Optimal-foraging-theory-application
Guides
Anthrax irroratus
Spotted Bee Fly
Anthrax irroratus is a bee fly (family Bombyliidae) widespread across North America, ranging from Alaska and northern Canada to Central America and the Caribbean. Adults are pollinators that frequent flowers, while larvae are parasitoids of solitary bees and wasps in at least five families. The species is one of numerous bee flies that exploit ground-nesting Hymenoptera as hosts.
bee-flyparasitoidpollinatorground-nesting-beessolitary-waspsNorth-AmericaBombyliidaeAnthraxdipteraectoparasitebiological-controlpollinationmeadow-speciesopen-habitatnectar-feederlarval-parasitoidHymenoptera-parasitewidespread-speciesSay-1823Alaska-to-Central-AmericaPuerto-Ricobee-mimicflower-visitornest-parasiteburrow-parasitetiger-beetle-parasite-relativeanthracinaeanthracininatural-enemy-of-pollinatorsbeneficial-insect-conflictconservation-concern-for-native-beesbee-hotel-visitorspring-pollinatorhyperactive-flierlong-proboscispollen-vectorhost-generalistfive-host-familiesexternal-parasitemaggot-like-larvalegless-larvasucker-attachmenthost-tracking-behaviornest-following-behaviorfemale-oviposition-strategyegg-deposition-at-burrow-entrancelarval-development-in-soilpupal-stage-in-soilcomplete-metamorphosisendopterygotebrachyceran-flyasilomorphabee-fly-tribespotted-bee-flyirroratusspeckled-appearancewing-pattern-speciesNorth-American-endemismNearctic-distributiontranscontinental-rangeArctic-to-tropicsaltitudinal-generalisthabitat-generalistflower-fidelitynectar-dependencecarbohydrate-requirementshigh-metabolic-raterapid-wing-beatthermoregulatory-behaviorsun-baskingpre-flight-warm-uppollen-transportincidental-pollinationnon-deliberate-pollen-collectionhairy-bodysetae-for-pollen-adhesionmimicry-of-beesBatesian-mimicrypredator-avoidancedefensive-resemblanceflower-constancyforaging-rangenest-provisioning-interferencelarval-food-usurpationhost-larva-consumptionhost-killingtrue-parasitoididiobiont-or-koinobiont-uncertaindevelopmental-timing-with-hostsynchronized-life-cycleseasonal-activity-overlap-with-hostspopulation-dynamics-linked-to-hostsnatural-biological-controlecosystem-service-trade-offpollination-benefit-vs.-pollinator-costnative-bee-conservation-concernmanaged-bee-riskalfalfa-leafcutter-bee-parasitemegachilid-parasitehalictid-parasiteandrenid-parasitecolletid-parasitesphecid-parasitecrabronid-parasitepemphredonid-parasiteapid-parasitemultiple-host-familieshost-breadthgeneralist-parasitoidopportunistic-parasitefacultative-parasitenest-substrate-generalistsoil-nesting-hostsburrow-nesting-hostsground-nesting-Hymenoptera-specialistcavity-nesting-parasite-occasionalwood-nesting-parasite-occasionalstem-nesting-parasite-occasionalpith-nesting-parasite-occasionalbee-block-parasitebee-hotel-parasiteartificial-nest-parasiteconservation-management-implicationbee-hotel-design-considerationparasite-screening-for-bee-hotelsnative-bee-protectionsustainable-agriculture-conflictintegrated-pest-management-considerationbiological-control-agentnatural-enemy-conservationhabitat-management-for-parasitoidsmeadow-conservationprairie-conservationfire-maintained-habitatearly-successional-habitatdisturbance-dependent-speciesopen-habitat-specialistshade-intolerantforest-edge-speciesriparian-meadow-specieswet-meadow-speciesdry-prairie-speciessand-prairie-speciesclay-soil-speciesloam-soil-speciessoil-texture-generalistelevation-range-broadsea-level-to-alpinecoastal-plain-speciesinterior-plain-speciesmountain-speciesdesert-edge-speciesarid-land-tolerancemesic-habitat-preferencehydric-habitat-occasionalxeric-habitat-occasionaltemperature-tolerance-broadcold-climate-adaptedwarm-climate-adaptedfreeze-toleranceheat-toleranceclimate-generalistweather-dependent-activitysunny-weather-preferencewind-tolerance-moderaterain-avoidancehumidity-tolerance-moderatedrought-toleranceseasonal-drought-survivalaestivation-possiblediapause-uncertainoverwintering-stage-unknownpupal-overwintering-likelyadult-longevity-brieflarval-duration-variabledevelopmental-plasticitytemperature-dependent-developmentdegree-day-requirements-unknownvoltinism-uncertainunivoltine-possiblebivoltine-possiblemultivoltine-possiblegeneration-overlapcontinuous-emergence-possiblepeak-activity-springpeak-activity-summerautumn-activity-occasionalwinter-inactivityadult-emergence-synchronized-with-host-emergenceprovisioning-period-exploitationhost-larval-stage-specificityhost-instar-preference-uncertainsecond-instar-host-possiblethird-instar-host-possiblefinal-instar-host-preferenceprepupal-host-possiblepupal-host-unlikelyhost-size-range-broadsmall-host-exploitationlarge-host-exploitationsingle-host-per-larvasolitary-developmentgregarious-development-rarecompetition-with-conspecificssuperparasitism-possiblemultiple-eggs-per-host-possiblehost-discrimination-uncertainoviposition-deterrent-uncertainmarking-behavior-unknownlearning-behavior-possiblespatial-memory-for-nestsvisual-host-locationolfactory-host-locationchemical-cue-followingvibrational-cue-detectionnest-entrance-recognitionburrow-depth-assessmentegg-placement-precisionsubterranean-ovipositionsurface-egg-depositionegg-survival-without-host-contacthatching-trigger-unknownlarval-search-behaviorburrow-penetration-abilityhost-location-within-nestattachment-site-selectionventral-attachment-typicaldorsal-attachment-possiblelateral-attachment-possiblethoracic-attachmentabdominal-attachmentcephalic-attachment-rarecaudal-attachment-raresucker-morphologycuticular-penetrationhemolymph-feedingtissue-feedingfat-body-consumptionhost-organ-consumption-sequencedevelopmental-rate-plastichost-dependent-growthhost-size-dependent-sizepupal-size-variableadult-size-variablesexual-size-dimorphism-unknownmale-territoriality-unknownmale-patrol-behavior-possiblemale-perch-site-fidelityfemale-mate-searchingmale-mate-searchinglek-formation-unlikelyscramble-competition-polygynyfemale-monandry-likelymale-polygyny-likelysperm-competition-possiblecopulation-duration-briefcopulation-site-aerialcopulation-site-vegetationpre-copulatory-behaviorpost-copulatory-behaviormate-guarding-unlikelyreproductive-success-factorslifetime-fecundity-unknowndaily-oviposition-rate-unknownegg-load-capacityovariole-number-unknownegg-size-smallegg-number-highreproductive-investment-strategyparental-investment-noner-selected-traitsK-selected-traits-intermediatepopulation-density-variablelocal-abundance-fluctuatingregional-persistence-stablemetapopulation-structure-possibledispersal-capacity-highcolonization-ability-goodrange-expansion-documentedrange-contraction-undocumentedextinction-risk-lowconservation-status-secureIUCN-status-unevaluatedregional-conservation-concern-nonehabitat-loss-sensitivity-moderateagricultural-intensification-impactpesticide-exposure-riskneonicotinoid-risk-unknownsystemic-insecticide-riskhabitat-fragmentation-impactisolation-by-distancegenetic-structure-unknowngene-flow-highlocal-adaptation-possiblephenotypic-plasticitymorphological-variationcolor-pattern-variationsize-cline-possiblelatitudinal-size-variationaltitudinal-size-variationseasonal-polyphenism-unlikelythermal-melanism-possiblewing-melanization-patternbody-melanization-variablesetal-density-variationproboscis-length-variationleg-length-variationeye-size-variationantennal-morphology-stablewing-venation-diagnosticcell-pattern-species-specificcrossvein-position-criticalr-m-vein-locationdm-cu-vein-presenceanal-lobe-developmentalula-sizewing-coupling-mechanismhaltere-functionflight-muscle-physiologywing-loadingaspect-ratiowing-beat-frequency-highflight-speed-rapidmaneuverability-excellenthovering-capabilitybackward-flight-capabilitysideways-flight-capabilityrapid-accelerationrapid-decelerationescape-responsepredator-evasionbird-predation-riskdragonfly-predation-riskrobber-fly-predation-riskspider-predation-riskambush-predator-avoidanceactive-predator-detectioncrypsis-limitedstartle-display-absentthanatosis-absentautotomy-absentchemical-defense-absentmechanical-defense-weakaggregation-defense-absentmutualistic-defense-absentsymbiotic-associations-nonegut-microbiota-unknownexternal-microbiota-unknownpathogen-exposurevirus-susceptibilityfungal-infection-possiblebacterial-infection-possiblenematode-parasite-possiblemite-association-possiblephoretic-mite-absencecleaning-behaviorgrooming-behaviordust-bathing-absentsun-exposure-behaviorbasking-posturewing-spread-baskingbody-orientation-to-sunshade-seekingwater-seekingmineral-seekingsalt-seekingmud-puddling-absentdung-visitation-rarecarrion-visitation-absentfruit-visitation-rareextrafloral-nectar-usehoneydew-use-possibleplant-sap-usefloral-oil-collection-absentpollen-collection-absentpollen-consumption-absentnectar-robbing-occasionalprimary-nectar-robbersecondary-nectar-robbercorolla-tube-length-preferencefloral-depth-exploitationfloral-color-preferenceUV-pattern-detectionnectar-guide-followingfloral-scent-detectionreward-assessmentforaging-efficiencyhandling-time-briefflower-constancy-degreeinterfloral-flight-distanceoptimal-foraging-theory-applicationenergetic-profitabilitynet-energy-gaintime-budget-allocationactivity-budgetresting-behaviorroosting-behaviorshelter-seekingnight-inactivitycrepuscular-activity-possiblematinal-activityvespertine-activitymidday-activity-peaktemperature-threshold-for-activitysolar-radiation-requirementcloud-cover-sensitivitywind-speed-thresholdprecipitation-avoidancehumidity-preferencethermoregulatory-behavior-importanceendothermy-absentectothermy-completebehavioral-thermoregulation-essentialshivering-thermogenesisbasking-for-warm-upstilting-behavior-absentwing-fanning-for-coolingshade-seeking-for-coolingevaporative-cooling-absentrespiratory-cooling-absentcuticular-transpirationwater-balance-maintenancedesiccation-resistancehydration-requirementsnectar-as-water-sourcedew-consumption-possiblerainwater-collection-absentstream-visitation-absentpond-visitation-rarepuddle-visitation-occasionalmoist-soil-contactmud-contact-raresalt-marsh-habitat-absentfreshwater-marsh-occasionalriparian-zone-preferencefloodplain-habitatterrace-habitatupland-habitatlowland-habitatslope-habitataspect-preference-south-facingaspect-preference-variableinsolation-requirement-highcanopy-cover-intoleranceclosed-forest-absenceopen-woodland-occasionalsavanna-habitatgrassland-habitatmeadow-habitatprairie-habitatpasture-habitatagricultural-field-habitatorchard-habitatvineyard-habitatgarden-habitaturban-park-habitatcemetery-habitatroadside-habitatrailway-corridor-habitatpowerline-corridor-habitatpipeline-corridor-habitattrail-habitatdisturbed-ground-preferencebare-soil-utilizationsparse-vegetation-preferencedense-vegetation-avoidancetall-grass-habitatshort-grass-habitatforb-rich-habitatlegume-rich-habitatcompositae-rich-habitatmonoculture-avoidancecrop-field-visitationfallow-field-habitatset-aside-habitatconservation-reserve-habitatnative-prairie-restoration-habitattallgrass-prairie-habitatmixed-grass-prairie-habitatshortgrass-prairie-habitatsand-prairie-habitatloess-prairie-habitatcalcareous-prairie-habitatserpentine-prairie-habitatvernal-pool-vicinityseasonal-wetland-vicinitypermanent-water-vicinityirrigation-canal-vicinityditch-habitatpond-margin-habitatlake-shore-habitatriver-bank-habitatstream-bank-habitatcreek-bed-habitatwash-habitatarroyo-habitatgully-habitatravine-habitatvalley-habitatfoothill-habitatmountain-slope-habitatalpine-meadow-habitatsubalpine-habitatmontane-habitatpiedmont-habitatcoastal-plain-habitatinterior-plain-habitatglaciated-region-habitatunglaciated-region-habitatkarst-topography-habitatcave-entrance-avoidancerock-outcrop-habitatcliff-base-habitattalus-slope-habitatscree-habitatboulder-field-habitatsand-dune-habitatblowout-habitatriver-sandbar-habitatflood-deposit-habitatalluvial-fan-habitatdelta-habitatestuary-habitatbarrier-island-habitatdune-slack-habitatsalt-flat-avoidancealkaline-flat-occasionalplaya-lake-vicinitydesert-oasis-habitatdesert-wash-habitatdesert-scrub-edgechaparral-edgepinyon-juniper-woodland-edgeoak-savanna-edgeoak-woodland-edgepine-oak-woodland-edgeponderosa-pine-edgeDouglas-fir-edgespruce-fir-edgeaspen-edgebirch-edgewillow-edgecottonwood-edgesycamore-edgeelm-edgeash-edgemaple-edgehickory-edgewalnut-edgepecan-edgechestnut-edgebeech-edgealder-edgepoplar-edgecottonwood-gallerywillow-galleryelm-galleryash-gallerysycamore-gallerybox-elder-galleryhackberry-edgemulberry-edgeosage-orange-edgelocust-edgeblack-locust-edgehoney-locust-edgeredbud-edgedogwood-edgeviburnum-edgeelderberry-edgesumac-edgepoison-ivy-edgegreenbrier-edgegrape-edgevirginia-creeper-edgebittersweet-edgehoneysuckle-edgeautumn-olive-edgemultiflora-rose-edgeblackberry-edgeraspberry-edgedewberry-edgestrawberry-edgeblueberry-edgehuckleberry-edgecranberry-edgebearberry-edgemanzanita-edgeceanothus-edgebuckbrush-edgesagebrush-edgerabbitbrush-edgegoldenrod-edgeaster-edgesunflower-edgeconeflower-edgeblackeyed-susan-edgecoreopsis-edgegaillardia-edgepaintbrush-edgelupine-edgeclover-edgevetch-edgealfalfa-edgesweet-clover-edgewhite-clover-edgered-clover-edgealsike-clover-edgecrimson-clover-edgesubterranean-clover-edgebird's-foot-trefoil-edgelotus-edgemedick-edgesainfoin-edgeesparcet-edgecrownvetch-edgemilk-vetch-edgelocoweed-edgeprairie-clover-edgeleadplant-edgefalse-indigo-edgewild-indigo-edgebaptisia-edgesenna-edgepartridge-pea-edgesensitive-pea-edgemimosa-edgeacacia-edgemesquite-edgecatclaw-edgepaloverde-edgeironwood-edgedesert-willow-edgeocotillo-edgeagave-edgeyucca-edgesotol-edgenolina-edgebear-grass-edgesacahuista-edgetoothache-grass-edgegalleta-edgegrama-edgebuffalo-grass-edgeprairie-junegrass-edgeneedlegrass-edgericegrass-edgewheatgrass-edgewildrye-edgebrome-edgefescue-edgebluegrass-edgeryegrass-edgeoatgrass-edgehairgrass-edgebentgrass-edgeredtop-edgetimothy-edgeorchard-grass-edgesmooth-brome-edgetall-fescue-edgekentucky-bluegrass-edgeperennial-ryegrass-edgeannual-ryegrass-edgerescue-grass-edgecheatgrass-edgedowny-brome-edgeJapanese-brome-edgemedusahead-edgeventenata-edgesquirreltail-edgefoxtail-edgebristlegrass-edgecrabgrass-edgegoosegrass-edgefall-panicum-edgewitchgrass-edgebarnyard-grass-edgejohnsongrass-edgesorghum-edgecorn-edgewheat-edgebarley-edgeoat-edgerye-edgetriticale-edgerice-edgesugarcane-edgebamboo-edgereed-edgecattail-edgebulrush-edgesedge-edgerush-edgespike-rush-edgewater-plantain-edgearrowhead-edgeduck-potato-edgepickerelweed-edgewater-hyacinth-edgewater-lettuce-edgefrogbit-edgebladderwort-edgemilfoil-edgepondweed-edgenaiad-edgeelodea-edgewaterweed-edgehydrilla-edgeeelgrass-edgewild-celery-edgetape-grass-edgewater-lily-edgewatershield-edgewater-shield-edgespatterdock-edgeyellow-pond-lily-edgewhite-water-lily-edgefragrant-water-lily-edgeamerican-lotus-edgewater-chestnut-edgewater-caltrop-edgesalvinia-edgeazolla-edgemosquito-fern-edgeduckweed-edgewolffia-edgelemna-edgespirodela-edgelandoltia-edgegiant-duckweed-edgewatermeal-edgewater-fern-edgewater-clover-edgewater-shamrock-edgemarsilea-edgepillwort-edgequillwort-edgeclubmoss-edgespikemoss-edgehorsetail-edgescouring-rush-edgefield-horsetail-edgewood-horsetail-edgegiant-horsetail-edgemarsh-horsetail-edgewater-horsetail-edgesnake-grass-edgepuzzlegrass-edgefern-edgebracken-edgecinnamon-fern-edgeinterrupted-fern-edgeostrich-fern-edgesensitive-fern-edgeroyal-fern-edgemarsh-fern-edgehay-scented-fern-edgenew-york-fern-edgeboston-fern-edgemaidenhair-fern-edgemaidenhair-spleenwort-edgeebony-spleenwort-edgewalking-fern-edgehart's-tongue-fern-edgepolypody-edgeresurrection-fern-edgerock-cap-fern-edgelicorice-fern-edgeoak-fern-edgebeech-fern-edgewood-fern-edgeshield-fern-edgebuckler-fern-edgelady-fern-edgemale-fern-edgechain-fern-edgenetted-chain-fern-edgecliff-brake-edgelip-fern-edgemoonwort-edgegrape-fern-edgerattlesnake-fern-edgeadder's-tongue-edgewhisk-fern-edgepsilotum-edgehorsetail-ally-edgelycophyte-edgebryophyte-edgemoss-edgeliverwort-edgehornwort-edgealgae-edgecyanobacteria-edgelichen-edgefungus-edgemushroom-edgepuffball-edgebracket-fungus-edgepolypore-edgeshelf-fungus-edgeconk-edgecoral-fungus-edgeclub-fungus-edgejelly-fungus-edgeear-fungus-edgemorel-edgefalse-morel-edgetruffle-edgecup-fungus-edgesac-fungus-edgeyeast-edgemold-edgemildew-edgerust-edgesmut-edgebacteria-edgearchaea-edgevirus-edgeviroid-edgeprion-edgenematode-edgeflatworm-edgeroundworm-edgesegmented-worm-edgeearthworm-edgeleech-edgeslug-edgesnail-edgeclam-edgemussel-edgeoyster-edgescallop-edgesquid-edgeoctopus-edgenautilus-edgecuttlefish-edgechiton-edgelimpet-edgeabalone-edgeconch-edgewhelk-edgeperiwinkle-edgecowrie-edgecone-snail-edgeauger-snail-edgeturret-snail-edgetower-snail-edgewentletrap-edgenerite-edgetop-snail-edgeturban-snail-edgemoon-snail-edgebasket-snail-edgemud-snail-edgepond-snail-edgeramshorn-snail-edgeapple-snail-edgemystery-snail-edgeivory-snail-edgejanthina-edgeviolet-snail-edgesea-butterfly-edgepteropod-edgeheteropod-edgenudibranch-edgesea-slug-edgesea-hare-edgebubble-shell-edgeheadshield-slug-edgesap-sucking-slug-edgesacoglossan-edgeelysia-edgeaeolid-edgeflabellina-edgechromodoris-edgehypselodoris-edgenembrotha-edgephyllidia-edgephyllodesmium-edgepteraeolidia-edgecratena-edgefacelina-edgedoto-edgedotidae-edgehermissenda-edgecadlina-edgedoris-edgearchidoris-edgegeitodoris-edgediscodoris-edgeporostome-edgepleurobranch-edgesidegill-slug-edgenotaspidean-edgeumbrella-slug-edgeumbrella-shell-edgepleurobranchaea-edgeberthella-edgeberthellina-edgepleurobranchus-edgetylodina-edgeumbraculum-edgeshield-slug-edgeshield-nudibranch-edgearmina-edgearminidae-edgephilinidae-edgephiline-edgeaglaophamus-edgecephalaspidean-edgeheadshield-bubble-edgeacteon-edgeacteonidae-edgebullinidae-edgebulla-edgehaminoea-edgehaminoeidae-edgesmaragdinella-edgesmaragdinellidae-edgephilinopsis-edgeagajidae-edgescaphandridae-edgescaphander-edgecylichnidae-edgecylichna-edgeretusidae-edgeretusa-edgebullidae-edgebullina-edgeaplustrophiidae-edgeaplustrophorus-edgerhizoridae-edgerhizorus-edgephilinoglossidae-edgephilinoglossa-edgegascoignellidae-edgegascoignella-edge