Grooming-behavior
Guides
Anthrax irroratus
Spotted Bee Fly
Anthrax irroratus is a bee fly (family Bombyliidae) widespread across North America, ranging from Alaska and northern Canada to Central America and the Caribbean. Adults are pollinators that frequent flowers, while larvae are parasitoids of solitary bees and wasps in at least five families. The species is one of numerous bee flies that exploit ground-nesting Hymenoptera as hosts.
bee-flyparasitoidpollinatorground-nesting-beessolitary-waspsNorth-AmericaBombyliidaeAnthraxdipteraectoparasitebiological-controlpollinationmeadow-speciesopen-habitatnectar-feederlarval-parasitoidHymenoptera-parasitewidespread-speciesSay-1823Alaska-to-Central-AmericaPuerto-Ricobee-mimicflower-visitornest-parasiteburrow-parasitetiger-beetle-parasite-relativeanthracinaeanthracininatural-enemy-of-pollinatorsbeneficial-insect-conflictconservation-concern-for-native-beesbee-hotel-visitorspring-pollinatorhyperactive-flierlong-proboscispollen-vectorhost-generalistfive-host-familiesexternal-parasitemaggot-like-larvalegless-larvasucker-attachmenthost-tracking-behaviornest-following-behaviorfemale-oviposition-strategyegg-deposition-at-burrow-entrancelarval-development-in-soilpupal-stage-in-soilcomplete-metamorphosisendopterygotebrachyceran-flyasilomorphabee-fly-tribespotted-bee-flyirroratusspeckled-appearancewing-pattern-speciesNorth-American-endemismNearctic-distributiontranscontinental-rangeArctic-to-tropicsaltitudinal-generalisthabitat-generalistflower-fidelitynectar-dependencecarbohydrate-requirementshigh-metabolic-raterapid-wing-beatthermoregulatory-behaviorsun-baskingpre-flight-warm-uppollen-transportincidental-pollinationnon-deliberate-pollen-collectionhairy-bodysetae-for-pollen-adhesionmimicry-of-beesBatesian-mimicrypredator-avoidancedefensive-resemblanceflower-constancyforaging-rangenest-provisioning-interferencelarval-food-usurpationhost-larva-consumptionhost-killingtrue-parasitoididiobiont-or-koinobiont-uncertaindevelopmental-timing-with-hostsynchronized-life-cycleseasonal-activity-overlap-with-hostspopulation-dynamics-linked-to-hostsnatural-biological-controlecosystem-service-trade-offpollination-benefit-vs.-pollinator-costnative-bee-conservation-concernmanaged-bee-riskalfalfa-leafcutter-bee-parasitemegachilid-parasitehalictid-parasiteandrenid-parasitecolletid-parasitesphecid-parasitecrabronid-parasitepemphredonid-parasiteapid-parasitemultiple-host-familieshost-breadthgeneralist-parasitoidopportunistic-parasitefacultative-parasitenest-substrate-generalistsoil-nesting-hostsburrow-nesting-hostsground-nesting-Hymenoptera-specialistcavity-nesting-parasite-occasionalwood-nesting-parasite-occasionalstem-nesting-parasite-occasionalpith-nesting-parasite-occasionalbee-block-parasitebee-hotel-parasiteartificial-nest-parasiteconservation-management-implicationbee-hotel-design-considerationparasite-screening-for-bee-hotelsnative-bee-protectionsustainable-agriculture-conflictintegrated-pest-management-considerationbiological-control-agentnatural-enemy-conservationhabitat-management-for-parasitoidsmeadow-conservationprairie-conservationfire-maintained-habitatearly-successional-habitatdisturbance-dependent-speciesopen-habitat-specialistshade-intolerantforest-edge-speciesriparian-meadow-specieswet-meadow-speciesdry-prairie-speciessand-prairie-speciesclay-soil-speciesloam-soil-speciessoil-texture-generalistelevation-range-broadsea-level-to-alpinecoastal-plain-speciesinterior-plain-speciesmountain-speciesdesert-edge-speciesarid-land-tolerancemesic-habitat-preferencehydric-habitat-occasionalxeric-habitat-occasionaltemperature-tolerance-broadcold-climate-adaptedwarm-climate-adaptedfreeze-toleranceheat-toleranceclimate-generalistweather-dependent-activitysunny-weather-preferencewind-tolerance-moderaterain-avoidancehumidity-tolerance-moderatedrought-toleranceseasonal-drought-survivalaestivation-possiblediapause-uncertainoverwintering-stage-unknownpupal-overwintering-likelyadult-longevity-brieflarval-duration-variabledevelopmental-plasticitytemperature-dependent-developmentdegree-day-requirements-unknownvoltinism-uncertainunivoltine-possiblebivoltine-possiblemultivoltine-possiblegeneration-overlapcontinuous-emergence-possiblepeak-activity-springpeak-activity-summerautumn-activity-occasionalwinter-inactivityadult-emergence-synchronized-with-host-emergenceprovisioning-period-exploitationhost-larval-stage-specificityhost-instar-preference-uncertainsecond-instar-host-possiblethird-instar-host-possiblefinal-instar-host-preferenceprepupal-host-possiblepupal-host-unlikelyhost-size-range-broadsmall-host-exploitationlarge-host-exploitationsingle-host-per-larvasolitary-developmentgregarious-development-rarecompetition-with-conspecificssuperparasitism-possiblemultiple-eggs-per-host-possiblehost-discrimination-uncertainoviposition-deterrent-uncertainmarking-behavior-unknownlearning-behavior-possiblespatial-memory-for-nestsvisual-host-locationolfactory-host-locationchemical-cue-followingvibrational-cue-detectionnest-entrance-recognitionburrow-depth-assessmentegg-placement-precisionsubterranean-ovipositionsurface-egg-depositionegg-survival-without-host-contacthatching-trigger-unknownlarval-search-behaviorburrow-penetration-abilityhost-location-within-nestattachment-site-selectionventral-attachment-typicaldorsal-attachment-possiblelateral-attachment-possiblethoracic-attachmentabdominal-attachmentcephalic-attachment-rarecaudal-attachment-raresu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mellifera carnica
Carniolan honey bee, Carniolan bee
Apis mellifera carnica is a subspecies of the western honey bee native to Slovenia, southern Austria, and parts of the Balkans. It is distinguished by darker coloration than the Italian honey bee and is valued in beekeeping for its gentle temperament and rapid spring colony buildup. The subspecies has been the focus of intensive breeding programs, including the New World Carniolan line developed by Susan Cobey, now an industry standard. Research indicates A. m. carnica exhibits distinct genetic responses to thermal stress and shows potential resistance traits against Varroa destructor mites through grooming behavior. The subspecies is the subject of international conservation efforts, with Slovenia restricting beekeeping to Carniolan bees only.
Cyphomyrmex
fungus-growing ants
Cyphomyrmex is a genus of small, drab-colored fungus-growing ants in the tribe Attini, found primarily in the Neotropics. These ants cultivate fungi in the tribe Leucocoprineae as their primary food source, with most species growing fungal nodules rather than full mycelial gardens. Colonies are typically monogynous and small, rarely exceeding 500 workers. The genus is divided into two species complexes: the strigatus complex (South America only) and the rimosus complex (southern North America to South America). Cyphomyrmex represents a basal lineage among attine ants and serves as sister group to Mycetophylax.
fungus-growing-antsattine-antsMyrmicinaeNeotropicalmutualismfungicultureLeucocoprineaemonogynyparasitoid-waspssocial-parasitismchemical-ecologyalkaloid-venomnest-architecturebehavioral-plasticitycytogeneticschromosome-evolutionGuiana-ShieldBrazilPanamaPuerto-RicoMesoamericaArgentinaUnited-StatesTexasCaliforniaFloridayeast-gardensmycelial-gardensrimosus-complexstrigatus-complexage-polyethismtrophallaxisthanatosisfeigning-deathDiapriidaeAcanthopriaMimopriellaMegalomyrmexsocial-parasiteC.-longiscapusC.-transversusC.-laevigatusC.-rimosusC.-minutusC.-lectusC.-cornutusC.-costatuspheromones3-octanolfarnesenestrail-followingalarm-signaldiketopiperazinesantifungal-compoundsdefensive-behaviorcolony-defenseflight-responserecruitmentLanchester's-lawskaryotypechromosome-numberrDNAmicrosatellitesFISHchamber-depthgallery-lengthfire-disturbancesavanna-forest-transitionarboreal-nestingclay-auriclessoil-nestswood-nestsepiphytic-nestsmoss-nestscoconut-nestsdesiccation-susceptibilitymoist-habitatsbasal-attinephylogeneticssister-groupchemical-evolutionvenom-alkaloidsbehavioral-manipulationhost-parasite-interactionecosystem-engineeringnutrient-cyclingdecompositionorganic-matterinsect-fecesexoskeleton-substrategarden-transplantationworker-polymorphismqueen-numberdealate-queensalatesbrood-careecdysis-assistanceforagingsugar-collectionplant-exudatesfungal-domesticationnodule-cultivationmycelium-cultivationagricultural-behaviornest-entrancefunnel-structureexposed-gardenssymbiont-diversitygeographic-variationresearch-modelevolutionary-biologymutualism-evolutionant-fungus-coevolutionchemical-communicationsocial-insectseusocialitycolony-sizesmall-coloniesslow-movementcrypsisdebris-mimicrypredation-avoidanceparasitoid-defensewasp-killingcolony-abandonmentresource-rescuethief-ant-defensevenom-resistancetoxicity-tolerancebehavioral-suppressionplaying-deadalkaloid-manipulationfungal-secondary-metabolitesantibacterial-compoundsantiviral-compoundsgarden-protectionmicrobial-defensenest-microclimatetemperature-regulationhumidity-requirementsdepth-effectsfire-adaptationdisturbance-ecologyhabitat-specificitysubstrate-specializationclay-constructionsoil-manipulationarchitectural-plasticityvertical-nestingembankment-nestingoverhang-nestingpendant-nestsswallow-nest-mimicryresearch-accessibilityfield-biologytropical-ecologyNeotropical-myrmecologybiodiversityconservationinvasive-species-contextnative-speciesbiological-controlIntegrated-Pest-Managementagricultural-ecologyforest-ecologysavanna-ecologytransitional-habitatsdisturbed-areasurban-ecologyanthropogenic-impactclimate-sensitivityhabitat-limitationrange-boundariesdispersalcolonizationestablishmentpopulation-dynamicsdemographycolony-densitynest-spacingintraspecific-competitioninterspecific-competitionterritorialityresource-defensecombat-behavioraggression-levelsrecruitment-behaviorchemical-signalingalarm-pheromonestrail-pheromonesrecognition-cuescuticular-hydrocarbonsvenom-compositiondefensive-secretionsmandibular-glandsDufour's-glandmetapleural-glandsantibiotic-productiongrooming-behaviorfungal-inoculationintegumental-fungiyeast-growthlarval-groominggarden-maintenancesubstrate-preparationfecal-fertilizeranal-trophallaxiscrop-regurgitationfluid-applicationdrying-behaviornodule-formationtransplantation-behaviorgarden-establishmentceiling-gardensroot-associationarchitectural-innovationnest-site-selectionmicrohabitat-choicemoisture-requirementsthermal-bufferingpredator-avoidanceparasite-avoidancedisease-resistancesocial-immunitycollective-behaviordivision-of-labortask-allocationtemporal-polyethismworker-agenurse-workersforager-workerssoldier-caste-absencemonomorphismworker-size-variationqueen-worker-differentiationreproductive-castegyne-productionmale-productionseasonal-reproductioncolony-foundingclaustral-foundingnon-claustral-foundingfungal-inoculumfounding-queenfirst-worker-generationnutritional-dependencyfat-reservesmetabolic-adaptationdigestive-physiologyenzyme-complementfungal-enzymelignocellulose-degradationnutritional-mutualismobligate-mutualismvertical-transmissionhorizontal-transmissionsymbiont-switchingcultivar-replacementgarden-failurecolony-mortalitypopulation-turnovergeneration-timelongevitysurvivorshiplife-expectancyagingsenescencereproductive-investmentcolony-growthcolony-declinebuddingfissionreproduction-modegenetic-structurerelatednessmating-systemnuptial-flightmate-choicesperm-storagecolony-odornestmate-recognitionforeign-rejectionagonistic-behaviorterritorial-markingboundary-defenseraiding-behaviorrobbing-behaviorcleptobiosisdulosisslaveryinquilinismguest-antsmyrmecophilesnest-associatescommensalisminquilinesparasite-tolerancehost-manipulationvenom-alkaloidpyrrolidineindolizidinepiperidinenonanalfarnesenesesquiterpeneagriculture-chemicalgaster-extractchemical-diversitychemical-simplicityevolutionary-precursorderived-chemistrybiosynthetic-pathwaysemiochemicalinfochemicalcommunicationinformation-transfercolony-organizationsocial-structurepolygynyqueen-conditiondealationwing-sheddin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ebrium
Marsh Bluet
Enallagma ebrium, commonly known as the marsh bluet, is a North American damselfly in the family Coenagrionidae. It is closely related to E. hageni, with which it forms a mosaic spatial distribution pattern across eastern North America. The species is known to host the water mite Limnochares americana, which can affect its survivorship and maturation. Research indicates that adult damselflies exhibit grooming behavior in response to mite parasitism, with responses varying by age, sex, and mite intensity.
Erginulus
Erginulus is a genus of harvestmen in the family Cosmetidae, described by Roewer in 1912 with the type species Erginus serratipes. The genus comprises 29 described species distributed primarily in eastern Mexico and northern Central America, with a few outlying records. Species are medium to large-sized cosmetid harvestmen, with Erginulus clavotibialis in Belize reaching 6–7.5 mm adult body length. Males exhibit sexual dimorphism with two distinct morphotypes (α and β males), characterized by enlarged chelicerae and armed leg IV with protuberances or spines; females have smaller chelicerae and unarmed legs.
Mallota diversipennis
A syrphid fly in the tribe Eristalini, described by Curran in 1922. Like other members of the genus Mallota, the larvae develop in water-filled tree holes. Adults are bumble bee mimics and are known to use leaves as platforms for grooming behavior. The specific epithet "diversipennis" refers to variation in wing pattern.
Menippe mercenaria
Florida Stone Crab
Menippe mercenaria is a commercially harvested brachyuran crab native to the western North Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. The species inhabits coastal marine environments including salt marshes and nearshore hard-bottom habitats. Research has documented sensitivity to reduced seawater pH, with acidic conditions elevating stress and reducing foraging activity. Larvae exhibit vertical swimming behavior in the water column. The species is known for frequent grooming behavior using third maxillipeds to maintain gill function.
Talitroides alluaudi
Alluaudi's landhopper
A terrestrial amphipod (landhopper) native to the Atlantic forests of southeastern Brazil, now distributed worldwide through synanthropic human-mediated dispersal. Found in leaf litter of tropical and subtropical forests, urban parks, greenhouses, and silviculture areas. Females dominate populations with a strongly female-biased sex ratio observed in field samples. Exhibits highly stereotyped grooming behavior for hygiene maintenance.