, including specific arrangements of coxal lines and genitalia structures.
Scymnini
Dusky Lady Beetles, dusky ladybugs
Scymnini is a tribe of minute lady beetles (Coccinellidae) commonly known as dusky ladybugs. Adults are typically 1–2 mm long with hemispherically domed, densely hairy bodies. The tribe has been synonymized with Coccidulini under modern classifications. Members are predatory as both adults and larvae, feeding on spider mites, scale insects, whiteflies, and aphids. Many species are economically important as biological control agents of agricultural pests.
Scymnus coniferarum
conifer lady beetle
Scymnus coniferarum is a small predatory lady beetle native to western North America. It has been studied as a potential biological control agent for the hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae), an invasive pest of eastern hemlock in eastern North America. Field studies in Washington State indicate it feeds on multiple adelgid species across different conifer hosts, with higher abundance observed on pine adelgids than on hemlock woolly adelgid.
Scymnus creperus
dusky lady beetle
Scymnus creperus is a small dusky lady beetle (Coccinellidae: Scymnini) native to North America. Adults measure 1.76–2.68 mm and display distinctive coloration: yellowish-red head and pronotum with a small black spot, and black elytra with red apices. The species is notable for its larval defense mechanism—secretion of a sticky white wax from integument pores that reduces aggression by the imported fire ant Solenopsis invicta. It preys on aphids and has been documented feeding on the bird cherry-oat aphid Rhopalosiphum padi.
Scymnus indianensis
Indiana lady beetle
Scymnus indianensis, commonly known as the Indiana lady beetle, is a small dusky lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae. It belongs to the genus Scymnus, which comprises minute lady beetles often characterized by their dull coloration and pubescent bodies. The species was described by Weise in 1929 and is documented from North America, with specific records from Ontario, Canada. Like other members of Scymninae, it is presumed to be a predator of small soft-bodied insects, though direct observations of its biology remain limited.
Scymnus marginicollis
dusky lady beetle
Scymnus marginicollis is a species of dusky lady beetle in the family Coccinellidae, first described by Mannerheim in 1843. It is recognized as a member of the subfamily Scymninae, a group of small lady beetles often referred to as 'dusky' or 'scymnine' lady beetles due to their typically dull coloration compared to the brightly colored Coccinellinae. The species is known to occur across North America with two recognized subspecies: S. marginicollis marginicollis and S. marginicollis borealis.
Scymnus suturalis
Pine Dusky Lady Beetle
Scymnus suturalis is a tiny ladybird beetle (2.0–2.5 mm) native to the Palearctic, now introduced to North America. It inhabits coniferous and mixed forests, where it feeds primarily on scale insects (Coccoidea), particularly Chionaspis salicis, and adelgids on pine. The species has been found under bark flakes, in moss on tree trunks, and in conifer litter. Its small size and hairy elytra distinguish it from larger, more familiar ladybird species.
Scyphophorus acupunctatus
agave weevil, sisal weevil, picudo del agave
Scyphophorus acupunctatus is a specialized weevil native to Central and North America that has become a globally significant pest of agaves and related plants. Adults bore into agave stalks and rosettes, creating entry points for pathogenic bacteria and fungi that ultimately kill the host plant. The species has established invasive populations across Europe, Africa, Asia, Oceania, and South America, facilitated by the international trade of ornamental agaves. Its economic impact is particularly severe on Agave tequilana, threatening the tequila industry, and on wild agave populations important for mezcal production and ecosystem stability.
Scytodes globula
Chilean tiger spider, araña tigre, long-legged spider, spitting spider
Scytodes globula is a predatory spitting spider (family Scytodidae) native to South America. It is notable for its distinctive hunting method: projecting an extremely sticky substance from enlarged venom glands to immobilize prey. The species has gained recognition as a documented predator of the medically significant Chilean recluse spider (Loxosceles laeta), though experimental evidence indicates predation success varies with prey behavior. It is primarily nocturnal and commonly associated with human dwellings.
Semanotus
Semanotus is a genus of longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae) described by Étienne Mulsant in 1839. Species within this genus are primarily wood-boring pests of coniferous trees, with documented associations including juniper, fir, cedar, cryptomeria, and cypress. Several species cause significant economic damage to timber and ornamental plantings. The genus has a broad distribution spanning North America, Europe, Asia, and North Africa, with at least 19 recognized species.
Semidalis
dusty-wing
Semidalis is a genus of dusty-wing lacewings (family Coniopterygidae) comprising small predatory insects with bodies covered in white wax. Adults and larvae are active predators of tiny arthropods including spider mites, scale insects, and whiteflies. The genus has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, with records from Europe, China, Africa, and North America. Some species remain active during winter months in temperate regions.
Senotainia trilineata
Three-lined satellite fly
Senotainia trilineata is a satellite fly in the family Sarcophagidae, subfamily Miltogramminae. It is a kleptoparasitic fly that targets the nests of solitary wasps, particularly species in the families Crabronidae and Sphecidae. The female fly deposits live larvae (larviposits) on or near paralyzed prey being transported by host wasps, or directly at nest entrances. The fly larvae then consume the provisioned prey intended for the wasp's offspring. This species has been documented as a parasite of multiple wasp genera including Ammophila, Cerceris, Hoplisoides, and Aphilanthops, and has also been recorded parasitizing the jewel beetle Phaenops vandykei.
Sepedomerus
marsh flies
Sepedomerus is a genus of marsh flies in the family Sciomyzidae, established by Steyskal in 1973. The genus contains at least four described species distributed across multiple continents. One species, S. macropus, has been documented as a predator of liver fluke snails, indicating a role in biological control of trematode parasites. Members of this genus are part of the diverse Tetanocerini tribe within the marsh fly family.
Sepedomerus macropus
Liverfluke Snail Predator Fly
A marsh fly in the family Sciomyzidae, native to the American tropics and subtropics. The larvae are specialized predators of lymnaeid pond snails, which serve as intermediate hosts for the liver fluke Fasciola gigantica. The species has been intentionally introduced to Hawaii, Guam, and Thailand as a biological control agent for snail vectors of fascioliasis. In Hawaii, introduced populations have become invasive, threatening native lymnaeid snail species including the endangered Newcomb's snail.
Sericothripinae
Sericothripinae is a largely tropical subfamily of thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) comprising approximately 140 species. Members are often strikingly bicoloured with complex surface sculpture. Currently only three genera are recognised: Sericothrips (introduced to Australia, with one European species used as weed biological control agent), Hydatothrips (43 species worldwide, including species associated with native vines), and Neohydatothrips (96 species worldwide). The biology of this group is poorly known.
Sibinia
leguminous seed weevils
Sibinia is a genus of seed weevils in the family Curculionidae containing at least 20 described species. The genus is divided into three subgenera: Sibinia (s. str.), Dichotychius, and Microtychius. Species develop as larvae within seeds of host plants, primarily in the families Caryophyllaceae and Plumbaginaceae. The genus has been studied for its potential use in biological control of invasive plants.
Sida
fanpetals, sidas
Sida is a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family (Malvaceae), distributed primarily in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide with particular diversity in the Americas. The genus comprises herbaceous plants and small shrubs commonly known as fanpetals or sidas. Several species have become economically significant as agricultural weeds, notably Sida spinosa (prickly sida) in the southern United States and Sida acuta as an invasive pasture weed in tropical regions globally.
Signiphoridae
Signiphoridae is a small family of parasitoid wasps in the superfamily Chalcidoidea, containing approximately 80-88 extant species distributed across four genera: Chartocerus, Signiphora, Thysanus, and Clytina. These minute wasps function as both primary parasitoids and hyperparasitoids, primarily associated with scale insects (Diaspididae), mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), and predatory insects that feed on these hemipteran pests. The family has a cosmopolitan distribution with species recorded across multiple continents including Asia, Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Recent taxonomic work has described new species from rainforest canopy habitats and documented new distributional records for previously known species.
Sinea complexa
Sinea complexa is a species of assassin bug in the family Reduviidae, first described by Caudell in 1900. It was long confused with the eastern species Sinea incognita, which was described as new in 2015 based on morphological differences in the front leg femora. The species occurs in western and southwestern North America and Mexico. Like other Sinea species, it is a predatory insect that likely feeds on other arthropods.
Singhiella simplex
Ficus whitefly
Singhiella simplex is an invasive whitefly species in the family Aleyrodidae, native to Asia and now established across multiple continents. It is a specialist pest of Ficus species, causing severe defoliation of ornamental trees and hedges. The species has spread to North America, Europe, the Caribbean, South America, and the Middle East. Its rapid expansion and economic impact on urban landscaping have prompted extensive research into its biology and biological control options.
Sinophorus
Sinophorus is a genus of ichneumonid parasitoid wasps established by Förster in 1869. Species are distributed across Europe, Asia, and North America. Members are larval endoparasitoids of Lepidoptera and possibly other insects. The genus includes at least nine described species, with some species such as Sinophorus megalodontis and S. xanthostomus studied for their biological control potential.
Siphoninus
ash whiteflies
Siphoninus is a genus of whiteflies in the family Aleyrodidae. The genus includes at least three recognized species: Siphoninus phillyreae (the ash whitefly), S. immaculatus, and S. gruveli. Siphoninus phillyreae is the most extensively studied species, known as a polyphagous pest with a broad global distribution spanning Europe, Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Oceania. The genus has been subject to recent taxonomic revision, including the revalidation of S. finitimus as a distinct species.
Siphoninus phillyreae
ash whitefly
Siphoninus phillyreae, commonly known as the ash whitefly, is a polyphagous whitefly species native to western Eurasia, India, and North Africa. It has been introduced to North America, South America, and Oceania, where it is recognized as a significant agricultural pest. The species feeds on a broad range of host plants including ash, pomegranate, apple, pear, and other fruit trees. Encarsia inaron is a primary parasitoid used for its biological control.
Sirex
horntail, wood wasp
Sirex is a genus of horntail woodwasps in the family Siricidae. These insects are characterized by an obligate mutualistic relationship with wood-decaying fungi, which they carry in specialized abdominal organs called mycangia and introduce into host trees during oviposition. The fungus digests wood cellulose, providing nutrition for the developing larvae. The genus includes significant forest pests, notably Sirex noctilio, which has become invasive in multiple continents outside its native range.
Sirex cyaneus
blue horntail
Sirex cyaneus, commonly known as the blue horntail, is a species of woodwasp in the family Siricidae. Native to forests in Alberta, Canada, adults reach approximately 2 cm in length. The species serves as a host for parasitoid wasps including Rhyssa persuasoria and Ibalia leucospoides, which have been studied for potential biological control applications.
Sitona lepidus
clover root weevil
Sitona lepidus, commonly known as the clover root weevil, is a root-feeding weevil native to Europe that has become an invasive pest in New Zealand and North America. Adults feed on clover foliage while larvae feed on root nodules, reducing nitrogen fixation and pasture quality. The species is particularly damaging in New Zealand due to the absence of natural competitors and established biological control programs using the parasitoid wasp Microctonus aethiopoides are underway.
Smicronyx
seed weevils, sunflower seed weevils
Smicronyx is a large genus of true weevils (Curculionidae) containing over 220 described species distributed worldwide. Many species are specialized seed feeders, with several economically important members attacking cultivated sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) in North America. The genus includes gall-forming species and potential biological control agents for parasitic and invasive weeds. Larval development typically occurs within seeds or plant galls, with adults emerging to feed on pollen, buds, or foliage.
Smidtia fumiferanae
Smidtia fumiferanae is a tachinid fly species described by Tothill in 1912. It belongs to the tribe Winthemiini within the subfamily Exoristinae. The species epithet 'fumiferanae' indicates an association with Choristoneura fumiferana, the spruce budworm, suggesting it may be a parasitoid of this economically important forest pest. The species has been recorded in GBIF with limited observation data.
Sminthuridae
globular springtails
Sminthuridae is a family of globular springtails (order Symphypleona) characterized by a rounded body shape, four-segmented antennae with successively lengthening segments, and an exceptionally long ventral tube with eversible vesicles. Members possess well-developed tracheae and a furcula for jumping. The family includes 13 genera and is distinguished from the similar Sminthurididae by antennal structure and dens setation. Some species are notable agricultural pests, while others are common in forest litter and snow habitats.
Solenopsis richteri
Black Imported Fire Ant, BIFA
Solenopsis richteri, the black imported fire ant, is a South American native fire ant species that has been introduced to North America. Once considered a subspecies or color variant of Solenopsis invicta, it is now recognized as a distinct species with demonstrably different range and ecological preferences. It appears more cold-tolerant and less dominant than the red imported fire ant. In its native Argentina, it is attacked by six species of Pseudacteon phorid flies that significantly reduce its foraging activity. The species hybridizes with S. invicta where their ranges overlap, particularly in Tennessee. In Eritrea, it has been documented as a serious agricultural pest of crops and grazing areas.
Spalangia
Spalangia is a genus of chalcidoid wasps in the family Spalangiidae (sometimes placed in Pteromalidae), comprising pupal parasitoids of filth flies. Species such as S. endius, S. cameroni, and S. nigroaenea are widely used as biological control agents against house flies (Musca domestica) and stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans) in livestock and poultry operations. Females locate buried host pupae by burrowing through manure and decaying organic matter, while males remain near the surface to mate with emerging females.
Spalangia cameroni
Spalangia cameroni is a solitary parasitoid wasp in the family Pteromalidae that attacks the pupal stage of filth flies, particularly house flies (Musca domestica). It has been extensively studied for its biological control potential in livestock and poultry operations. The species exhibits complex host-finding behaviors, including the ability to distinguish host ages through antennal contact, and demonstrates sex ratio manipulation in response to host size. It has a lifecycle of approximately 21–28 days under favorable conditions.
Spalangia drosophilae
Spalangia drosophilae is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Pteromalidae that attacks the puparia of various Diptera. Originally described from North America in 1887, this species has been documented as a parasitoid of frit flies (Oscinella frit), house flies, stable flies, and other muscoid flies in agricultural and pastoral settings. Females exhibit sophisticated host-finding behavior, using sensory cues to locate damp, grassy areas where host puparia occur. The species demonstrates host discrimination abilities to avoid superparasitism, though this restraint breaks down under high parasite-host ratios. It has been recorded from the Galápagos Islands, western North America, and Brazil, and is utilized in biological control programs for filth fly management in livestock operations.
Spalangiidae
Spalangiidae is a family of chalcid wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) elevated from former subfamilies of Pteromalidae in 2022. Members are parasitoids of flies, with two recognized subfamilies: Spalangiinae and Erotolepsiinae. The family is now classified within the planidial clade, more closely related to Eucharitidae, Perilampidae, Chrysolampidae, and Eutrichosomatidae than to core Pteromalidae. The genus Spalangia has a cosmopolitan distribution, while other genera show restricted geographic ranges.
Spathius
Spathius is a genus of doryctine wasps in the family Braconidae. Species within this genus are larval parasitoids of wood-boring beetles, with several species introduced to North America as biological control agents for the invasive emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis). The genus includes both native and introduced species that exhibit host-specific relationships with their beetle hosts.
Sphaerophoria contigua
Tufted Globetail
Sphaerophoria contigua is a species of syrphid fly commonly known as the Tufted Globetail. As a member of the hoverfly family Syrphidae, it exhibits the characteristic hovering behavior and yellow-and-black coloration typical of many flower flies. The species is a predator of aphids, with larvae feeding on these soft-bodied insects. Adults are pollinators that visit flowers for nectar and pollen.
Sphecidae
Thread-waisted Wasps, Sand Wasps, Mud Daubers
Sphecidae is a cosmopolitan family of solitary, predatory wasps characterized by a narrow petiole (thread-waisted appearance). The family was historically much broader but has been redefined following phylogenetic studies that demonstrated the former Sphecidae (sensu lato) was paraphyletic. The current restricted family (sensu stricto) includes four subfamilies: Ammophilinae, Chloriontinae, Sceliphrinae, and Sphecinae. Members construct diverse nest types including burrows in soil, pre-existing cavities, and free-standing mud or resin structures. All are predatory and parasitoidal, provisioning nests with paralyzed prey for their larvae.
Sphecophaga
Sphecophaga is a genus of ichneumonid wasps specialized as ectoparasitoids of vespid wasps. Species within this genus parasitize nests of social wasps, with larvae feeding externally on immature wasp pupae. The genus exhibits complex polymorphism in adult forms and cocoon types, and has been widely introduced as a biological control agent for invasive Vespula wasp species. Two recognized species occur: S. orientalis parasitizing Vespa orientalis in the Mediterranean region, and S. vesparum with subspecies in Europe and North America targeting Vespula species.
Sphecophaga vesparum
Sphecophaga vesparum is an ichneumonid ectoparasitoid of vespid wasps, primarily targeting Vespula vulgaris and Vespula germanica. The species exhibits remarkable developmental plasticity with two adult female morphs: large winged females and small brachypterous females, each emerging from distinct cocoon types. It has been introduced to New Zealand and Australia as a biological control agent for invasive social wasps. The species is facultatively deuterotokous, producing mostly parthenogenetic females with occasional males.
Sphenophorus parvulus
bluegrass billbug
Sphenophorus parvulus, commonly known as the bluegrass billbug, is a small weevil native to North America and a significant pest of turfgrass, particularly Kentucky bluegrass. Adults measure approximately 5–7 mm in length, with a distinctive long, downward-curving rostrum comprising about one-third of the body length. The species was described by Swedish entomologist Leonard Gyllenhaal in 1838, with the specific epithet derived from Latin 'parvus' meaning small. It is one of at least ten Sphenophorus species that damage turfgrass in the United States and is frequently studied in the context of integrated pest management and host plant resistance.
Sphenoptera
A large genus of jewel beetles (Buprestidae) comprising over 1,000 described species. Species occupy diverse ecological niches including stem borers, gall formers, and root borers across multiple continents. Several species are economically significant as pests of agricultural crops, forestry trees, and medicinal plants, while others have been investigated for biological control of invasive weeds.
Sphenoptera jugoslavica
bronze knapweed root borer
Sphenoptera jugoslavica is a metallic wood-boring beetle in the family Buprestidae. It is monophagous on Centaurea diffusa (diffuse knapweed), forming spindle-shaped root galls in rosettes. The species is univoltine and was introduced to North America as a biological control agent for this invasive weed. Its effectiveness is limited by phenological requirements for arrested plant growth during oviposition.
Spilichneumon
Spilichneumon is a genus of ichneumon wasps containing at least 30 described species. These wasps are notable for being among the first wasps active in early spring, having overwintered as adults in protected locations such as rotten logs. The genus has a holarctic and Oriental distribution, with North American species concentrated in northern regions, Canada, Alaska, and mountainous areas extending south to Arizona. Females are internal parasitoids of noctuid moth caterpillars, with larvae developing inside hosts and emerging from the pupal stage.
Spilonota
Bud moths
Spilonota is a globally distributed genus of tortricid moths in the subfamily Olethreutinae. The genus contains approximately 35 described species, with members recorded across Europe, Asia, North America, and other regions. Several species are significant agricultural pests, particularly of fruit trees. The most extensively studied species, Spilonota ocellana (eye-spotted bud moth), is a well-documented pest of apple and other rosaceous crops.
Spilonota ocellana
bud moth, eye-spotted bud moth
Spilonota ocellana, commonly known as the bud moth or eye-spotted bud moth, is a small tortricid moth with a wingspan of 12–17 mm. It has a wide distribution spanning the Palearctic realm from North Africa and Europe through Asia to China, Korea, and Japan, with introduced populations in North America and Madeira. The species is univoltine, with adults flying from May to October depending on location. Larvae feed on various deciduous trees and shrubs, and the species is recognized as a pest in apple orchards where it has been studied extensively.
Spodoptera exigua
Beet Armyworm, Small Mottled Willow Moth, Asparagus Fern Caterpillar
Spodoptera exigua, commonly known as the beet armyworm, is a highly polyphagous agricultural pest native to Asia that has been introduced worldwide. The species is a member of the family Noctuidae and is particularly destructive in vegetable crops, though it occasionally damages soybean in the southern United States. Larvae are characterized by variable green coloration with pinkish or yellowish undersides and a white lateral stripe. The species has gained attention in molecular research due to its gut microbiome interactions and baculovirus susceptibility, which have implications for biological control strategies.
Spoladea
beet webworm, Hawaiian beet webworm, amaranth leaf-webber
Spoladea is a genus of Crambidae moths containing two described species, with S. recurvalis being a significant agricultural pest of amaranth, spinach, and sugar beet across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. The genus was established by Guenée in 1854. S. recurvalis has achieved nearly cosmopolitan distribution through human-mediated dispersal and is subject to intensive study for molecular mechanisms of pheromone production, flight behavior, and host plant interactions to support integrated pest management.
Stagmomantis carolina
Carolina mantis, Carolina mantid
Stagmomantis carolina, the Carolina mantis, is a native North American mantid species ranging from New Jersey south to Florida and west to Arizona. It is smaller than introduced mantid species such as the Chinese mantis (Tenodera sinensis) and European mantis (Mantis religiosa), typically exhibiting gray or brown coloration. The species overwinters as eggs in protective cases called oothecae, with nymphs emerging in spring and adults present from July through October. It serves as an important predator in gardens and natural landscapes, with documented parasitism by the tachinid fly Masiphya confusa.
Staphylinidae
Rove beetles
Staphylinidae, the rove beetles, is the largest extant family of beetles with approximately 63,000 described species across thousands of genera. Members are distinguished by abbreviated elytra that expose most of the abdomen, giving them a characteristic elongated, flexible appearance. The family is ancient, with fossil records dating to the Triassic period approximately 200 million years ago. Ecological roles within the family are diverse, encompassing predation, fungivory, myrmecophily, and saprophagy.
Stenopelmus
marsh weevils
Stenopelmus is a genus of marsh weevils comprising at least two described species. The genus is best known for Stenopelmus rufinasus, a North American weevil introduced to Europe in the late 19th century alongside its host plant Azolla filiculoides. Members of this genus are specialized herbivores associated with aquatic ferns and have been employed as biological control agents for invasive water fern management.
Stenopelmus rufinasus
Azolla Weevil, Waterfern Weevil
Stenopelmus rufinasus is a small weevil native to North America, introduced to Europe in 1898 alongside its host plant Azolla filiculoides. The species is a specialized herbivore with rapid development, completing its life cycle in approximately 20 days and producing 4-6 generations annually under favorable conditions. It has been widely deployed as a biological control agent for invasive Azolla species, particularly in South Africa where it has achieved dramatic population reductions. Adults exhibit exceptional dispersal capabilities, documented to travel up to 350 km, and frequently occur in water bodies lacking visible host plants.
Stephanidae
Crown Wasps
Stephanidae, commonly called crown wasps, are a family of solitary idiobiont ectoparasitoid wasps and the sole living members of the superfamily Stephanoidea. The family comprises approximately 365 extant species in 13 genera, plus four extinct genera known from Cretaceous and Tertiary fossils. They are considered the most basal lineage of Apocrita and are rare in collections, with nearly 95% of species described from single specimens. Their distinctive morphology includes a semicircular ocellar corona on the head and highly modified hind legs adapted for host location in wood.
Sternochetus mangiferae
mango seed weevil, mango stone weevil, mango weevil
A compact weevil in the subfamily Cryptorhynchinae, Sternochetus mangiferae is a significant pest of mango (Mangifera indica). Adults measure 7.5–9.5 mm in length and 4 mm in width. The species completes its entire immature development inside mango seeds, with larvae and pupae developing within the fruit. Adults are weak fliers and typically remain near fallen fruit; new infestations spread primarily through human transport of infested fruit.
Sternorrhyncha
plant-parasitic hemipterans
Sternorrhyncha is a suborder of Hemiptera containing aphids, whiteflies, scale insects, and psyllids—groups formerly classified in the obsolete order 'Homoptera'. The name refers to the rearward position of the mouthparts relative to the head. All members are obligate plant-feeders with piercing-sucking mouthparts adapted for extracting phloem or xylem sap. Many species exhibit highly modified life cycles including parthenogenesis, sexual dimorphism, flightless morphs, and eusociality. The group includes numerous economically important agricultural and horticultural pests.
Stethoconus
Stethoconus is a genus of predatory plant bugs in the family Miridae, subfamily Deraeocorinae. Species in this genus are obligate predators of lace bugs (Tingidae) and have been documented as biological control agents for agricultural pests. The genus has been recorded in Asia (Japan, Pakistan) and North America (Florida, USA), with individual species showing specific associations with particular tingid hosts.
Stethoconus praefectus
Stethoconus praefectus is a predatory plant bug in the family Miridae, subfamily Deraeocorinae, native to South and East Asia and established in the United States. It is an obligatory predator of lace bugs (Tingidae), with documented prey including agricultural pests such as the avocado lace bug (Pseudacysta perseae) and brinjal lace bugs (Urentius hystricellus, Corythauma ayyari). The species has been investigated and utilized as a biological control agent for lace bug infestations in crop systems.
Stethorus
Mite-eating Ladybirds, Spider Mite Destroyers
Stethorus is a genus of minute ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae) commonly known as spider mite destroyers. The genus contains more than 40 described species, though some sources cite at least 20. These beetles are highly specialized predators of spider mites (Tetranychidae) and are recognized as important natural enemies of agricultural pests such as the two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) and the European red mite (Panonychus ulmi). Their small size and cryptic coloration make them easily overlooked in field settings.
Stictia
horse guards, cowfly tigers, insecto policia
Stictia is a genus of large, often brightly colored predatory sand wasps comprising approximately 30 species, primarily distributed in the Neotropics. The genus is best known for Stictia carolina, commonly called the "Horse Guard," which specializes in hunting horse flies around livestock. Females construct solitary nests in sandy soil, provisioning them with paralyzed flies to feed their larvae. These wasps are valued for their biological control of pest flies, though they are not commercially available. Males engage in aerial patrols and "sun dances" to locate females.
Stictia carolina
Horse Guard Wasp, Horse Guard, Cowfly Tiger, Insecto Policia
Stictia carolina, commonly known as the Horse Guard Wasp, is a large, colorful sand wasp native to eastern and central North America. This solitary wasp is a specialist predator of horse flies (Tabanidae), hunting around livestock and humans to capture its prey. Females excavate burrows in sandy soil where they provision a single cell with 15-35 flies for their larval offspring. Despite its intimidating appearance and persistent hovering behavior around horses, it is not aggressive toward humans and provides valuable biological control of biting flies.
Stictocephala stimulea
Stictocephala stimulea is a treehopper species in the family Membracidae, first described by Van Duzee in 1914. Treehoppers in this genus are characterized by their enlarged, often ornate pronotum that extends over the body like a helmet or thorn. The specific epithet 'stimulea' suggests possible resemblance to or association with stinging organisms, though this refers to appearance rather than actual sting. Like other membracids, this species likely feeds on plant phloem sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts.
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viral-evolutionantigenic-driftantigenic-shiftzoonotic-spilloverreservoir-hostintermediate-hostamplifying-hostdead-end-hostvector-borne-diseasemosquito-borne-diseasetick-borne-diseaseflea-borne-diseaselice-borne-diseasemidge-borne-diseasesandfly-borne-diseasetsetse-borne-diseaseblackfly-borne-diseasetriatomine-borne-diseasekissing-bugChagas-diseasetrypanosomiasisleishmaniasismalariadengueyellow-feverZika-viruschikungunyaWest-Nile-virusJapanese-encephalitistick-borne-encephalitisLyme-diseaseRocky-Mountain-spotted-feverehlichiosisanaplasmosisbabesiosistularemiaplaguemurine-typhusepidemic-typhusendemic-typhusscrub-typhusQ-fevertrench-feverbartonellosiscat-scratch-diseaserat-bite-feverleptospirosisbrucellosisanthraxmelioidosisglanderstularaemiafrancisellosiscoxiellosisrickettsiosisorientia-infectionehrlichiosisneoehrlichiosisneorickettsiosisanaplasmataceaerickettsiaceaecoxiellaceaebartonellaceaebrucellaceaefrancisellaceaepasteurellaceaelegionellaceaechlamydiaceaemycoplasmataceaeureaplasmataceaespiroplasmataceaeachaenoplasmataceaeentomoplasmataceaehaloplasmataceaetenericutesmollicutesbacteroidetesfusobacteriaspirochaetessynergistetesdeferribacteresthermotogaeaquificaecaldisericacaldithrixdeferrisomadesulfurobacteriumthermovibriothermocrinishydrogenobactersulfurihydrogenibiumpersephonellahydrogenobaculumhydrothermusthermothrixsulfuricurvumsulfurimonassulfurovumthiovulumthiomicrospirapseudomonasvibrioaeromonasphotobacteriumaliivibriogracilibacillushalobacillushalomonaschromohalobactercobetiasalinicolakushneriahalotaleahalovibriosalinivibriothioalkalivibriothiohalophilusectothiorhodospirahalorhodospirathiorhodospirahalochromatiumthioflavicoccusmarichromatiumthiocapsalamprocystisthiodictyonthiopediaamoebobacterthiocystischromatiumallo-chromatiumthermochromatiumrhabdochromatiumthiobacathiohalocapsahalocapsathiolamprovumthioplocathiomargaritabeggiatoamethylococcusmethylomonasmethylomicrobiummethylosinusmethylocystismethylocellamethylocapsamethylacidiphilumverrucomicrobiaplanctomyceteschlamydiaelentisphaeraekiritimatiellaeotacalditrichaeotafervidibacteriaStictostix californicus
Stictostix californicus is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae. The genus Stictostix belongs to the diverse chalcidoid wasp superfamily, a group of minute parasitoids widely used in biological control. The specific epithet 'californicus' indicates a geographic association with California. Encyrtid wasps are generally known as parasitoids of scale insects, mealybugs, and other homopteran pests, though specific host records for this species remain undocumented in the provided sources.
Stigmaeidae
Stigmaeidae is the largest family in the superfamily Raphignathoidea, comprising over 600 species of prostigmatan mites with worldwide distribution. The family exhibits diverse ecological strategies, with over a third of species being free-living predators on plant foliage, while others inhabit soil, leaf litter, freshwater surfaces, or act as parasites. Members possess distinctive morphological features including a prodorsum lacking transversal grooves or sacs, separate suranal and aggenital shields, and stout palps with prominent tibial claws. Several species have been investigated for biological control of agricultural pest mites.
Stiretrus
anchor stink bugs
Stiretrus is a genus of predatory stink bugs in the subfamily Asopinae, family Pentatomidae. Species occur in the Americas, with records from North America (USA, Canada) and South America (Brazil, Suriname). The genus includes at least eight described species, with S. anchorago (anchor stink bug) being among the better known. Members are predators of other insects, with documented specialization on cassidine beetles (Chrysomelidae) in some species. Some species exhibit striking color polymorphism and possible mimicry with their prey.
Stiretrus anchorago
anchor stink bug
Stiretrus anchorago, commonly known as the anchor stink bug, is a predatory stink bug in the family Pentatomidae. It occurs in Central America and North America. The species is known to prey on specific beetle species including Epilachna varivestis (Mexican bean beetle) and Hypera postica (alfalfa weevil). Five subspecies have been described.
Stratiolaelaps
Stratiolaelaps is a genus of predatory mites in the family Laelapidae, with at least nine described species. The genus is best known from Stratiolaelaps scimitus, a polyphagous soil-dwelling predator native to the Northern Hemisphere that has been commercialized globally as a biological control agent. Members of this genus inhabit soil, litter, and rhizosphere environments where they prey on small invertebrates including fungus gnat larvae, thrips pupae, nematodes, and other mites. The genus exhibits haplodiploid sex determination and has been subject to extensive study regarding mass rearing, genetic management, and behavioral responses to chemical cues.
Strongygaster
Strongygaster is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising at least 10 described species distributed across the Americas. The genus is notable for its parasitoid lifestyle, with adults attacking a broad range of arthropod hosts. Strongygaster triangulifera is the most extensively studied species, documented as a parasitoid of adult Coleoptera across multiple families, with additional records from Hemiptera, Dermaptera, Orthoptera, and Lepidoptera. The genus has been reported from North, Central, and South America.
Strymon bazochii
Lantana Scrub-Hairstreak, Smaller Lantana Butterfly
Strymon bazochii is a small lycaenid butterfly native to the Neotropics, ranging from Paraguay through Central America and the Caribbean to southern Texas. It was deliberately introduced to Hawaii in 1902 as a biological control agent for invasive Lantana species, but failed to establish effective control. The species exhibits sexual dimorphism in wing pattern and has a documented association with Lippia and Lantana host plants.
Swammerdamia pyrella
Little Ermel, Rufous-tipped Swammerdamia Moth
A small ermine moth (Yponomeutidae) with a wingspan of 10–13 mm, distributed across Europe, North America, and Japan. Adults fly in two generations from late April to August. Larvae feed on Rosaceae fruit trees, initially mining leaves then feeding externally while tying leaf edges with silk to form protective 'boats'. The species serves as host to a diverse parasitoid community and is subject to significant natural biological control.
Symmorphus
mason wasps, potter wasps
Symmorphus is a genus of solitary mason wasps in the subfamily Eumeninae, distributed primarily across the Holarctic region with 36 recognized species. These small wasps (6–20 mm) are cavity-nesters that utilize pre-existing holes in wood, hollow stems, or twigs, partitioning them into multiple cells with mud walls. Females are predators that mass-provision nests with paralyzed larvae of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae), weevils (Curculionidae), or leaf-mining moth caterpillars. The genus occupies a relatively isolated phylogenetic position within Eumeninae and includes two subgenera: S. (Symmorphus) and S. (Parasymmorphus).
Symmorphus albomarginatus
White-bordered Potter Wasp
A small, slender mason wasp in the subfamily Eumeninae. Females construct multi-celled nests in pre-existing wood cavities, provisioning cells with paralyzed leaf beetle larvae (Chrysomelidae), weevil larvae (Curculionidae), or leaf-mining moth caterpillars. Two subspecies recognized: nominate S. a. albomarginatus and S. a. midas from southern Texas. The species ranges across much of North America from Alaska to California and eastward.
Symmorphus canadensis
Canadian potter wasp, Canadian mason wasp
Symmorphus canadensis is the smallest North American species in the genus Symmorphus, measuring approximately 6–10 mm. This solitary mason wasp specializes in hunting leaf beetle larvae, weevil larvae, and leaf-mining moth caterpillars to provision nests constructed in pre-existing cavities. Females partition nest tunnels into multiple cells using mud partitions, laying one egg per cell atop paralyzed prey. The species is transcontinental across North America, absent only from Florida, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.
Symmorphus cristatus
Tufted Potter Wasp
Symmorphus cristatus is a solitary mason wasp in the subfamily Eumeninae, widely distributed across North America. It is a specialist predator of leaf beetle larvae (Chrysomelidae), which it paralyzes and provisions in mud-partitioned nest cells. The species exhibits trap-nesting behavior, utilizing pre-existing cavities in dead wood rather than constructing free-standing nests. It serves as a significant biological control agent for several leaf beetle species and is subject to brood parasitism by cuckoo wasps.
Sympherobius barberi
Barber's brown lacewing
Sympherobius barberi is a species of brown lacewing in the family Hemerobiidae, commonly known as Barber's brown lacewing. The species has a remarkably broad distribution spanning Europe, Northern Asia (excluding China), Central America, North America, Oceania, and South America. It was first described by Banks in 1903 and has been recorded from the Galápagos Islands, representing both a new species record for the archipelago and the first record of the genus Sympherobius from the islands. The species was introduced to New Zealand in 1936 as a biological control agent for aphids and mealybugs but failed to establish.
Sympherobius californicus
California brown lacewing
Sympherobius californicus is a species of brown lacewing in the family Hemerobiidae, first described by Banks in 1911. It is native to Central America, North America, and Oceania, with distribution records from Hawaii. The species was introduced to New Zealand in 1936 as a biological control agent targeting aphids and mealybugs affecting crops, but failed to establish.
Symphrasinae
thorny lacewings
Symphrasinae is a subfamily of thorny lacewings within Rhachiberothidae (Neuroptera), recently transferred from Mantispidae. It comprises three genera—Anchieta, Plega, and Trichoscelia—with 60 described species distributed exclusively in the New World from the southwestern United States to southern Argentina. Members possess raptorial forelegs for prey capture. The genus Plega has been documented as an ectoparasitoid of sawfly larvae and pupae.
Sympiesis
Sympiesis is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species are primarily ectoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, particularly leaf-mining moths in the family Gracillariidae, though some species attack other caterpillar groups including Hesperiidae (skippers) and Hyblaeidae. Several species have been studied for their potential as biological control agents of agricultural pests. The genus has been documented from North America, Europe, and South Asia.
Synanthedonini
clearwing moths
Synanthedonini is a tribe of clearwing moths within the family Sesiidae, characterized by wasp-mimicking appearance and larval boring habits in plant tissues. Members exhibit diverse host plant associations across multiple families including Lauraceae, Fagaceae, Rosaceae, Fabaceae, and Proteaceae. The tribe has been documented across North America, Central and South America, Taiwan, and other regions, with several species recognized as economically significant pests of ornamental and native plants. Molecular studies using COI barcoding support species-level identification but reveal phylogenetic complexities, including the atypical placement of some genera previously separated based on morphology.
Synopeas
Synopeas is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in family Platygastridae, comprising approximately 400 described species. Species in this genus are known to parasitize gall midges (Cecidomyiidae), with several species documented as biological control agents of agricultural pests including the soybean gall midge (Resseliella maxima) and swede midge (Contarinia nasturtii). Some species exhibit distinctive morphological features such as greatly elongated metasomas. The genus is understudied and considered part of a 'dark taxon' with high diversity but limited ecological and taxonomic documentation.
Syrphidae
hover flies, flower flies, syrphid flies, drone flies
Syrphidae is a species-rich family of true flies comprising over 6,000 described species worldwide, with approximately 800 species in North America. Adults are commonly known as hover flies, flower flies, or drone flies due to their characteristic hovering flight and frequent flower visitation. Many species exhibit Batesian mimicry of bees and wasps, gaining protection from predators through their resemblance to stinging Hymenoptera. The family provides critical ecosystem services: adults are significant pollinators second only to bees, especially in Arctic climates, while larvae display diverse ecological roles including predation on crop pests and nutrient cycling in aquatic habitats.
Syrphophagus
Syrphophagus is a cosmopolitan genus of chalcid wasps in the family Encyrtidae. Species within this genus are hyperparasitoids that attack primary parasitoids developing within aphids. At least one species, S. aphidivorus, exhibits atypical dual oviposition behavior, attacking both parasitoid larvae in live aphids and parasitoid pupae in aphid mummies. The genus contains numerous described species distributed across multiple continents.
Syrphus
Common Flower Flies
Syrphus is a genus of hoverflies in the family Syrphidae, characterized by distinctive calypter morphology. The genus is distinguished from other Syrphini by long hairs on the upper surface of the lower lobe of the calypter, a unique diagnostic feature. Adults are common flower visitors and pollinators, while larvae are primarily aphid predators. The genus includes approximately 20 described species distributed across the Holarctic region, with several species occurring in North America and Europe.
Syrphus knabi
Eastern Flower Fly
Syrphus knabi is an uncommon species of syrphid fly found in eastern North America. Adults are medium-sized hover flies, 7.2–12.9 mm in length, with distinctive yellow and black banded abdomens and sexually dimorphic head coloration. The species is a known aphid predator in its larval stage.
Syrphus opinator
Black-margined Flower Fly
Syrphus opinator, commonly known as the black-margined flower fly, is a species of hover fly in the family Syrphidae. Adults are frequently mistaken for honey bees due to their similar appearance and behavior. The species is found in western North America, including the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and California. Like other members of the subfamily Syrphinae, its larvae are predatory, feeding on aphids.
Syrphus rectus
Yellow-legged Flower Fly
Syrphus rectus is a hover fly (family Syrphidae) commonly known as the yellow-legged flower fly. It is frequently encountered in the eastern United States and southeastern Canada, with occasional records from Europe. The species exhibits Batesian mimicry of stinging Hymenoptera, with black and yellow abdominal banding. Both life stages serve ecological functions: larvae are aphid predators, while adults visit flowers for nectar and contribute to pollination.
Syrphus ribesii
Common Banded Hoverfly
Syrphus ribesii is a common Holarctic hoverfly and an effective aphid predator in both agricultural and natural ecosystems. Adults are frequent flower visitors, feeding on nectar and pollen while providing pollination services. The species is highly migratory and shows remarkable adaptability to diverse habitats from farmland to forest. Two distinct chromosome races exist across much of Europe.
Syrphus vitripennis
Black-thighed Flower Fly
Syrphus vitripennis is a common Holarctic hoverfly (Syrphidae) with distinctive yellow and black wasp-mimicking coloration. Adults are medium-sized (8–11 mm body length, wing length 7.25–10.25 mm) and frequent flowers from March to October, peaking in July–August. Larvae are aphid predators, making this species economically significant for biological control. The species is highly migratory, with documented seasonal movements between latitudes. It is one of five Syrphus species in Britain and can be difficult to distinguish from congeners, particularly S. rectus in males.
Tachina
Tachina is a genus of large tachinid flies comprising approximately 600 species worldwide. Adults are typically 9–14 mm in length with conspicuous spiky bristles. The genus is notable for its larval parasitoid lifestyle, with most species targeting lepidopteran caterpillars as hosts. Tachina fera, the best-studied species, has a chromosome-level genome assembly representing the first high-quality genomic resource for the family Tachinidae.
Tachinaephagus
A genus of gregarious larval–pupal parasitoids in the family Encyrtidae. Species in this genus, particularly T. zealandicus, are known to attack synanthropic Diptera including muscoid flies and calliphorid carrion flies. They have been studied for biological control applications and forensic entomology due to their predictable development on decomposing remains.
Tachinaephagus zealandicus
Tachinaephagus zealandicus is a gregarious larval-pupal endoparasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae. It parasitizes larvae of synanthropic Diptera, particularly muscoid flies including Musca domestica and various Calliphoridae species associated with decomposing carrion. The species has been studied extensively for its potential in forensic entomology and biological control. Under laboratory conditions at 25°C, its life cycle completes in 23–27 days, with single hosts producing 3–18 adult parasitoids.
Tachinidae
Tachinid Flies, Tachinids
Tachinidae is a large and diverse family of true flies (Diptera) comprising over 8,200 described species worldwide, with more than 1,300 species in North America alone. All known tachinids are protelean parasitoids or occasionally parasites of arthropods, predominantly other insects. They are significant natural enemies of agricultural and forest pests, and many species have been employed in biological control programs. Adult flies are common flower visitors and contribute to pollination, particularly in high-elevation ecosystems where bees are scarce.
Tachininae
Tachininae is a subfamily of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising approximately 127+ species across 53+ genera and 14 tribes. The group is supported as monophyletic based on molecular data, with the exclusion of Macquartini and Myiophasiini. Members are obligate parasitoids of insects, with documented hosts in Lepidoptera (primarily), Coleoptera, Diptera, and Dermaptera. They serve as important biological control agents of agricultural and forest pests.
Tachinini
tachinid flies
Tachinini is a tribe of bristle flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising numerous parasitoid species. Members exhibit diverse morphological features including sexual dimorphism in some genera, with males of certain taxa displaying distinctive sexual patches on abdominal tergite 5. The tribe includes important biological control agents targeting lepidopteran pests, particularly defoliators of palm trees.
Tachyporus
Tachyporus is a genus of rove beetles (Staphylinidae) in the tribe Tachyporini, serving as the type genus for both its tribe and subfamily. The genus comprises approximately 35 species in North and Central America alone, with additional species in Europe and other regions. Species such as Tachyporus hypnorum have been extensively studied for their role as generalist predators in agricultural ecosystems, particularly in cereal fields where they contribute to aphid control.
Tachyporus transversalis
Tachyporus transversalis is a small rove beetle in the family Staphylinidae, subfamily Tachyporinae. It is a predatory species native to Europe and parts of Asia, with introduced populations in North America. Like other members of its genus, it inhabits moist ground-level habitats and contributes to natural pest control in agricultural and natural ecosystems.
Tachysphex
square-headed wasps, digger wasps
Tachysphex is a large genus of solitary wasps in the family Crabronidae, comprising over 450 described species worldwide. These diminutive insects, typically 6–10 mm in length, are ground-nesting predators that provision their nests with paralyzed orthopteran prey. The genus exhibits remarkable diversity across multiple continents, with species groups showing distinct ecological preferences and host associations.
Tamarixia
Tamarixia is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae, primarily known as parasitoids of psyllids (jumping plant lice, superfamily Psylloidea). The genus was established by Mercet in 1924 and contains approximately 50 described species distributed worldwide. Most species are ectoparasitoids, though at least one species has been recorded as an endoparasitoid. Several species, particularly T. radiata and T. triozae, are important biological control agents used in integrated pest management programs for citrus and solanaceous crops.
Tanymecini
broad-nosed weevils
Tanymecini is a tribe of broad-nosed weevils within the subfamily Entiminae (Curculionidae). The tribe contains numerous genera distributed across subtribes including Piazomiina, Tainophthalmina, and Tanymecina, with additional genera currently classified as incertae sedis. Members exhibit considerable morphological and ecological diversity, with documented associations with host plants in Chenopodiaceae and other families. Some species are recognized agricultural pests, while others have been investigated for biological control applications.
Tarsonemidae
thread-footed mites, white mites
Tarsonemidae is a family of mites in the order Trombidiformes, commonly known as thread-footed mites or white mites. The family exhibits diverse feeding habits: most species feed on fungal mycelia or algal bodies, while a limited number of genera (Steneotarsonemus, Polyphagotarsonemus, Phytonemus, Floridotarsonemus, and Tarsonemus) feed on higher plants. Some tarsonemids are associated with insects, including parasites of bees (Acarapis woodi), associates of leaf-footed bug glands, and attachments to grasshopper wings. Several species are significant agricultural pests, notably the broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) and cyclamen mite (Steneotarsonemus pallidus).
Tarsonemoidea
Tarsonemoidea is a superfamily of minute mites within the order Trombidiformes, comprising families such as Tarsonemidae and Podapolipidae. These mites are characterized by reduced body segmentation and often exhibit highly modified leg structures adapted for clinging to hosts or substrates. Many species are associated with plants, fungi, or insects, with some acting as agricultural pests while others serve as biological control agents.
Telenominae
Telenominae is a subfamily of parasitoid wasps in the family Scelionidae (formerly placed in Platygastridae). Members are solitary egg parasitoids, primarily attacking eggs of Hemiptera, particularly stink bugs (Pentatomidae) and related families in the superfamily Pentatomoidea. The subfamily includes genera such as Telenomus, Trissolcus, Phanuromyia, and Eumicrosoma. Several species, notably Trissolcus japonicus (the Samurai Wasp), are used or studied as biological control agents for agricultural pests.
Telenomus
Telenomus is a genus of minute egg parasitoid wasps in the subfamily Telenominae, family Scelionidae. First described by Alexander Henry Haliday in 1833, species in this genus develop as parasitoids within the eggs of other insects, primarily targeting Lepidoptera and Hemiptera. Several species, notably T. remus and T. podisi, are important biological control agents used in integrated pest management programs against agricultural pests including fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) and stink bugs (Euschistus spp.). The genus exhibits a cosmopolitan distribution with particular significance in tropical and subtropical agricultural systems.
Telenomus calvus
Telenomus calvus is a phoretic egg parasitoid of the spined soldier bug, Podisus maculiventris. Females exhibit a distinctive riding behavior, attaching to host bodies at 25 different locations with preference for the pronotum and femurs, using hypertrophied arolia for secure attachment. They dismount specifically during host oviposition to parasitize egg masses. The species has a relatively low fecundity of approximately 22 progeny per female, with female production peaking early in life and declining rapidly, while male production remains low and constant.
Telenomus podisi
Telenomus podisi is an egg parasitoid wasp first described by William Harris Ashmead in 1893. It is a primary natural enemy of stink bugs (Pentatomidae), with Euschistus heros documented as its principal host. The species has been extensively studied for biological control applications in soybean and other agricultural systems, particularly in Brazil. Laboratory studies demonstrate that females can form olfactory memories during immature development, with learned preferences persisting up to 72 hours post-emergence. The species is susceptible to several insecticides including imidacloprid, which is lethal, while some organic products show greater selectivity.
Telenomus tabanivorus
Telenomus tabanivorus is a species of egg parasitoid wasp in the family Scelionidae, first described by Ashmead in 1895. The species epithet 'tabanivorus' suggests an association with tabanid flies (horse flies and deer flies) as hosts, though specific host records remain poorly documented in the accessible literature. As a member of the genus Telenomus, it belongs to a group of parasitoid wasps widely utilized in biological control programs for their effectiveness in suppressing pest populations through egg parasitism.
Temelucha
Temelucha is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, comprising over 200 species with cosmopolitan distribution. Species in this genus are primary parasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, with documented hosts including the potato tuberworm (Phthorimaea operculella) and the pine shoot moth (Rhyacionia buoliana). Several species have been studied for their potential in biological control programs.
Temelucha interruptor
Temelucha interruptor is a parasitoid wasp in the family Ichneumonidae that attacks larvae of the pine shoot moth (Rhyacionia buoliana). The species has been introduced to North America for biological control but exhibits problematic behavior by preferentially attacking host larvae already parasitized by the braconid wasp Orgilus obscurator. This interference reduces the effectiveness of biological control programs targeting R. buoliana. The species is native to Europe, with established populations in Denmark and Sweden, and has been recorded in the conterminous United States.
Tenodera sinensis sinensis
Chinese praying mantis, Chinese mantis
Tenodera sinensis sinensis, the Chinese praying mantis, is a large non-native mantis in North America, first discovered in 1897 near Philadelphia, likely arriving as a stowaway in nursery stock from Asia. It has become one of the most well-known exotic mantids in the United States, recognized for its substantial size and effective predation on pest insects including the brown marmorated stink bug and spotted lanternfly. The species exhibits flexible hunting strategies that shift between active pursuit and ambush predation depending on satiety level. Adults typically appear in September, with females depositing brown, styrofoam-like egg cases (oothecae) on upright vegetation that overwinter and hatch in spring.
Tephritidae
fruit flies, peacock flies
Tephritidae is a family of true fruit flies comprising nearly 5,000 described species across approximately 500 genera. Members are distinguished from Drosophilidae (also called fruit flies) by their larger size, patterned wings, and phytophagous larval biology. The family exhibits extraordinary morphological diversity, including elaborate wing markings that inspired the common name "peacock flies." Many species are economically significant agricultural pests, while others serve as biological control agents for invasive weeds. Taxonomy remains dynamic due to ongoing genetic and morphological revisions.
Terellia
Terellia is a genus of fruit flies in the family Tephritidae, comprising approximately 60 described species distributed across the Palearctic region. Species in this genus are primarily associated with thistles and related plants in the Asteraceae family, with larvae developing in flower heads (capitula) of their host plants. The genus includes several species groups (virens group, amberboae group, tarbinskiorum group) distinguished by morphological characters and host associations. Terellia ruficauda has been used as a biological control agent for Canada thistle.
Teretriosoma
clown beetles
Teretriosoma is a genus of clown beetles in the family Histeridae, established by Horn in 1873. The genus comprises approximately 11 described species distributed primarily in the Americas. One species, Teretriosoma nigrescens, has been extensively studied as a biological control agent against the larger grain borer Prostephanus truncatus, a major pest of stored maize and cassava in Africa and Latin America. Members of this genus are small predatory beetles associated with decomposing organic matter and stored products.
Teretrius
clown beetles
Teretrius is a genus of clown beetles (family Histeridae) comprising at least 70 described species. The genus has gained significant attention due to the use of Teretrius nigrescens as a classical biological control agent against the invasive larger grain borer Prostephanus truncatus in Africa. Members of this genus are small predatory beetles associated with stored products and woodland habitats. The genus was established by Erichson in 1834 and is classified within the subfamily Abraeinae.
Tersilochinae
Tersilochinae is a worldwide subfamily of parasitic wasps within Ichneumonidae, comprising approximately 500 species across 24 genera. Members are koinobiont endoparasitoids that develop within living host larvae, primarily attacking Coleoptera including economically significant families such as Curculionidae and Chrysomelidae. This host specificity has led to their use in biological control programs. The subfamily exhibits broad geographic distribution with documented records from the Palearctic, Nearctic, Afrotropical, Neotropical, and Australasian regions.
Tetanocera
marsh flies, snail-killing flies, slug-killing flies
Tetanocera is a genus of marsh flies (family Sciomyzidae) comprising at least 50 described species distributed across temperate regions. Larvae exhibit diverse ecological strategies: some are aquatic predators of snails, others are terrestrial predators of slugs, and some species show transitional life histories with parasitoid early instars becoming free-living predators in later instars. The genus has undergone at least three independent transitions from aquatic to terrestrial habitats, with associated parallel evolution in larval morphology. Several species, particularly T. elata, have been investigated as potential biological control agents for agricultural pest molluscs.
Tetracampidae
Tetracampidae is a small family of parasitic wasps within the superfamily Chalcidoidea, comprising approximately 44 species in 15 genera. These wasps are parasitoids of phytophagous insects, with most known hosts being flies (Diptera), particularly those that mine in plants. Some species also parasitize eggs of sawflies (Diprionidae) and beetles (Chrysomelidae, Cassididae). The family is predominantly distributed in the Old World, with species almost entirely absent from the New World. The biology of most species remains poorly studied.
Tetracnemoidea
Tetracnemoidea is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, subfamily Tetracneminae. Species in this genus are known primarily from association with scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea). The genus was established by Howard in 1898. Specimens have been collected from Australia, Brazil, the Canary Islands, Madeira, and other regions.
Tetracnemoidea sydneyensis
Tetracnemoidea sydneyensis is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae, described by Timberlake in 1929. The species is native to Australia, with the specific epithet referencing Sydney, and has been introduced to Hawaii as part of biological control programs. Like other encyrtids, it is presumed to parasitize scale insects or other homopteran hosts, though specific host records for this species remain limited in published literature.
Tetracnemus
Tetracnemus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, subfamily Tetracneminae. The genus was established by Westwood in 1837. Species in this genus are primarily known as parasitoids of scale insects (Coccoidea). The UCR Entomology Research Museum collection contains at least five species: T. americanus, T. bifasciatellus, T. heydeni, T. hofferi, and T. marilandia.
Tetramesa
Tetramesa is a genus of minute phytophagous wasps in the family Eurytomidae comprising over 200 described species. Members are exclusively associated with grasses (Poaceae), where they typically induce stem or inflorescence galls. The genus exhibits pronounced host specificity, with most species restricted to a single grass species or closely related congeners. Several species have been deployed as biological control agents against invasive grasses, including T. romana for giant reed (Arundo donax) and candidate agents for medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) and African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). Adults feed on nectar. Recent phylogenomic studies have synonymized the genera Aiolomorphus and Cathilaria within Tetramesa.
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Tetrastichinae is one of the largest subfamilies of Eulophidae, containing over 100 genera and nearly 3,000 species of minute chalcid wasps. Members exhibit exceptionally diverse biology: most are parasitoids attacking hosts across 10 insect orders and over 100 families, including nematodes, mites, and spider eggs. Some species are phytophagous (typically as inquilines in galls), gall formers, or inquilines. Endoparasitism predominates over ectoparasitism, with both solitary and gregarious forms known; gregarious species may produce over 2,000 individuals from a single host. Reproduction is often by thelytokous parthenogenesis, though arrhenotoky occurs in some taxa.
Tetrastichus
Tetrastichus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species in this genus are known biological control agents that parasitize various insect hosts, including beetles and moths. Several species have been introduced to North America to manage invasive pests, including T. planipennisi for emerald ash borer control. The genus exhibits endoparasitoid development, with females using elongated ovipositors to deposit eggs inside host larvae concealed under bark or within plant tissue.
Tetropium parvulum
Northern Spruce Borer
Tetropium parvulum, the northern spruce borer, is a small cerambycid beetle specialized on spruce hosts. It was elevated from synonymy with T. cinnamopterum based on distinct morphological differences in larvae and adults, and exhibits strict host specificity to Picea compared to the conifer generalist T. cinnamopterum. The species has a one-year life cycle and is an economically important borer of white and Engelmann spruce logs in western Canada.
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n-managementreform-managementreorganization-managementrestructuring-managementreengineering-managementredesign-managementreplanning-managementreinvestment-managementreallocation-managementredistribution-managementreconfiguration-managementrealignment-managementreorientation-managementrepositioning-managementrebranding-managementremarketing-managementrelaunch-managementreintroduction-managementreestablishment-managementreinstatement-managementreintegration-managementreconciliation-managementreunification-managementrebuilding-managementrebirth-managementresurrection-managementreincarnation-managementreemergence-managementreappearance-managementreturn-managementcomeback-managementrebound-managementresurgence-managementrevival-managementreawakening-managementrekindling-managementreignition-managementrelighting-managementreillumination-managementrebrightening-managementThanasimus dubius
dubious checkered beetle, American bark beetle destroyer, checkered beetle predator, Wavering Checkered Beetle
Thanasimus dubius is a predatory checkered beetle (Cleridae) native to North and Central America. It specializes in preying upon bark beetles, particularly species in the genera Ips and Dendroctonus, with the southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis) being a well-documented prey item. Adults exhibit a stereotyped five-act predatory sequence involving search/ambush, seizure, alignment, consumption, and grooming. The species demonstrates chemotactic responses to bark beetle pheromones and tree volatiles, and shows regional genetic differentiation across its eastern North American range. It has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for forest pest management.
Thaumatomyia
cereal flies, frit flies
Thaumatomyia is a genus of small flies in the family Chloropidae, commonly known as cereal flies or frit flies. The genus includes species with divergent larval ecologies: some are predatory on root aphids in agricultural soils, while others have been observed feeding on plant exudates. Several species are recognized as important biological control agents of root aphids in sugar beet and cereal crops in Middle Asia.
Thecesternus
bison dung weevils, bison snout beetles
Thecesternus is a genus of flightless, nocturnal broad-nosed weevils comprising approximately seven described species. These small beetles, measuring about six millimeters in length, are known for their truncated rostrum and habit of sheltering under bison dung in grassland habitats. The genus has been studied primarily through *T. hirsutus*, which was evaluated as a potential biological control agent for the invasive weed *Parthenium hysterophorus*.
Thecesternus hirsutus
bison dung weevil, bison snout beetle
Thecesternus hirsutus is a small, flightless weevil in the family Curculionidae, native to North America. It was first described by Pierce in 1909 and gained scientific attention through evaluation as a potential biological control agent for Parthenium hysterophorus in Australia. The species is nocturnal, spends winter as larvae underground feeding on plant roots, and is known for its cryptic appearance and death-feigning behavior when disturbed.
Thecodiplosis
Thecodiplosis is a genus of gall midges (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) comprising approximately six described species. Species in this genus induce galls on pine needles, with documented hosts including Pinus densiflora, P. thunbergii, P. resinosa, and other Pinus species. The genus has become economically significant as an invasive pest in some regions, particularly Thecodiplosis japonensis, which has established populations in China since 2016.
Theocolax
Theocolax is a genus of small parasitic wasps in the family Cerocephalidae. The genus includes multiple species, with T. elegans being the most extensively studied. Members are ectoparasitoids of stored product insect pests, particularly beetles and moths that develop inside cereal and leguminous grains. They are cosmopolitan in distribution and have been investigated for biological control applications in grain storage facilities.
Therioaphis
Therioaphis is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae comprising more than 20 described species. The genus includes significant agricultural pests, notably the spotted alfalfa aphid (Therioaphis maculata, also treated as T. trifolii forma maculata) and the yellow clover aphid (Therioaphis trifolii), which infest alfalfa, clovers, and related legumes. These species have been extensively studied for biological control, host plant resistance, and their role as vectors of plant pathogens including alfalfa mosaic virus.
Therioaphis trifolii
yellow clover aphid, spotted alfalfa aphid
Therioaphis trifolii is a phloem-feeding aphid and major agricultural pest of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and clover species (Trifolium spp.). The species exhibits significant intraspecific variation, with distinct biotypes showing host-specific adaptations: the spotted alfalfa aphid (SAA) primarily colonizes Medicago species, while the spotted clover aphid (SCA) specializes on Trifolium. Native to the western Palaearctic, it has established globally including Australia, North America, and parts of Asia. The species manipulates host plant defense pathways through salivary secretions, activating salicylic acid signaling while suppressing jasmonic acid responses to improve host suitability.
Therion
Therion is a genus of ichneumon wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, subfamily Anomaloninae. The genus contains at least 20 described species distributed across North America, Europe, and Asia. Members are external or internal parasitoids of moth caterpillars, with several species serving as biological control agents of pest species. The genus has been subject to recent taxonomic revision in Japan, where four species are now recognized.
Therion circumflexum
Therion circumflexum is a relatively large ichneumonid wasp, 14–25 mm in length, with distinctive black, orange, and yellow coloration. It is a widespread Palearctic and Nearctic species that parasitizes moth caterpillars, including geometrids, sphingids, notodontids, and noctuids. Adults are active from mid-June through September. The species was first described by Linnaeus in 1758 and has been subject to recent taxonomic revision in Japan.
Therion morio
none
Therion morio is a parasitic ichneumon wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. Females possess a short, spine-like ovipositor used exclusively for laying eggs inside caterpillar hosts, not for defense. The species is widespread across North America, ranging from Nova Scotia to Florida and west to Washington, Nevada, Kansas, and Mexico. It is considered a beneficial biological control agent of pest caterpillars, particularly the Fall Webworm (Hyphantria cunea).
Therion texanum
Therion texanum is a species of ichneumon wasp in the family Ichneumonidae, described by Ashmead in 1890. It belongs to a genus whose members are parasitoids of moth caterpillars. The species epithet "texanum" indicates a geographic association with Texas. Like other Therion species, it likely functions as a biological control agent of lepidopteran pests.
Theronia
Theronia is a genus of ichneumon wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, established by Holmgren in 1859. The genus comprises at least 30 described species with a worldwide distribution. Species in this genus are parasitoids, specifically endoparasitoids or hyperparasitoids, of Lepidoptera larvae.
Therophilus
Therophilus is a genus of koinobiont, solitary, larval endoparasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae. Members are specialized parasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, with documented associations including pest species such as Maruca vitrata (legume pod borer), Grapholita molesta (oriental fruit moth), and Epiphyas postvittana (light brown apple moth). The genus is notable for its distinctive black, red-orange, and white coloration pattern, which appears to be part of a putative mimicry complex with other braconid wasps. Several species have been evaluated or deployed as biological control agents against agricultural pests.
Thymelicus
skippers
Thymelicus is a Palearctic genus of skipper butterflies (Hesperiidae) and the sole member of the tribe Thymelini. The genus includes approximately 12 described species, several of which have been subjects of conservation and biological study. Two species—Thymelicus sylvestris (small skipper) and Thymelicus lineola (European skipper/Essex skipper)—have been introduced to North America, where T. lineola has become a notable agricultural pest. The genus has served as a model for studies in conservation translocation, parasite-host relationships, and insect developmental biology.
Tingidae
Lace Bugs
Tingidae, commonly known as lace bugs, is a family of minute true bugs (Hemiptera) comprising approximately 2,000 described species worldwide. Adults range from 2–10 mm in body length and are immediately recognizable by their ornate, reticulated forewings and pronotal expansions that create a delicate lace-like appearance. The family exhibits complete phytophagy, with species typically specialized to particular host plants or closely related plant groups. Tingidae undergo hemimetabolous development with five distinct nymphal instars preceding the adult stage. Several species are economically significant as pests of ornamental plants, trees, and agricultural crops, while others have been employed as biological control agents against invasive weeds.
Tinocallis
elm aphids, crapemyrtle aphids
Tinocallis is a small genus of aphids in the subfamily Calaphidinae, comprising eight described species. Most species are associated with Ulmaceae (elm family), though one notable exception, T. kahawaluokalani (the crapemyrtle aphid), is a specialist pest of Lagerstroemia indica. Species exhibit holocyclic life cycles with both parthenogenetic summer generations and sexual autumn generations producing overwintering eggs. Several species are economically significant as pests of ornamental trees in urban landscapes.
Tiphia
Tiphia is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Tiphiidae. Species in this genus are specialized ectoparasitoids of scarab beetle larvae (white grubs) that inhabit soil. The genus includes notable biological control agents such as Tiphia vernalis, which was introduced to the United States from Asia in 1925 to manage Japanese beetle populations.
Tiphia vernalis
Spring Tiphia
Tiphia vernalis is a parasitoid wasp in the family Tiphiidae, introduced to North America from Korea in the 1920s as a biological control agent for Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica) populations. The species has established populations across the eastern United States, where it parasitizes scarabaeid beetle larvae in soil environments. Females locate host grubs below ground using kairomones from the grubs and their frass, then paralyze and parasitize them externally.
Tiphiidae
Tiphiid Flower Wasps, Tiphiid Wasps, Flower Wasps
Tiphiidae is a family of large, solitary wasps whose larvae are parasitoids of beetle larvae, particularly scarab beetles (Scarabaeoidea). The family has undergone significant taxonomic revision, with former subfamilies now reclassified as the separate family Thynnidae. Some members, particularly in the subfamily Brachycistidinae, exhibit striking sexual dimorphism: males are winged and aerial, while females are wingless and fossorial, hunting ground-dwelling beetle larvae.
Tortricinae
Tortricine Leafroller Moths, Leafrollers
Tortricinae is the nominate subfamily of Tortricidae, commonly known as leafroller moths. Larvae construct shelters by folding or rolling leaves of their host plants, a behavior that gives the group its common name. The subfamily includes economically significant agricultural pests as well as species employed as biological control agents against invasive weeds. It represents a diverse radiation within the tortrix moths with global distribution.
Torymidae
Torymidae is a family of chalcidoid wasps containing over 960 species in approximately 70 genera worldwide. Members are typically small with metallic coloration, enlarged hind legs, and females often possess long ovipositors. The family exhibits diverse life histories: many species are parasitoids of gall-forming insects, while others are phytophagous, feeding on seeds or usurping galls formed by other insects. Torymidae is distinguished from other Chalcidoidea by the visibility of cerci, a rare trait in this superfamily.
Torymus
Torymus is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Torymidae, established by Dalman in 1820. The genus contains over 400 species worldwide. Most species are ectoparasitoids of gall-forming insects, particularly gall wasps (Cynipidae) and gall midges (Cecidomyiidae). Several species have been studied for their role in biological control of agricultural pests.
Torymus flavicoxa
Torymus flavicoxa is a parasitoid wasp in the family Torymidae, a group known for attacking insects within plant galls. The species has been recorded as a parasite of psyllid nymphs inhabiting hackberry leaf galls. It is distributed across Canada from British Columbia to Ontario.
Torymus koebelei
Torymus koebelei is a species of chalcid wasp in the family Torymidae. The species was described by Huber in 1927. Torymus species are generally known as parasitoids of gall-forming insects, particularly gall wasps and gall midges. T. koebelei has been documented in the western United States, including California, where it has been reared from oak apple galls.
Torymus racemariae
Torymus racemariae is a small parasitic wasp in the family Torymidae, first described by Ashmead in 1881. As with other members of the genus Torymus, it is presumed to be a parasitoid of gall-forming insects, though specific host records for this species are not documented in the provided sources. The species is currently listed as a synonym of Torymus recemareae in the Catalogue of Life. Torymid wasps are typically associated with galls on various host plants, where they develop by feeding on the gall inducer or other inhabitants.
Torymus solitarius
Torymus solitarius is a small parasitic wasp in the family Torymidae, known to attack gall-forming insects. The species has been documented as a parasitoid of hackberry psyllid nymphs (Pachypsylla spp.) within their galls on hackberry trees. It is one of several Torymus species associated with psyllid galls in North America. Adults emerge from galls by chewing exit holes after completing larval development on the host nymph.
Torymus tubicola
Torymus tubicola is a species of chalcid wasp in the family Torymidae. The species is known to parasitize gall-forming insects, including psyllid nymphs within plant galls. It has been recorded from multiple provinces across Canada.
Toumeyella
tortoise scales, pine tortoise scales
Toumeyella is a genus of soft scale insects (family Coccidae) commonly known as tortoise scales. These sedentary, sap-feeding insects infest conifers and broadleaf trees, with females protected by a waxy, shell-like covering. Several species are significant forest and ornamental pests, including T. liriodendri (tuliptree scale) and T. pini (striped pine scale). The genus is characterized by phloem-feeding habits, honeydew production, and frequent mutualistic associations with ants.
Toumeyella parvicornis
pine tortoise scale
Toumeyella parvicornis is a soft scale insect in the family Coccidae, commonly known as the pine tortoise scale. Native to North America, it has become a serious invasive pest in Mediterranean Europe, particularly damaging stone pine (Pinus pinea) forests in Italy and France since its detection in 2015. Mature females are distinctive for their glossy reddish-brown, dome-shaped bodies resembling tiny tortoises, measuring 4–5 mm long. The species has a wide host range among pine species and reproduces parthenogenetically—males have never been recorded. Heavy infestations cause tree weakening, defoliation, and potential death through phloem feeding, with secondary impacts including sooty mold growth on honeydew excretions and altered fire behavior in affected forests.
Toxares
Toxares is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Aphidiinae. The genus was established by Haliday in 1840. At least one species, T. deltiger, has been documented as a parasitoid of cereal aphids, with records from southern England and Finland indicating a Palearctic distribution.
Toxomerus
Calligrapher Flies
Toxomerus is a large genus of hoverflies (family Syrphidae) distributed across the Americas, with over 130 described Neotropical species and additional Nearctic endemics. Species are small (typically 6–9 mm), characterized by large eyes with posterior indentation and diagnostic abdominal patterns. Most larvae are predatory on soft-bodied insects, particularly aphids, though at least three species are known pollen-feeders. Adults are pollinivorous, feeding on nectar and pollen from diverse flowering plants. The genus includes notable ecological specialists such as Toxomerus basalis, a kleptoparasite of sundews (Drosera), and several species introduced to the Afrotropics.
hoverflyflower-flyaphid-predatorpollinatorbiological-controlHymenoptera-mimickleptoparasiteintroduced-speciesNeotropicalNearcticAfrotropical-introductionpolyvoltineSyrphiniSyrphinaeDipteraSyrphidaeToxomerus-marginatusToxomerus-disparToxomerus-pulchellusToxomerus-basalisToxomerus-floralisToxomerus-politusToxomerus-apegiensisDroserasundewpollenivorypredatory-larvaeurban-adapteragricultural-beneficialcryptic-larvaeeye-dimorphismterritorial-behaviorDNA-barcodingcitizen-sciencemuseum-collectionsrange-expansionconservation-concernToxomerus arcifer
Bow-shaped Calligrapher
Toxomerus arcifer is a small hover fly in the family Syrphidae, commonly known as the Bow-shaped Calligrapher. Adults are pollinators that visit flowers for nectar and pollen. Larvae are predators of aphids and other small soft-bodied insects. The species is part of a large New World genus with over 140 described species, many of which remain poorly studied.
Toxomerus geminatus
Eastern Calligrapher
Toxomerus geminatus, commonly known as the Eastern Calligrapher, is a small hover fly (Syrphidae) native to eastern North America. Adults measure 6.1–7.6 mm and are frequently found hovering around flowers where they feed on nectar and pollen. The species is very similar in appearance to the Western Calligrapher (Toxomerus occidentalis). Larvae are predators of aphids and mites, contributing to biological control in agricultural and natural settings.
Toxomerus marginatus
Margined Calligrapher, Margined Calligrapher Fly
Toxomerus marginatus is a common North American hoverfly (Syrphidae) measuring 5–6 mm. Adults are frequent flower visitors, while larvae are predatory on thrips, aphids, and small caterpillars. The species has been documented as the most numerous syrphid controlling aphids in California Central Coast lettuce fields. It exhibits strong attraction to methyl salicylate, a floral compound and herbivore-induced plant volatile.
Toxomerus occidentalis
Western Calligrapher
Toxomerus occidentalis, commonly known as the Western Calligrapher, is a species of hover fly (family Syrphidae) native to western North America. Adults are frequent visitors to flowers where they feed on nectar and pollen. The larvae are predatory, feeding on aphids and mites. The species was described by Curran in 1922 and is one of the more commonly observed syrphid flies in its range.
Toxoneuron
Toxoneuron is a genus of koinobiont endoparasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae. The best-studied species, Toxoneuron nigriceps, is a specialist parasitoid of the tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens). Members of this genus develop internally within host larvae, with a distinctive post-egression feeding phase where larvae feed externally on host tissues before pupation. The genus exhibits sophisticated host manipulation mechanisms including polydnavirus-mediated immune suppression and teratocyte-derived physiological regulation.
Toxoneuron nigriceps
Toxoneuron nigriceps is a koinobiont endoparasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae. It is highly host-specific to the tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens, and historically provided substantial natural biological control in agricultural systems. The species exhibits complex host manipulation strategies including injection of polydnavirus, venom, and ovarian proteins during oviposition, followed by a distinctive postegression feeding phase where larvae exit the host to feed externally on liquefied tissues before pupation.
Toxorhynchites
elephant mosquitoes, mosquito eaters, giant treehole mosquitoes
Toxorhynchites is a genus of large, non-biting mosquitoes found in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Adults are active during daylight hours and feed exclusively on nectar, honeydew, and plant juices rather than blood. The genus includes the largest known mosquito species, reaching up to 18 mm in body length and 24 mm in wingspan. Larvae are obligate predators that consume other mosquito larvae and aquatic invertebrates, making them valuable for biological control of disease-vector mosquitoes.
Toxorhynchites rutilus
Elephant Mosquito, Treehole Predatory Mosquito, Predatory Tree-hole Mosquito
Toxorhynchites rutilus, commonly called the elephant mosquito, is a large predatory mosquito species native to North America. Adults are distinctive for their iridescent blue-purple coloration, large size, and non-biting habit—they feed exclusively on nectar and serve as pollinators. The larvae are obligate predators that consume other mosquito larvae, making this species valuable for biological control of disease-vector mosquitoes. A single larva may eat up to 5,000 prey larvae before maturing. The species has been employed in biocontrol programs targeting container-breeding Aedes mosquitoes.
Trachionus
Trachionus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, established by Haliday in 1833. The genus contains approximately 13-17 described species. Larvae are parasitoids of Phytobia larvae, which are agromyzid flies that mine plant stems and roots.
Tranosema
Tranosema is a genus of ichneumonid parasitoid wasps found in Europe and North America. Species in this genus are endoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, particularly tortricid moths. The best-studied species, T. rostrale, is a koinobiont parasitoid of the spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana) and transmits a polydnavirus (ichnovirus) to its host during oviposition, which alters host development and physiology.
Trathala
Trathala is a genus of ichneumonid wasps first described by Cameron in 1899. Species within this genus are larval-pupal parasitoids of lepidopteran hosts. Trathala flavoorbitalis has been studied as a biological control agent for agricultural pests including the brinjal shoot and fruit borer (Leucinodes orbonalis) and rice leaffolder. The genus exhibits host-stage selectivity, with successful development typically occurring in third to fifth instar host larvae.
Trematuridae
Trematuridae is a family of soil-dwelling mites in the suborder Uropodina, characterized by a pear-shaped idiosoma and distinctive morphological features including dorsal shield notching and specialized cheliceral dentition. The family has a worldwide distribution with maximal diversity in tropical rain forests. Members have been documented in association with insect hosts, including the red palm weevil, and are studied for potential biological control applications. Reproductive behaviors including pre-ovipositional, ovipositional, and mating behaviors have been described for species such as Trichouropoda ovalis.
Trialeurodes
greenhouse whitefly, whitefly
Trialeurodes is a large genus of whiteflies in the family Aleyrodidae, containing economically significant agricultural pests. The genus includes species such as the greenhouse whitefly (T. vaporariorum) and the bandedwinged whitefly (T. abutiloneus), which infest hundreds of host plant species including vegetables, cotton, and ornamental plants. Members are tiny phloem-feeding insects, typically measuring 1–3 mm, with distinctive waxy wings and piercing-sucking mouthparts. Several species are subjects of intensive biological control research using parasitoid wasps.
Triarthria setipennis
European earwig parasitoid fly
Triarthria setipennis is a tachinid fly native to Europe that was introduced to North America in the 1920s as a classical biological control agent for the European earwig (Forficula auricularia). It is ovolarviparous, depositing eggs near potential hosts rather than on them. First-instar larvae actively seek out earwigs and attempt to penetrate through intersegmental membranes, though only about 16.7% succeed. The species overwinters as pupae and produces one complete and one partial generation annually in temperate regions. It has established populations in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, Newfoundland, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts.
Triaspis
Triaspis is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae. Species within this genus are biological control agents that parasitize weevil larvae and eggs, particularly those of agricultural pests. The genus includes species such as T. thoracicus, an egg-larval parasitoid of pea weevils, and T. aequoris, a larval parasitoid of sunflower seed weevils.
Trichapion
Trichapion is a genus of weevils in the family Brentidae (formerly placed in Apionidae). The genus was established by Wagner in 1912. Several species have been studied as biological control agents, particularly for invasive Sesbania weeds. Species were transferred from the genus Apion during taxonomic revisions.
Trichobaris
flower weevils
Trichobaris is a genus of flower weevils in the family Curculionidae, comprising 8–13 described species distributed from the southwestern United States through Mexico. These weevils are specialized herbivores associated with plants in the family Solanaceae, particularly the genus Datura, with which they likely coevolved. Several species are notable agricultural pests, including T. mucorea (tobacco stalk borer) and T. trinotata (potato stalk borer), which also feed on cultivated solanaceous crops. Research on this genus has contributed to understanding host-herbivore coevolution, chemical ecology of host selection, and the decoupling of maternal oviposition cues from larval performance.
Trichogramma
Trichogramma wasps, egg parasitoid wasps
Trichogramma is a genus of minute polyphagous wasps that are endoparasitoids of insect eggs. With over 200 species worldwide, it is one of approximately 80 genera in the family Trichogrammatidae. These wasps are among the most extensively studied and widely used biological control agents globally, with more than a thousand published papers on their biology and applications. Trichogramma species have also gained attention in neuroscience research due to their extremely small brain size—fewer than 10,000 neurons—while still exhibiting complex behaviors.
biological-controlegg-parasitoidintegrated-pest-managementneuroscience-modelWolbachiamass-rearingagricultural-pest-managementChalcidoideaTrichogrammatidaeaugmentative-biological-controlinundative-releasesustainable-agriculturerice-pest-managementcotton-pest-managementorchard-pest-managementforest-pest-managementparthenogenesischemosensory-biologyminiaturizationbrain-evolutionTrichogrammatidae
trichogrammatid wasps, egg parasitoid wasps
Trichogrammatidae are a family of minute endoparasitoid wasps in the superfamily Chalcidoidea, containing over 840 species in approximately 80 genera with worldwide distribution. Adults of most species measure less than 1 mm in length, with some species of Megaphragma reaching less than 300 μm—among the smallest insects known. The family is distinguished by 3-segmented tarsi, paddle-shaped forewings fringed with marginal cilia, and a unique nervous system adaptation where adult neurons function without nuclei. Trichogrammatids are economically important as biological control agents, parasitizing eggs of Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera.
Trichomalopsis
Trichomalopsis is a genus of pupal parasitoid wasps in the family Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Species in this genus develop as ectoparasitoids on the pupae of Diptera, including economically important fruit flies such as Bactrocera dorsalis. Members exhibit robust environmental tolerance, with some species showing greater resistance to temperature extremes, starvation, and desiccation than related parasitoids. The genus has been documented from Asia, Europe, North America, and the Azores, with particular research interest in their potential as biological control agents against invasive tephritid pests.
Trichonephila
Banded Orbweavers, Golden Orb-weavers
Trichonephila is a genus of large orb-weaver spiders renowned for constructing massive, golden-hued webs. Females exhibit pronounced sexual size dimorphism, reaching 12–40 mm in body length while males remain much smaller. The genus was elevated from subgenus status in 2019 and now encompasses 13 species distributed across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Several species, including the Jorō spider (T. clavata) and golden silk spider (T. clavipes), have become notable invaders in North America, with T. clavata demonstrating remarkable cold tolerance and rapid range expansion along the eastern United States.
Trichonephila clavata
Jorō spider, Joro Spider, Parachute spider
Trichonephila clavata, commonly known as the Jorō spider, is a large orb-weaving spider native to East Asia that has become established as an invasive species in the southeastern United States since approximately 2010. First confirmed in Georgia in 2014, it has expanded rapidly across multiple states through a combination of ballooning dispersal and human-mediated transport. The species is notable for its substantial size, striking coloration, and extensive golden webs, but poses minimal risk to humans due to small fangs and docile behavior. Its physiological adaptations—including higher metabolic rate, faster heart rate, and greater cold tolerance than its congener Trichonephila clavipes—suggest potential for continued northward range expansion.
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indivisa
feather-legged fly
Trichopoda indivisa is a species of tachinid fly in the family Tachinidae, commonly known as a feather-legged fly. It is native to North America and has been recorded in the United States and Mexico. Like other members of its genus, it is a parasitoid of true bugs (Hemiptera).
Trichopoda lanipes
feather-legged fly
Trichopoda lanipes is a tachinid fly species distributed across North America, from Canada through the United States to Mexico. As a member of the feather-legged fly genus Trichopoda, it is a parasitoid of true bugs (Hemiptera), including stink bugs (Pentatomidae) and leaf-footed bugs (Coreidae). The species has been documented as a parasitoid of several specific host species including Acanthocephala femorata, Archimerus alternatus, Nezara viridula, and Podisus maculiventris.
Trichopoda pennipes
feather-legged fly
Trichopoda pennipes is a tachinid fly native to North and South America that has been introduced to Europe and other regions as a biological control agent. Adults feed on nectar and are active from late spring through autumn. Females deposit eggs on true bugs, particularly stink bugs and squash bugs, and the developing larvae act as internal parasitoids that eventually kill their hosts. The species is notable for its feather-like hind leg fringes and is considered a valuable natural enemy of agricultural pests, though its effectiveness varies by region and host species.
Trichopoda plumipes
feather-legged fly
Trichopoda plumipes is a tachinid fly species native to North America. Adults are distinguished by prominent feather-like (plumose) hairs on the hind legs, a trait that gives the genus its common name. The species is a parasitoid of true bugs (Hemiptera), particularly members of families Pentatomidae and Coreidae. Females locate hosts using aggregation pheromones produced by the bugs themselves, then deposit eggs externally on the host's body.
Trichopoda subdivisa
fringe-legged tachinid fly
Trichopoda subdivisa is a species of tachinid fly in the family Tachinidae, commonly known as the fringe-legged tachinid fly. Like other members of the genus Trichopoda, it is a parasitoid fly that targets true bugs (Hemiptera). The species is found in North America, particularly in the United States.
Trichopria
Trichopria is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Diapriidae distributed worldwide. Species in this genus are primarily pupal parasitoids of Diptera, with documented hosts including drosophilid fruit flies, sarcophagid flies, muscids, and other fly families. Several species have been investigated for biological control of pest flies, particularly the invasive spotted-wing drosophila (Drosophila suzukii). The genus exhibits variation in reproductive strategies, with some species showing solitary development and others gregarious or polyembryonic development.
Trichopsomyia
Trichopsomyia is a genus of hoverflies (family Syrphidae) established by Williston in 1888. The genus contains approximately 30 described species distributed across multiple continents. Adults are typical hoverflies with large compound eyes and a single pair of wings. Larvae are flattened, legless, and aphid predators. The genus belongs to the tribe Pipizini within subfamily Eristalinae.
Trichosirocalus
rosette weevils, crown weevils
A genus of small true weevils native to the Palearctic region. Several species have been widely introduced to North America, Australia, and New Zealand as biological control agents for invasive thistles. The genus was historically treated as containing a single species, T. horridus, but integrative taxonomic studies using molecular and morphological data have revealed multiple distinct species with different host associations.
weevilbiological-controlthistleinvasive-species-managementCeutorhynchinaerosette-feederCeutorhynchiniBaridinaetaxonomic-revisionclassical-biological-controlCarduusCirsiumOnopordumPalearctic-nativeintroduced-speciesmolecular-systematicsintegrative-taxonomyunivoltineleaf-mineragricultural-pest-controlpasture-weed-managementspecies-complexhost-specificitymusk-thistleplumeless-thistleScotch-thistleIllyrian-thistlewelted-thistleItalian-thistlecrown-weevilrosette-weeviloviposition-behavioroverwinteringegg-stagelarval-stageadult-stagedecaying-organic-mattersoil-surfacenon-photosynthetic-leavesgreen-leavesleaf-midribspetiolesleaf-miningnotching-damagerosette-survivalflowering-stem-reductionseed-production-reductionrosette-mortalitypopulation-density-effectsmark-recapturedispersal-patternsartificial-diet-rearinglaboratory-culturevitamin-supplementationlyophilized-thistle-rootsergosterolcasein-hydrolysate7-dehydrocholesterolsucroselarval-survivaladult-longevityovipositionfemale-fecundityfield-cage-experimentsindividual-cage-experimentsgrowth-parameter-reductionpre-release-host-specificity-testingpost-release-monitoringestablishment-successrange-expansionforested-areasagricultural-landpasturesmall-farmscropsdisturbed-habitatsmeadowsdense-patchesrosette-size-preferencespatial-distributionselective-ovipositionautumn-egg-layingwinter-larval-developmentspring-pupationlate-summer-adult-emergencesoil-overwinteringplant-debris-overwinteringrachisleaf-dissectiondestructive-samplingnon-destructive-samplingsampling-biaslife-stage-detectionestablished-populationsmitochondrial-COInuclear-EF-1αmorphological-charactershost-plant-associationssynonymyspecies-validityintroduction-historyrelease-recordsestablishment-recordsOld-World-nativeNew-World-introductionSouthern-Hemisphere-introductionAustraliaNew-ZealandNorth-AmericaVirginiaSouthwest-VirginiaEuropeSpainFranceGermanyItalySwitzerlandAustriaScandinaviaDenmarkNorwaySwedenColonnelli-1979Panzer-1801Alonso-Zarazaga-&-Sánchez-Ruiz-2002Ceutorhynchinae-vs-Baridinaesubfamily-placementtribe-placementtrue-weevilsCurculionidaeColeopteraInsectaArthropodaAnimalia882-iNaturalist-observationsGBIF-recordsCatalogue-of-Life-acceptedNCBI-TaxonomyBulletin-of-Entomological-ResearchJournal-of-Applied-EcologyJournal-of-Entomological-ScienceAnnals-of-the-Entomological-Society-of-AmericaEnvironmental-EntomologyDOI-10.1017/s000748531500084xDOI-10.1046/j.1365-2664.2002.00747.xDOI-10.18474/0749-8004-22.4.324DOI-10.18474/0749-8004-22.4.330DOI-10.18474/0749-8004-24.4.465DOI-10.1093/aesa/73.6.694DOI-10.1093/ee/10.5.691Trichosirocalus horridus
Thistle Crown Weevil, Musk Thistle Crown Weevil
Trichosirocalus horridus is a Palearctic weevil introduced to North America in 1974 as a biological control agent for exotic thistles in the genera Cirsium and Carduus. Native to Europe, it has established populations across the United States, particularly in Virginia where it spread from 609 km² in 1981 to 4,345 km² by 1985. Adults feed on thistle rosettes while larvae develop internally in stems and crowns, causing significant damage to host plants. The species has shown nontarget impacts, feeding on native Cirsium species in Nebraska and Tennessee at rates comparable to target weeds.
Triops
tadpole shrimp, shield shrimp
Triops is a genus of small branchiopod crustaceans in the order Notostraca, commonly known as tadpole shrimp or shield shrimp. The genus is distinguished by having only a pair of long, thin caudal extensions on the telson, unlike the related genus Lepidurus which bears an additional central platelike process. Some species are frequently sold as aquarium pets in dried egg kits, hatching upon contact with fresh water. In agricultural settings, particularly California rice cultivation, certain species function as early-season pests that damage germinating seedlings.
Triops longicaudatus
Longtail Tadpole Shrimp, American Tadpole Shrimp, Rice Tadpole Shrimp
Triops longicaudatus is a freshwater branchiopod crustacean commonly known as the longtail tadpole shrimp or rice tadpole shrimp. It inhabits ephemeral ponds and pools across western North America, South America, Japan, South Korea, and Pacific Islands. The species is notable for its ancient lineage—morphologically unchanged for over 170 million years—and its remarkable desiccation-resistant eggs that can survive decades in dry sediment before hatching upon rehydration. It displays multiple reproductive strategies including parthenogenesis, hermaphroditism, and sexual reproduction. In California agriculture, it is a significant early-season pest of rice, damaging germinating seeds in flooded fields.
Trioxys
Trioxys is a genus of aphid parasitoid wasps in the subfamily Aphidiinae (Braconidae). Species within this genus are internal parasitoids of aphids and have been studied for their biological control potential against agricultural pests. Some species, such as T. indicus, exhibit adaptive learning in host discrimination behavior, with experience reducing superparasitism and improving oviposition efficiency. Other species, including T. utilis and T. pallidus, have been deployed or studied for management of specific aphid pests in crops such as alfalfa and hazelnut.
Trirhabda bacharidis (Weber, 1801)
groundselbush beetle, groundsel bush leaf beetle
Trirhabda bacharidis is a skeletonizing leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. It is highly specialized to feed on Baccharis species (Asteraceae), with both adults and larvae consuming host plant foliage. The species has been documented in Australia, North America, and Southern Asia, and has been studied for its biological control potential.
Triscolia ardens
Fire-tailed Scoliid Wasp
Triscolia ardens is a large scoliid wasp and the sole member of its genus occurring in North America north of Mexico. Females are robust with short antennae and hunt subterranean scarab beetle grubs as hosts for their larvae. Males possess long antennae and a distinctive three-pronged pseudosting at the abdomen tip. The species is recognized by its black integument and setae on the head and first two gaster segments, with the remainder of the gaster bright red.
Trissolcus
samurai wasps
Trissolcus is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Scelionidae, comprising at least 180 described species. Members are obligate egg parasitoids of true bugs in the infraorder Pentatomomorpha, including stink bugs (Pentatomidae). The genus has gained significant attention due to the biological control potential of several species, particularly Trissolcus japonicus (the "samurai wasp"), against the invasive brown marmorated stink bug (Halyomorpha halys). Taxonomic challenges have historically complicated identification, with recent revisionary work resolving numerous synonymies and clarifying species boundaries.
Trissolcus brochymenae
Trissolcus brochymenae is a tiny parasitoid wasp in the family Scelionidae, known primarily as an egg parasitoid of stink bugs (Pentatomidae). The species has been documented parasitizing eggs of the rough stink bug genus Brochymena in North America, and has been studied for its responses to host semiochemicals and plant surface chemistry. Research indicates that its foraging behavior is influenced by synomones adsorbed onto leaf epicuticular waxes, with chemical cues from host feeding and oviposition activity playing critical roles in host location and recognition.
Trissolcus euschisti
Trissolcus euschisti is a scelionid parasitoid wasp approximately 1.5 mm in length that attacks the eggs of stink bugs (Pentatomidae), particularly species in the genus Euschistus. The species exhibits habitat partitioning with the congeneric parasitoid Telenomus podisi, showing greater abundance on woody host plants while T. podisi dominates herbaceous vegetation. It has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for brown marmorated stink bug (Halyomorpha halys) and demonstrates flexible reproductive strategies, including the ability to develop in hosts where resources have been partially utilized by prior parasitoid activity.
Trogossitidae
bark-gnawing beetles
Trogossitidae is a small family of beetles in the superfamily Cleroidea, commonly known as bark-gnawing beetles. The family has undergone significant taxonomic revision, with many former members reassigned to separate families (Lophocateridae, Peltidae, Protopeltidae, Rentoniidae, and Thymalidae) as of 2019. Under the modern circumscription, the family contains approximately 400 species in 25 genera, reduced from roughly 600 species in over 50 genera under previous definitions. Members are predominantly predatory and/or mycophagous, with both adults and larvae associated with wood habitats.
Trogus lapidator
Trogus lapidator is an ichneumonid parasitoid wasp that develops within the pupae of the Old World swallowtail butterfly Papilio machaon. It is notable for an unusual emergence mechanism: rather than cutting through the host pupal case with mandibles like most related wasps, it primarily uses a liquid secretion to soften and dissolve host tissue, employing mandibles only secondarily to spread the secretion and minimally enlarge the exit hole at the end of emergence. The species occurs across Europe, with records from Finland to Belgium and Canada.
Trombidiformes
Trombidiform Mites
Trombidiformes is a large, diverse order of mites within the subclass Acariformes, comprising approximately 25,821 described species across 151 families. The order is divided into two suborders: Sphaerolichida (two families) and Prostigmata (the majority, with four infraorders and 40 superfamilies). Members include medically significant species such as Demodex mites, chiggers (Trombiculidae), and scrub-itch mites, as well as agriculturally important groups like spider mites (Tetranychidae). The phylogenetic placement of the superfamily Eriophyoidea (gall mites) remains uncertain; recent molecular analyses suggest it may fall outside Trombidiformes, possibly related to Nematalycidae.
Trombidioidea
velvet mites
Trombidioidea is a superfamily of mites in the order Trombidiformes, commonly known as velvet mites. It comprises approximately 8 families and at least 430 described species, including the familiar true velvet mites (Trombidiidae) and chiggers (Trombiculidae). Members exhibit complex life cycles with dramatic morphological and ecological shifts between instars. The superfamily is characterized by large, often brightly colored adults and minute, parasitic larvae.
Tropidiina
Tropidiina is a subtribe of hoverflies (family Syrphidae) containing 11 genera. Recent phylogenetic studies indicate it is sister to the tribe Eristalini, revealing that Milesiini as currently defined is polyphyletic. Members are characterized by a thickened hind femur and a body that narrows progressively from rear to head. The subtribe has broad geographic distribution with highest diversity in the Americas and Europe.
Tropidosteptes
ash plant bugs
Tropidosteptes is a genus of plant bugs (Miridae) containing at least 30 described species. The genus is best known from T. chapingoensis, the ash plant bug, which has been studied in detail for its life cycle and impact on urban ash trees. Species in this genus are associated with Fraxinus (ash) trees and can cause significant defoliation damage. The genus occurs in North America, with at least one species introduced to South America.
Tropiduchidae
Tropiduchid Planthoppers
Tropiduchidae is a family of planthoppers in the order Hemiptera, within the superfamily Fulgoroidea. The family contains at least 160 genera and approximately 600 described species distributed worldwide. Members are characterized by their planthopper morphology and are classified within the subfamily Elicinae and other subfamilies. The family includes economically significant pests such as Ommatissus lybicus (the Dubas bug), a serious pest of date palms in the Middle East and North Africa.
Trupanea
Trupanea is a genus of tephritid fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) established by Schrank in 1795. Recent taxonomic revisions have synonymized the genera Celidosphenella and Melanotrypana with Trupanea, transferring multiple species to this genus. Species within Trupanea are primarily associated with Asteraceae host plants, with larvae developing in flower heads. The genus has a broad geographic distribution including the Neotropical region, North America, Hawaii, Europe, and North Africa.
Trybliographa
Trybliographa is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Figitidae. The most studied species, T. rapae, is an important biological control agent of cabbage root fly (Delia radicum) larvae in agricultural systems across Europe and North America. Members of this genus are koinobiont endoparasitoids that locate hosts using chemical cues and visual cues, with documented plasticity in behavioral responses to environmental stimuli.
Tycherus
Tycherus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, first described by Förster in 1869. Species occur in Europe and North America, with records from Scandinavia, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and eastern North America including Newfoundland and the Great Smoky Mountains. At least one species, Tycherus osculator, has been studied extensively as a biological control agent for tortricid forest pests. A specimen from the Great Smoky Mountains National Park identified via DNA barcoding likely represents an undescribed species.
Tydeidae
Tydeidae is a family of soft-bodied mites in the order Trombidiformes, containing over 300 species across three subfamilies. These small arachnids exhibit diverse feeding strategies including scavenging, fungivory, predation, and plant feeding. They are among the most commonly encountered mites in arboreal habitats worldwide, with some species playing significant roles in agriculture as both pests and beneficial organisms.
Typhlodromus
Typhlodromus is a genus of predatory mites in the family Phytoseiidae. The genus contains over 200 described species distributed across diverse geographic regions. Multiple species have been developed as commercial biological control agents for agricultural pest management.
Typhlodromus occidentalis
Typhlodromus occidentalis is a phytoseiid mite species specialized as an oligophagous predator of spider mites, particularly the twospotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae). Laboratory studies indicate it has an obligate feeding requirement during the larval stage—all larvae die without prey. The species exhibits distinctive behavioral patterns including high larval walking activity compared to related species, but the lowest deutonymphal activity among studied phytoseiids. Formerly classified under the genera Metaseiulus and Galendromus, this species has been subject to taxonomic revision. Its life history traits differ from polyphagous phytoseiid species, with longer larval stages and shorter deutonymphal stages.
Tyrannocoris
Tyrannocoris is a genus of stink bugs (Pentatomidae) established in 1992. The genus is characterized by predatory habits, distinguishing it from the primarily herbivorous majority of stink bugs. It is one of several predatory genera within the family. The genus has been documented in the Americas with limited but growing observational records.
Tyria
cinnabar moths
Tyria is a genus of tiger moths in the family Erebidae, best known for Tyria jacobaeae (the cinnabar moth), a specialist herbivore that has been extensively studied for its role in biological control of toxic ragwort plants. The genus contains day-flying moths with aposematic coloration warning predators of their chemical defenses. Larvae sequester pyrrolizidine alkaloids from host plants in the genus Senecio.
Tyria jacobaeae
Cinnabar moth
The cinnabar moth is a specialist herbivore native to Europe and western Asia, introduced to North America, Australia, and New Zealand for biological control of ragwort. Adults display aposematic black and red coloration advertising their chemical defense. Larvae sequester toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids from host plants, rendering them unpalatable to predators. The species has been extensively studied for its population ecology, dispersal behavior, and multitrophic chemical ecology.
Tytthus
Tytthus is a genus of predatory plant bugs (Miridae) specialized in feeding on planthopper eggs. Species range from approximately 1 mm to 3.6 mm in length. The genus has undergone extensive taxonomic revision, having been placed in multiple tribes before current placement in Semiini. Several species have been used successfully in biological control programs against agricultural pests.
Unaspis
Unaspis is a genus of armored scale insects (family Diaspididae) containing economically significant agricultural and horticultural pests. The genus includes at least 19 described species, with several species infesting citrus crops (U. citri, U. yanonensis) and ornamental plants (U. euonymi). Species in this genus are characterized by their protective waxy coverings and phytophagous feeding habits on host plant tissues.
Unaspis euonymi
Euonymus Scale
Unaspis euonymi is a diaspidid scale insect native to East Asia and now widespread as an invasive pest. It infests Euonymus species and several other ornamental plants, causing significant damage in urban and suburban landscapes. The species exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism in both morphology and feeding behavior. It has been extensively studied as a target for classical biological control using introduced and native natural enemies.
Uroleucon ambrosiae
Brown Ambrosia Aphid
Uroleucon ambrosiae is a medium-sized aphid in the family Aphididae, commonly known as the brown ambrosia aphid. Native to North America, it exhibits geographic variation in host specificity, with eastern populations highly specialized on giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) while southwestern populations feed more broadly on Asteraceae plants. In Brazil, it has emerged as a significant pest of hydroponically-grown lettuce, where it vectors lettuce mosaic virus and promotes sooty mold through honeydew excretion. The species reproduces parthenogenetically during spring and summer, forming all-female colonies. Its populations serve as important prey for diverse natural enemies including flower fly larvae, lady beetles, lacewings, and parasitic wasps, making it a key component of biological control food webs in both natural and agricultural systems.
Uroleucon erigeronense
Large fleabane daisy aphid
Uroleucon erigeronense is a species of aphid in the family Aphididae, first described by Thomas in 1878. It feeds primarily on plants in the Asteraceae family, with a particular association with Erigeron (fleabane) species. The species exhibits flexible reproductive strategies: holocyclic in northern climates, producing sexual forms in autumn, and anholocyclic in warmer regions. It shows seasonal host-shifting behavior, moving between overwintering perennial hosts and blooming annuals. Native to North America, it has been introduced to Europe, Australia, and Korea.
Uroleucon eupatoricolens
Uroleucon eupatoricolens is an aphid species in the family Aphididae. Like other members of the genus Uroleucon, it is a sap-sucking insect that feeds on plants in the Asteraceae family. The species reproduces parthenogenetically during spring and summer, producing all-female colonies. When disturbed, colonies exhibit synchronized twitching and kicking defensive behaviors. These aphids serve as important prey for diverse predator communities including lady beetles, lacewings, flower flies, and spiders.
Uroleucon picridis
Ox-tongue Aphid
Uroleucon picridis, commonly known as the Ox-tongue Aphid, is a species of aphid in the family Aphididae. Like other members of the genus Uroleucon, it is a sap-sucking insect that feeds on plants in the Asteraceae family. The species exhibits parthenogenetic reproduction during the growing season, with colonies consisting entirely of females. It serves as an important food source for numerous predators including lady beetles, lacewings, flower flies, and spiders, making it a significant component of garden and agricultural food webs.
Uroleucon pseudambrosiae
Wild Lettuce Aphid
Uroleucon pseudambrosiae is a North American aphid species that feeds on wild lettuce (Lactuca spp.) and related Asteraceae plants including dandelion (Taraxacum), pilewort (Erechtites hieracifolia), and Sonchus asper. It is known to serve as a vector for watermelon mosaic virus. The species exhibits parthenogenetic reproduction during spring and summer, forming all-female colonies.
Uroleucon taraxaci
Bronze-brown Dandelion Aphid
Uroleucon taraxaci is a species of aphid in the family Aphididae, commonly known as the Bronze-brown Dandelion Aphid. As a member of the genus Uroleucon, it shares characteristics with related species that exhibit parthenogenetic reproduction during spring and summer, forming all-female colonies. The species is associated with plants in the Asteraceae family, particularly dandelion (Taraxacum). Like other Uroleucon aphids, it produces honeydew that attracts predators and parasitoids. The species has been documented across parts of Europe and Asia.
Urophora
thistle gall flies, gall flies
Urophora is a genus of tephritid flies distributed across the Palaearctic Region, with species exhibiting close associations with Asteraceae plants. Larvae of many species induce galls on stems or other plant parts of thistles and related plants. The genus includes at least 13 species in Karaman Province, Türkiye alone, with new species continuing to be documented. Urophora cardui, a well-studied species, forms multi-chambered stem galls on Cirsium spp. and serves as host for multiple parasitoid wasps.
Urophora cardui
Canada thistle gall fly, Thistle Stem Gall Fly
Urophora cardui is a tephritid fruit fly native to Central Europe, from the United Kingdom east to near the Crimea and from Sweden south to the Mediterranean. It has been introduced to North America as a biological control agent for Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense), an invasive weed. The species forms stem galls on its host plant and has been extensively studied for its population genetics, dispersal patterns, and interactions with parasitoids. Despite establishment in eastern Canada, its impact on host weed populations has remained limited.
Urophora quadrifasciata
Four-barred Knapweed Gall Fly
Urophora quadrifasciata is a tephritid fly native to Europe and parts of Asia, introduced to North America and Australia as a biological control agent for invasive knapweed species (Centaurea spp.). Larvae develop in flower heads of knapweeds, forming galls that reduce seed production. The species has become established in western North America following intentional releases in the early 1970s, though populations at some sites declined due to competition with the related Urophora affinis.
Urosigalphus
A genus of braconid wasps comprising over 100 described species distributed across North, Central, and South America. Species in this genus are parasitoids, with documented associations including beetle hosts in families Bruchidae and Curculionidae. Colombian species have been collected primarily from forest understories using Malaise traps.
Utetes
Utetes is a genus of braconid wasps in the subfamily Opiinae, comprising larva-pupal parasitoids of tephritid fruit flies. Species such as U. anastrephae and U. tabellariae are native to the Americas and have been studied for their potential in biological control of agricultural pests. These wasps develop internally within host larvae and exhibit competitive advantages over sympatric parasitoid species.
Venturia canescens
Venturia canescens is a solitary koinobiont endoparasitoid wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. The species exhibits both sexual and asexual (parthenogenetic) populations, with the asexual strain being highly synovigenic—continuing egg maturation throughout adult life. Females inject virus-like particles (VLPs) derived from an integrated nudivirus into host larvae during oviposition; these VLPs suppress the host immune system and prevent encapsulation of the parasitoid egg. The species is a significant biological control agent of stored-product pests, particularly pyralid moth larvae.
Vespidae
Hornets, Paper Wasps, Potter Wasps, Yellowjackets, Mason Wasps
A large, cosmopolitan family of wasps encompassing nearly 5,000 described species. Vespidae includes nearly all known eusocial wasps—such as hornets, yellowjackets, and paper wasps—as well as numerous solitary species including potter and mason wasps. The family exhibits remarkable diversity in nesting behavior, from paper nests constructed from chewed plant fibers to mud nests and soil burrows. Social colonies typically contain a reproductive queen and sterile or subfertile female workers, with temperate species producing new queens and males annually before colony collapse in winter.
Vespula
yellowjackets, yellow jackets, Ground Yellowjackets
Vespula is a genus of social wasps in the family Vespidae, collectively known as yellowjackets in North America. The genus is distinguished from its sister genus Dolichovespula by a shorter oculomalar space and a stronger tendency to nest underground. Vespula species are widely distributed across the Northern Hemisphere, with most species native to North America and four species (V. austriaca, V. germanica, V. rufa, V. vulgaris) native to Europe. Several species have been introduced outside their native ranges, including V. germanica and V. vulgaris in New Zealand, Australia, South America, and Southern Africa.
Vibrissina
Vibrissina is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising approximately 50 described species distributed across the Holarctic and Neotropical regions. Species in this genus are parasitoids of sawfly larvae (Hymenoptera: Symphyta), particularly members of families Argidae, Tenthredinidae, and Diprionidae. The genus has been subject to recent taxonomic revision with five new species described from Costa Rica in 2017. Vibrissina turrita, the type species, has been recorded as a parasitoid of rose sawfly (Arge ochropus) in Turkey.
Voria ruralis
Voria ruralis is a tachinid fly that parasitizes lepidopteran larvae, particularly noctuid moths including the cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni) and soybean looper (Pseudoplusia includens). It is widely distributed across North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. The species has been documented as a biological control agent in agricultural systems, with parasitism rates reaching over 20% on some hosts. Developmental time varies with temperature, and females exhibit host discrimination behavior when selecting targets for oviposition.
Vulgichneumon brevicinctor
Vulgichneumon brevicinctor is a widely distributed ichneumon wasp and one of the most common species in the subfamily Ichneumoninae across North America. It is a parasitoid of moth larvae, with documented hosts including agricultural pests such as the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) and Cisseps fulvicollis. The species has been recorded throughout most of the United States and Canada.
Winthemia
Winthemia is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising over 100 described species distributed worldwide. Species in this genus are parasitoids of Lepidoptera, with larvae developing internally in host caterpillars. Several species have been studied as biological control agents of agricultural pests, including W. rufopicta on Heliothis species, W. fumiferanae on spruce budworm, and W. manducae on tobacco hornworm. The genus exhibits protandry in adult emergence and shows complex interactions with host populations.
Winthemia abdominalis
Winthemia abdominalis is a tachinid fly species described by Townsend in 1919. It belongs to the genus Winthemia, a group of parasitoid flies within the family Tachinidae. The species is known to occur in North America. Tachinid flies in this genus are generally larval parasitoids of various insect hosts, though specific host records for W. abdominalis are not well documented in the provided sources.
Winthemia quadripustulata
Red-Tailed Tachina
Winthemia quadripustulata is a species of tachinid fly (family Tachinidae) native to North America and parts of Europe. As a parasitoid, it has been documented as an internal parasite of caterpillars, specifically including larvae of the White-lined Sphinx moth (Hyles lineata). The species is one of several Winthemia flies known to attack sphingid caterpillars.
Winthemia reinhardi
Winthemia reinhardi is a species of tachinid fly (Diptera: Tachinidae) described by Guimarães in 1972. The genus Winthemia comprises parasitoid flies that are internal parasites of caterpillars and other insect larvae. This species is recorded from North America.
Winthemia rufopicta
Winthemia rufopicta is a polyphagous tachinid fly parasitoid known primarily for attacking larvae of Heliothis spp. (Noctuidae), particularly Heliothis zea and H. virescens, in agricultural systems. Adults emerge in spring with males preceding females by approximately one week. Females deposit eggs on host surfaces, with parasitism levels varying dramatically based on host behavior, size, and microhabitat. The species overwinters as diapausing maggots in shallow soil cells. Population dynamics are strongly tied to host availability, with spring declines and fall peaks in parasitism rates.
Winthemiini
Winthemiini is a tribe of tachinid flies (family Tachinidae, subfamily Exoristinae). The tribe comprises approximately 11 genera, including the type genus Winthemia and the widespread genus Nemorilla. Members are parasitoid flies, though specific host associations remain incompletely documented for many species. The tribe has a global distribution with records spanning multiple continents.
Wulfila
ghost spiders
Wulfila is a genus of ghost spiders (family Anyphaenidae) comprising at least 40 described species. These spiders are active hunters that do not construct webs for prey capture. They are commonly found in urban environments, where research has documented their association with scale-infested trees and shrubs. As members of the hunting spider guild, they contribute to biological control of pest insects in managed landscapes.
Wulfila albens
ghost spider
Wulfila albens is a species of ghost spider in the family Anyphaenidae, first described by Hentz in 1847. It is found in the United States and Jamaica. As an active hunting spider, it does not construct webs to capture prey. The species has been documented as part of natural enemy communities in urban landscapes, particularly in association with scale-infested trees.
Wulfila tantillus
Wulfila tantillus is a species of ghost spider in the family Anyphaenidae, first described by Chickering in 1940. It belongs to a guild of active hunting spiders that do not construct webs for prey capture. The genus Wulfila is part of a family commonly referred to as ghost spiders due to their pale coloration and nocturnal habits. Observations of Wulfila spiders have been documented in association with urban tree canopies infested with scale insects, where they contribute to predator communities.
Xanthogaleruca luteola
elm leaf beetle
Xanthogaleruca luteola, the elm leaf beetle, is an invasive leaf beetle native to Europe that has become the most serious defoliator of elm trees in North America. Adults are yellow to olive-green with distinctive black lateral stripes and spots. Both adults and larvae feed on elm foliage, with larvae skeletonizing leaves by consuming soft tissue between veins. The species has multiple generations annually, with larvae overwintering in soil or bark crevices. Biological control using introduced parasitoids has reduced its pest status in many regions.
Xanthogramma
Harlequin Flies
Xanthogramma is a genus of medium-sized hoverflies (Syrphidae) commonly known as harlequin flies. Most species exhibit black and yellow coloration with somewhat wasp-like appearance. Larvae are aphidophagous predators, feeding on aphid populations in agricultural and natural ecosystems. Adults visit flowers but do not share the predatory habits of larvae. The genus occurs across the Palaearctic region including Europe, Asia, and North Africa.
Xanthomelanodes
Xanthomelanodes is a genus of tachinid flies comprising 13 described species. As members of the subfamily Phasiinae and tribe Gymnosomatini, these flies are endoparasitoids of true bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera). Larvae develop inside their hosts and kill them. The genus was erected by Townsend in 1893 as a replacement name for Xanthomelana Wulp, 1892, which was already in use.
Xanthopastis
Spanish moth
Xanthopastis is a genus of moths in the family Noctuidae, established by Hübner in 1821. The genus contains at least three described species, including Xanthopastis timais, commonly known as the Spanish moth. Members of this genus are notable for their association with ornamental plants and their role as hosts for parasitoid flies. The Spanish moth has been documented as a pest of amaryllis cultivation.
Xenox
Tiger Bee Fly
Xenox is a genus of bee flies in the family Bombyliidae, established by Evenhuis in 1985. The genus contains five described species, all of which are parasitoids whose larvae develop inside the nests of carpenter bees in the genus Xylocopa. The most widely known member is Xenox tigrinus, commonly called the tiger bee fly, which is frequently observed near human structures where carpenter bees nest.
Xorides humeralis
Xorides humeralis is a parasitoid wasp in the family Ichneumonidae, subfamily Xoridinae. The species has been documented as a parasitoid of emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) in North Carolina, where females were recorded from beetle galleries in ash trees. As a member of Xoridinae, it is presumed to be an ectoparasitoid of wood-boring beetle larvae, though direct biological observations beyond the host record remain limited.
Xylocorini
Xylocorini is a monotypic tribe of minute predatory bugs in the family Anthocoridae, containing only the genus Xylocoris. The tribe comprises approximately 50 described species worldwide, with the highest diversity in the Palaearctic Region. Members are small, cryptic insects associated with concealed microhabitats.
Xylocoris flavipes
Warehouse Pirate Bug
Xylocoris flavipes, commonly known as the warehouse pirate bug, is a predatory anthocorid bug widely distributed across Africa, Australia, Europe and Northern Asia (excluding China), North America, South America, and Southern Asia. It is a specialized predator of stored-product insect pests and has been extensively studied as a biological control agent in grain storage systems. The species exhibits traumatic insemination, where males pierce the female abdomen during copulation. Both nymphs and adults are predatory, with documented cannibalistic behavior under laboratory conditions.
Xysticus
Ground Crab Spiders
Xysticus is a large genus of approximately 275–300 species of ground crab spiders in the family Thomisidae. These spiders are ambush predators that do not build webs, instead hunting near the ground by seizing prey with their enlarged anterior legs. The genus exhibits strong sexual dimorphism, with females typically reaching 10 mm in body length while males are roughly half that size. Species identification requires microscopic examination of genitalia due to the morphological similarity among members of the genus.
Yponomeuta malinellus
Apple Ermine, apple ermine moth
Yponomeuta malinellus, the apple ermine moth, is a small ermine moth native to Europe and Asia that has become established in North America. It is a specialist pest of Malus (apple) species, with larvae that feed gregariously within silken tents and can cause significant defoliation. The species has been extensively studied as a target for classical biological control, with multiple parasitoid species introduced to manage outbreaks.
Zaeucoila
Zaeucoila is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Figitidae, established by Ashmead in 1903. Species within this genus are endoparasitoids of leaf-mining flies in the family Agromyzidae (Diptera), including significant agricultural pests such as Liriomyza sativae. The genus has undergone systematic revision to clarify species identities and document host associations. Developmental studies indicate complete immature stages require approximately 22 days, with distinct morphological changes between larval instars.
Zagrammosoma
tattooed wasps
Zagrammosoma is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae, commonly known as tattooed wasps. The genus contains 26 recognized species worldwide and is morphologically distinct from the related genus Cirrospilus. Members are parasitoids of leaf-mining insect larvae, primarily in the orders Lepidoptera and Diptera, with some species also attacking Hymenoptera leafminers. Several species have been documented as biological control agents for agricultural pests.
Zaomma
Zaomma is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea), established by Ashmead in 1900. The genus contains species that are parasitoids of scale insects, with Zaomma eriococci documented as a parasitoid of eriococcid scales. Specimens have been collected from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
Zapatella
Zapatella is a genus of gall wasps in the family Cynipidae. The genus includes at least one well-documented species, Z. davisae, which has become a significant pest of black oak (Quercus velutina) in the northeastern United States. Gall wasps in this genus induce gall formation on oak hosts. The genus was described in 2012 by Pujade-Villar & Melika.
Zelus
sundew assassin bugs, milkweed assassin bugs, leafhopper assassin bugs
Zelus is a genus of assassin bugs (Reduviidae: Harpactorinae) containing approximately 60 described species, with the majority distributed in Central and South America and five species occurring in North America. The genus is characterized by a distinctive predatory adaptation: the forelegs bear dense hairs coated with a sticky, glue-like secretion produced by specialized glands, enabling prey capture through adhesion rather than force. This 'sticky trap' strategy has earned them the common name 'sundew assassin bugs,' analogous to the carnivorous sundew plants. The genus includes notable species such as Zelus longipes (milkweed assassin bug), Z. luridus, Z. renardii (leafhopper assassin bug), and Z. tetracanthus.
Zelus renardii
leaf hopper assassin bug, sundew assassin bug
Zelus renardii is a medium to large assassin bug native to western North and Central America that has become a successful global invader. The species is diurnal and employs a distinctive predatory strategy using sticky secretions from glandular setae on its forelegs to capture prey, earning it the common name 'sundew assassin bug.' It has been introduced to the Mediterranean basin, Pacific islands, Hawaii, Chile, Argentina, and Easter Island, primarily through human-mediated transport of nursery plants. The species is considered for biological control of agricultural pests but its generalist predatory habits create complex trophic interactions.
Zelus tetracanthus
four-spurred assassin bug, sundew assassin bug
Zelus tetracanthus, commonly known as the four-spurred assassin bug, is a predatory true bug in the family Reduviidae. Adults measure 10–16 mm in body length and are recognized by a distinctive row of four spurs across the thorax. The species employs a unique prey-capture strategy using sticky secretions from specialized leg glands rather than muscular grasping. Both adults and nymphs produce these adhesive substances to immobilize prey. The species has been evaluated as a potential biological control agent for saltcedar leaf beetles (Diorhabda spp.) in tamarisk management systems.
Zetzellia
Zetzellia is a genus of predatory mites in the family Stigmaeidae (Acari: Prostigmata). The best-studied species, Zetzellia mali, serves as a biological control agent of phytophagous mites in apple orchards. Members of this genus exhibit arrhenotokous parthenogenesis, with unmated females producing only male offspring. Development rates and reproductive output vary with temperature and humidity conditions.
Zetzellia mali
apple mite, Zetzellia mite
Zetzellia mali is a predatory mite in the family Stigmaeidae, widely distributed across apple-growing regions of the world. This small arachnid serves as an important natural enemy of phytophagous mites in orchards, particularly targeting spider mites (Tetranychidae) and eriophyid mites. The species exhibits a three-generation annual life cycle in temperate climates, with adult females overwintering in protected locations on host trees. While less efficient at population regulation than some competing predatory mites such as phytoseiids, Z. mali contributes significantly to biological control in integrated pest management programs.
Zeuzera
Leopard moths, Wood-boring moths
Zeuzera is an Old World genus of carpenter moths (family Cossidae) comprising approximately eight currently recognized species. The genus includes significant agricultural pests, notably Zeuzera pyrina (leopard moth), whose larvae bore into the wood of fruit and ornamental trees causing substantial economic damage. Members of this genus are characterized by their wood-boring larval habit and broad distribution across Europe, Asia, and Africa. Several former species have been reclassified to other genera, including Zeuzera boisduvalii which was moved to the new genus Davidlivingstonia in 2020.
Zeuzerinae
Leopard Moths
Zeuzerinae is a subfamily of carpenter moths (Cossidae) commonly known as leopard moths. The group includes approximately 60 genera distributed across tropical and temperate regions worldwide. Many species are known for their striking spotted or patterned wing coloration. Larvae of several genera, including Zeuzera and Polyphagozerra, are significant wood-boring pests that tunnel into living trees and woody plants.
Zicrona caerulea
Blue Shieldbug, blue shield bug
Zicrona caerulea is a small predatory shield bug in the family Pentatomidae, subfamily Asopinae. Adults measure 5–8 mm and display a striking uniform metallic blue-green coloration, with immatures showing red abdomens with black markings. This univoltine species is a documented predator of leaf beetles (Altica spp.), beetle larvae, and moth caterpillars, though it has also been observed feeding on plants. It overwinters as an adult and produces new adults from July onwards.
Zonosemata
Zonosemata is a genus of tephritid fruit flies in the family Tephritidae, established by Benjamin in 1934. The genus comprises seven described species: six from North America and one from South America. At least one species, Zonosemata vittigera, has been documented as developing within the fruits of Solanum elaeagnifolium (silverleaf nightshade), a noxious weed, suggesting potential for biological control applications. The genus is classified within the subtribe Carpomyina alongside Rhagoletis and Carpomya.
Zonosemata vittigera
silverleaf nightshade fruit fly
Zonosemata vittigera is a species of tephritid fruit fly in the family Tephritidae, native to North America. It is known primarily as a specialist herbivore associated with silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium), a weedy Solanaceous plant. The species has been studied for its potential role in biological control of this invasive plant. Like other tephritids, it likely exhibits characteristic wing patterning and larval development within host plant tissues.
Zygogramma
Zygogramma is a large genus of leaf beetles in the subfamily Chrysomelinae, comprising approximately 100 species with 13 species occurring north of Mexico. The genus is characterized by its association with plants in the family Asteraceae, particularly ragweeds (Ambrosia) and related genera. Several species, especially Z. bicolorata, have been extensively studied and deployed as biological control agents against invasive weeds. The genus is distinguished from related genera such as Calligrapha by fused tarsal claws.
Zygogramma signatipennis
Zygogramma signatipennis is a leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae found in Mexico. The species has been documented feeding on acahual plants (Tithonia tubaeformis, Asteraceae), causing moderate to severe defoliation damage specifically to this host. Research suggests it shows greater feeding preference for plants in the vegetative stage and has been proposed as a potential biological control agent for management of T. tubaeformis as a weed. The species was originally described by Stål in 1859.
Zygogramma suturalis
ragweed leaf beetle
Zygogramma suturalis is a leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, commonly known as the ragweed leaf beetle. Native to North America, it has been introduced to Russia (1978) and other parts of Europe and Asia as a biological control agent for common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia). The beetle exhibits strong host specificity, feeding almost exclusively on this plant. Despite establishment in introduced ranges, it has achieved only moderate biological success due to low population densities and limited impact on host plant populations.