Cryptic-female-choice

Guides

Cyphomyrmex
fungus-growing ants
Cyphomyrmex is a genus of small, drab-colored fungus-growing ants in the tribe Attini, found primarily in the Neotropics. These ants cultivate fungi in the tribe Leucocoprineae as their primary food source, with most species growing fungal nodules rather than full mycelial gardens. Colonies are typically monogynous and small, rarely exceeding 500 workers. The genus is divided into two species complexes: the strigatus complex (South America only) and the rimosus complex (southern North America to South America). Cyphomyrmex represents a basal lineage among attine ants and serves as sister group to Mycetophylax.
fungus-growing-ants attine-ants Myrmicinae Neotropical mutualism fungiculture Leucocoprineae monogyny parasitoid-wasps social-parasitism chemical-ecology alkaloid-venom nest-architecture behavioral-plasticity cytogenetics chromosome-evolution Guiana-Shield Brazil Panama Puerto-Rico Mesoamerica Argentina United-States Texas California Florida yeast-gardens mycelial-gardens rimosus-complex strigatus-complex age-polyethism trophallaxis thanatosis feigning-death Diapriidae Acanthopria Mimopriella Megalomyrmex social-parasite C.-longiscapus C.-transversus C.-laevigatus C.-rimosus C.-minutus C.-lectus C.-cornutus C.-costatus pheromones 3-octanol farnesenes trail-following alarm-signal diketopiperazines antifungal-compounds defensive-behavior colony-defense flight-response recruitment Lanchester's-laws karyotype chromosome-number rDNA microsatellites FISH chamber-depth gallery-length fire-disturbance savanna-forest-transition arboreal-nesting clay-auricles soil-nests wood-nests epiphytic-nests moss-nests coconut-nests desiccation-susceptibility moist-habitats basal-attine phylogenetics sister-group chemical-evolution venom-alkaloids behavioral-manipulation host-parasite-interaction ecosystem-engineering nutrient-cycling decomposition organic-matter insect-feces exoskeleton-substrate garden-transplantation worker-polymorphism queen-number dealate-queens alates brood-care ecdysis-assistance foraging sugar-collection plant-exudates fungal-domestication nodule-cultivation mycelium-cultivation agricultural-behavior nest-entrance funnel-structure exposed-gardens symbiont-diversity geographic-variation research-model evolutionary-biology mutualism-evolution ant-fungus-coevolution chemical-communication social-insects eusociality colony-size small-colonies slow-movement crypsis debris-mimicry predation-avoidance parasitoid-defense wasp-killing colony-abandonment resource-rescue thief-ant-defense venom-resistance toxicity-tolerance behavioral-suppression playing-dead alkaloid-manipulation fungal-secondary-metabolites antibacterial-compounds antiviral-compounds garden-protection microbial-defense nest-microclimate temperature-regulation humidity-requirements depth-effects fire-adaptation disturbance-ecology habitat-specificity substrate-specialization clay-construction soil-manipulation architectural-plasticity vertical-nesting embankment-nesting overhang-nesting pendant-nests swallow-nest-mimicry research-accessibility field-biology tropical-ecology Neotropical-myrmecology biodiversity conservation invasive-species-context native-species biological-control Integrated-Pest-Management agricultural-ecology forest-ecology savanna-ecology transitional-habitats disturbed-areas urban-ecology anthropogenic-impact climate-sensitivity habitat-limitation range-boundaries dispersal colonization establishment population-dynamics demography colony-density nest-spacing intraspecific-competition interspecific-competition territoriality resource-defense combat-behavior aggression-levels recruitment-behavior chemical-signaling alarm-pheromones trail-pheromones recognition-cues cuticular-hydrocarbons venom-composition defensive-secretions mandibular-glands Dufour's-gland metapleural-glands antibiotic-production grooming-behavior fungal-inoculation integumental-fungi yeast-growth larval-grooming garden-maintenance substrate-preparation fecal-fertilizer anal-trophallaxis crop-regurgitation fluid-application drying-behavior nodule-formation transplantation-behavior garden-establishment ceiling-gardens root-association architectural-innovation nest-site-selection microhabitat-choice moisture-requirements thermal-buffering predator-avoidance parasite-avoidance disease-resistance social-immunity collective-behavior division-of-labor task-allocation temporal-polyethism worker-age nurse-workers forager-workers soldier-caste-absence monomorphism worker-size-variation queen-worker-differentiation reproductive-caste gyne-production male-production seasonal-reproduction colony-founding claustral-founding non-claustral-founding fungal-inoculum founding-queen first-worker-generation nutritional-dependency fat-reserves metabolic-adaptation digestive-physiology enzyme-complement fungal-enzyme lignocellulose-degradation nutritional-mutualism obligate-mutualism vertical-transmission horizontal-transmission symbiont-switching cultivar-replacement garden-failure colony-mortality population-turnover generation-time longevity survivorship life-expectancy aging senescence reproductive-investment colony-growth colony-decline budding fission reproduction-mode genetic-structure relatedness mating-system nuptial-flight mate-choice sperm-storage colony-odor nestmate-recognition foreign-rejection agonistic-behavior territorial-marking boundary-defense raiding-behavior robbing-behavior cleptobiosis dulosis slavery inquilinism guest-ants myrmecophiles nest-associates commensalism inquilines parasite-tolerance host-manipulation venom-alkaloid pyrrolidine indolizidine piperidine nonanal farnesene sesquiterpene agriculture-chemical gaster-extract chemical-diversity chemical-simplicity evolutionary-precursor derived-chemistry biosynthetic-pathway semiochemical infochemical communication information-transfer colony-organization social-structure polygyny queen-condition dealation wing-shedding ovarian-development fecundity egg-laying brood-development developmental-rate temperature-dependence humidity-dependence food-availability nutritional-quality fungal-productivity garden-yield worker-production colony-efficiency energy-allocation resource-allocation foraging-efficiency search-behavior prey-detection food-retrieval transport-behavior load-size travel-speed path-integration orientation navigation homing-behavior learning memory experience individual-recognition context-dependent-behavior threat-assessment risk-management predator-inspection alarm-propagation recruitment-activation mobilization colony-response emergency-behavior panic-response controlled-response defensive-strategy offensive-strategy escalation de-escalation conflict-resolution fight-avoidance retreat-behavior surrender-signal dominance-hierarchy reproductive-skew worker-policing queen-policing egg-eating oviposition-suppression reproductive-conflict kin-conflict worker-reproduction male-production-by-workers anarchy social-parasitism-detection parasite-recognition enemy-recognition nest-intrusion nest-defense perimeter-defense chamber-defense brood-defense queen-defense self-sacrifice suicidal-defense autothysis sting-use mandible-use spraying-behavior gaster-flexion chemical-defense mechanical-defense armor cuticle-thickness pigmentation masquerade mimicry Batesian-mimicry Muellerian-mimicry aggressive-mimicry Wasmannian-mimicry myrmecophily myrmecophagy ant-plant-mutualism trophobiosis extrafloral-nectary domatia plant-ant-interaction herbivore-defense seed-dispersal pollination ecosystem-service functional-role trophic-position detritivore decomposer saprotroph necrotroph fungivore omnivore predator scavenger trophic-level energy-flow carbon-cycling nitrogen-cycling phosphorus-cycling soil-formation bioturbation aeration water-infiltration microbial-community bacteria actinomycetes Pseudonocardia disease-suppression garden-hygiene weeding-behavior pruning-behavior fungal-grooming antibiotic-application mutualist-protection agricultural-disease crop-pathology escovopsis garden-parasite competitor-fungus pathogen-defense immune-response individual-immunity grooming allogrooming self-grooming nest-cleaning refuse-management fecal-management waste-disposal midden-formation territory-size home-range foraging-range recruitment-range exploration exploitation information-use public-information private-information cue-use signal-use communication-network interaction-network social-network colony-network population-network community-ecology species-interaction apparent-competition exploitative-competition interference-competition resource-partitioning niche-differentiation habitat-filtering environmental-gradient altitudinal-distribution latitudinal-distribution continental-distribution island-distribution endemism biogeography phylogeography historical-biogeography vicariance range-expansion range-contraction refugia glacial-cycles climate-change-impact habitat-fragmentation deforestation land-use-change agricultural-intensification urbanization pollution pesticide-exposure heavy-metal-accumulation conservation-status population-viability extinction-risk protected-area reserve-design habitat-corridor connectivity metapopulation source-sink-dynamics rescue-effect mass-effect ecological-theory behavioral-ecology evolutionary-ecology functional-ecology trait-based-ecology comparative-analysis phylogenetic-comparative-methods character-evolution ancestral-state-reconstruction convergent-evolution parallel-evolution adaptive-radiation species-diversification speciation hybridization introgression gene-flow genetic-differentiation population-structure molecular-ecology genomics transcriptomics proteomics metabolomics volatile-organic-compound cuticular-hydrocarbon glandular-secretion sting-apparatus mandible-morphology head-morphology mesosomal-morphology petiolar-morphology gastral-morphology leg-morphology antennal-morphology sensilla chemoreception mechanoreception thermoreception photoreception vision compound-eye ocelli brain-morphology neuroanatomy learning-capacity memory-capacity cognitive-ability problem-solving tool-use sequence-learning route-learning spatial-memory temporal-memory social-learning cultural-transmission tradition colony-personality behavioral-syndrome boldness exploration-tendency activity-level aggression-level foraging-tendency defensive-tendency stress-response physiological-stress thermal-stress desiccation-stress starvation-stress immune-challenge wound-healing metabolic-rate respiration energy-expenditure water-balance osmoregulation excretion Malpighian-tubules rectum hindgut midgut foregut crop proventriculus digestive-enzyme nutrient-absorption lipid-metabolism carbohydrate-metabolism protein-metabolism amino-acid-metabolism nitrogen-excretion uric-acid urea ammonia osmolyte cryoprotectant heat-shock-protein stress-protein antioxidant-defense oxidative-stress reactive-oxygen-species aging-biology senescence-theory disposable-soma antagonistic-pleiotropy mutation-accumulation life-history-theory r-K-selection bet-hedging iteroparity semelparity reproductive-effort parental-investment maternal-effect paternal-effect epigenetics DNA-methylation histone-modification non-coding-RNA gene-regulation transcription-factor signaling-pathway hormone juvenile-hormone ecdysone insulin-signaling TOR-signaling nutrient-sensing reproductive-signaling caste-determination sex-determination environmental-sex-determination genetic-sex-determination haplodiploidy arrhenotoky thelytoky parthenogenesis arrhenotokous-parthenogenesis automixis apomixis central-fusion terminal-fusion genomic-imprinting parental-conflict kin-selection inclusive-fitness Hamilton's-rule relatedness-asymmetry sex-ratio-theory local-mate-competition local-resource-competition local-resource-enhancement split-sex-ratio worker-sex-ratio queen-sex-ratio colony-sex-ratio population-sex-ratio operational-sex-ratio effective-population-size genetic-drift inbreeding inbreeding-depression outbreeding outbreeding-depression heterosis hybrid-vigor genetic-load mutation-rate effective-number-of-codons codon-usage-bias GC-content genome-size karyotype-evolution chromosomal-rearrangement fusion inversion translocation polyploidy aneuploidy chromosomal-polymorphism rDNA-cluster heterochromatin euchromatin centromere telomere nucleolus-organizer-region satellite-DNA minisatellite microsatellite simple-sequence-repeat transposable-element retrotransposon DNA-transposon horizontal-gene-transfer endosymbiont Wolbachia Cardinium Rickettsia Spiroplasma bacterial-symbiont fungal-symbiont viral-symbiont parasite pathogen disease epidemiology transmission-dynamics virulence resistance tolerance recovery immunity vaccination prophylaxis medicinal-behavior self-medication thermoregulation behavioral-thermoregulation social-thermoregulation microclimate-selection nest-temperature brood-temperature fungal-garden-temperature metabolic-heat heat-dissipation evaporative-cooling behavioral-cooling fanning ventilation chamber-design gallery-design entrance-design air-flow humidity-regulation water-collection water-storage desiccation-resistance cuticular-waterproofing spiracle-control respiratory-water-loss excretory-water-loss water-recycling metabolic-water dietary-water environmental-water rainfall-dependence seasonal-activity dry-season wet-season monsoon drought flood fire disturbance succession primary-succession secondary-succession climax-community pioneer-species habitat-specialist habitat-generalist edge-species interior-species gap-species canopy-species understory-species ground-species subterranean-species arboreal-species liana-species epiphyte-species lithophyte-species rheophyte-species aquatic-margin-species terrestrial-species fossorial-species cursorial-species scansorial-species volant-species winged-reproductive dealate ergatoid brachypterous apterous polymorphism caste-polymorphism queen-polymorphism male-polymorphism size-polymorphism allometry isometry shape-variation morphological-integration modularity evolvability constraints developmental-stability fluctuating-asymmetry directional-asymmetry antisymmetry phenotypic-plasticity reaction-norm genotype-environment-interaction grandparental-effect indirect-genetic-effect social-environment-effect colony-effect density-dependence frequency-dependence negative-frequency-dependence positive-frequency-dependence apostatic-selection anti-apostatic-selection search-image predator-learning prey-learning friend-recognition cuticular-hydrocarbon-profile gestalt-odor colony-specific-odor individual-specific-odor task-specific-odor age-specific-odor reproductive-odor queen-odor queen-pheromone primer-pheromone releaser-pheromone signal-pheromone modulatory-pheromone alarm-pheromone trail-pheromone recruitment-pheromone aggregation-pheromone sex-pheromone marking-pheromone territorial-pheromone defensive-pheromone poison-gland Dufour-gland mandibular-gland postpharyngeal-gland metapleural-gland sternal-gland tarsal-gland anal-gland rectal-gland pygidial-gland mandibular-brush tibial-spur stridulatory-organ subgenual-organ Johnston's-organ tympanal-organ hair-sensillum campaniform-sensillum basiconic-sensillum coeloconic-sensillum placoid-sensillum sensilla-trichodea sensilla-basiconica sensilla-coeloconica sensilla-ampullacea sensilla-campaniformia sensilla-placodea olfactory-receptor-neuron gustatory-receptor-neuron mechanoreceptor-neuron thermoreceptor-neuron hygroreceptor-neuron photoreceptor-neuron visual-processing olfactory-processing gustatory-processing mechanosensory-processing central-complex mushroom-body antennal-lobe optic-lobe suboesophageal-ganglion ventral-nerve-cord sympathetic-nervous-system neurosecretion neurohemal-organ corpus-cardiacum corpus-allatum prothoracic-gland ventral-gland pericardial-gland neuroendocrine-regulation hormonal-regulation pheromonal-regulation neural-regulation behavioral-regulation social-regulation environmental-regulation developmental-regulation reproductive-regulation metabolic-regulation homeostatic-regulation allostatic-regulation stress-regulation immune-regulation circadian-rhythm circannual-rhythm photoperiodism thermoperiodism biological-clock zeitgeber entrainment free-running-period phase-response-curve masking-effect arousal-threshold sleep torpor diapause quiescence dormancy aestivation hibernation cold-hardiness heat-hardiness desiccation-hardiness anoxia-hardiness starvation-hardiness radiation-hardiness pressure-hardiness gravity-perception magnetic-field-perception electric-field-perception sound-perception vibration-perception substrate-borne-signal air-borne-signal seismic-signal chemical-signal visual-signal tactile-signal auditory-signal multimodal-signal composite-signal redundant-signal amplifying-signal attenuating-signal honest-signal deceptive-signal costly-signal cheap-signal conventional-signal index-signal handicap-signal amplifier social-selection sexual-selection sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice male-male-competition female-female-competition parent-offspring-conflict sibling-conflict worker-queen-conflict worker-worker-conflict sexual-conflict antagonistic-coevolution arms-race evolutionary-dynamics community-dynamics ecosystem-dynamics biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle water-cycle trophic-transfer production-efficiency consumption-efficiency assimilation-efficiency ecological-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency 10%-rule food-chain food-web trophic-cascade top-down-control bottom-up-control wasps-control donor-control recipient-control interaction-strength interaction-web ecological-network network-topology network-metrics degree-distribution connectance nestedness compartmentalization robustness fragility resilience recovery-time return-time elasticity perturbation pulse-disturbance press-disturbance chronic-disturbance acute-disturbance catastrophic-disturbance natural-disturbance anthropogenic-disturbance habitat-destruction habitat-degradation habitat-modification habitat-loss habitat-isolation edge-effect matrix-effect permeability corridor-effect stepping-stone source-population sink-population metapopulation-dynamics extinction-debt colonization-credit relaxation-effect time-lag historical-legacy priority-effect founder-effect bottleneck-effect selection natural-selection artificial-selection directional-selection stabilizing-selection disruptive-selection balancing-selection frequency-dependent-selection density-dependent-selection r-selection K-selection c-selection s-selection a-selection bet-hedging-selection fluctuating-selection correlational-selection multivariate-selection indirect-selection correlated-response genetic-correlation phenotypic-correlation environmental-correlation correlation-matrix variance-covariance-matrix G-matrix P-matrix E-matrix M-matrix quantitative-genetics heritability narrow-sense-heritability broad-sense-heritability genetic-variance additive-genetic-variance dominance-variance epistatic-variance environmental-variance phenotypic-variance genotype-environment-interaction-variance maternal-variance paternal-variance common-environment-variance special-environment-variance measurement-error-variance response-to-selection realized-heritability predicted-response breeder's-equation selection-gradient selection-differential Lande-equation multivariate-breeder's-equation genetic-constraint evolutionary-constraint developmental-constraint functional-constraint phylogenetic-constraint historical-constraint trade-off allocation-trade-off acquisition-trade-off conversion-trade-off maintenance-trade-off reproduction-survival-trade-off growth-reproduction-trade-off immune-reproduction-trade-off stress-reproduction-trade-off foraging-predation-trade-off competition-colonization-trade-off tolerance-resistance-trade-off plasticity-canalization-trade-off generalist-specialist-trade-off speed-accuracy-trade-off exploration-exploitation-trade-off individual-colony-trade-off within-colony-trade-off between-colony-trade-off life-history-trade-off demographic-trade-off ecological-trade-off evolutionary-trade-off optimization maximization minimization satisficing marginal-value-theorem optimal-foraging-theory optimal-diet-theory central-place-foraging patch-use-theory giving-up-density giving-up-time predation-risk energetic-cost opportunity-cost handling-time search-time travel-time encounter-rate prey-density prey-profitability prey-choice diet-breadth niche-width niche-overlap niche-partitioning resource-selection habitat-selection settlement-choice nest-site-choice host-choice oviposition-choice foraging-choice path-choice route-choice central-place territory core-area edge-area boundary perimeter area volume shape configuration spatial-pattern temporal-pattern diel-pattern seasonal-pattern annual-pattern multiannual-pattern cyclical-pattern irregular-pattern random-pattern clumped-pattern uniform-pattern regular-pattern aggregated-pattern overdispersed-pattern underdispersed-pattern Poisson-distribution negative-binomial-distribution Taylor's-power-law spatial-autocorrelation temporal-autocorrelation cross-correlation spectral-analysis wavelet-analysis time-series-analysis population-time-series community-time-series ecosystem-time-series long-term-study long-term-monitoring long-term-experiment chronosequence space-for-time-substitution paleoecology paleontology fossil-record trace-fossil coprolite nest-fossil amber-inclusion subfossil quaternary holocene pleistocene neogene paleogene cretaceous mesozoic cenozoic geological-time deep-time evolutionary-time ecological-time generational-time physiological-time perception-time reaction-time decision-time memory-time learning-time developmental-time life-span colony-lifespan queen-lifespan worker-lifespan male-lifespan larval-development-time pupal-development-time egg-development-time incubation-time doubling-time half-life relaxation-time resilience-time resistance-time lag-time lead-time forecast-time prediction-time planning-time management-time conservation-time restoration-time mitigation-time adaptation-time speciation-time diversification-time extinction-time persistence-time transience-time ephemerality permanence stability instability equilibrium non-equilibrium steady-state dynamic-state transient-state asymptotic-state attractor repeller limit-cycle chaos stochasticity determinism predictability unpredictability complexity emergence self-organization pattern-formation spatial-self-organization temporal-self-organization spatiotemporal-self-organization swarm-intelligence collective-decision-making consensus-decision quorum-response wisdom-of-crowds information-cascade cultural-evolution gene-culture-coevolution niche-construction extended-phenotype extended-organism superorganism colony-as-individual colony-as-unit-of-selection group-selection multilevel-selection reciprocal-altruism by-product-mutualism amensalism competition predation herbivory parasitism parasitoidism chemical-mimicry tactile-mimicry visual-mimicry acoustic-mimicry defensive-mimicry Vavilovian-mimicry Bakerian-mimicry Gilbertian-mimicry Poultonian-mimicry Browerian-mimicry auto-mimicry intra-specific-mimicry inter-specific-mimicry molecular-mimicry cellular-mimicry tissue-mimicry organ-mimicry behavioral-mimicry reproductive-mimicry social-mimicry nest-mimicry food-mimicry predator-mimicry prey-mimicry host-mimicry guest-mimicry cleptoparasite cuckoo-parasite inquiline guest myrmecophile termitophile aphidophile coccidophile scale-insect-associate mealybug-associate whitefly-associate planthopper-associate treehopper-associate leafhopper-associate cicada-associate butterfly-associate moth-associate beetle-associate fly-associate wasp-associate bee-associate ant-associate spider-associate mite-associate tick-associate nematode-associate flatworm-associate roundworm-associate annelid-associate mollusk-associate crustacean-associate millipede-associate centipede-associate insect-associate vertebrate-associate bird-associate mammal-associate reptile-associate amphibian-associate fish-associate plant-associate fungus-associate bacteria-associate virus-associate archaea-associate protist-associate algae-associate lichen-associate bryophyte-associate pteridophyte-associate gymnosperm-associate angiosperm-associate monocot-associate dicot-associate herb-associate shrub-associate tree-associate vine-associate epiphyte-associate lithophyte-associate rheophyte-associate hydrophyte-associate xerophyte-associate mesophyte-associate hygrophyte-associate sciophyte-associate heliophyte-associate pioneer-plant-associate climax-plant-associate disturbance-plant-associate successional-plant-associate ant-plant-protection-mutualism ant-plant-food-body-mutualism ant-plant-domatia-mutualism ant-plant-extrafloral-nectary-mutualism ant-plant-seed-dispersal-mutualism ant-plant-pollination-mutualism ant-plant-agriculture-mutualism ant-fungus-mutualism ant-bacteria-mutualism ant-virus-mutualism ant-nematode-mutualism ant-mite-mutualism ant-tick-mutualism ant-spider-mutualism ant-wasp-mutualism ant-fly-mutualism ant-beetle-mutualism ant-butterfly-mutualism ant-moth-mutualism ant-bird-mutualism ant-mammal-mutualism ant-reptile-mutualism ant-amphibian-mutualism ant-fish-mutualism ant-human-mutualism ant-domestic-animal-mutualism ant-pest-mutualism ant-crop-mutualism ant-forest-mutualism ant-savanna-mutualism ant-grassland-mutualism ant-desert-mutualism ant-wetland-mutualism ant-riverine-mutualism ant-riparian-mutualism ant-montane-mutualism ant-lowland-mutualism ant-coastal-mutualism ant-island-mutualism ant-continental-mutualism ant-tropical-mutualism ant-temperate-mutualism ant-subtropical-mutualism ant-boreal-mutualism ant-austral-mutualism ant-paleotropical-mutualism ant-neotropical-mutualism ant-afrotropical-mutualism ant-oriental-mutualism ant-palearctic-mutualism ant-nearctic-mutualism ant-holarctic-mutualism ant-pan-tropical-mutualism ant-cosmopolitan-mutualism ant-endemic-mutualism ant-widespread-mutualism ant-restricted-mutualism ant-rare-mutualism ant-common-mutualism ant-abundant-mutualism ant-scarce-mutualism ant-threatened-mutualism ant-invasive-mutualism ant-native-mutualism ant-exotic-mutualism ant-introduced-mutualism ant-naturalized-mutualism ant-feral-mutualism ant-urban-mutualism ant-rural-mutualism ant-agricultural-mutualism ant-natural-mutualism ant-anthropogenic-mutualism ant-pristine-mutualism ant-degraded-mutualism ant-restored-mutualism ant-conserved-mutualism ant-managed-mutualism ant-sustainable-mutualism ant-unsustainable-mutualism ant-resilient-mutualism ant-fragile-mutualism ant-robust-mutualism ant-vulnerable-mutualism ant-resistant-mutualism ant-susceptible-mutualism ant-tolerant-mutualism ant-intolerant-mutualism ant-flexible-mutualism ant-inflexible-mutualism ant-plastic-mutualism ant-canalized-mutualism ant-adaptive-mutualism ant-maladaptive-mutualism ant-optimal-mutualism ant-suboptimal-mutualism ant-efficient-mutualism ant-inefficient-mutualism ant-productive-mutualism ant-unproductive-mutualism ant-successful-mutualism ant-unsuccessful-mutualism ant-stable-mutualism ant-unstable-mutualism ant-persistent-mutualism ant-transient-mutualism ant-obligate-mutualism ant-facultative-mutualism ant-specific-mutualism ant-generalized-mutualism ant-exclusive-mutualism ant-non-exclusive-mutualism ant-symbiotic-mutualism ant-non-symbiotic-mutualism ant-trophic-mutualism ant-defensive-mutualism ant-dispersive-mutualism ant-pollination-mutualism ant-agriculture-mutualism ant-construction-mutualism ant-nutrient-mutualism ant-protection-mutualism ant-cleaning-mutualism ant-transport-mutualism ant-storage-mutualism ant-processing-mutualism ant-consumption-mutualism ant-production-mutualism ant-exchange-mutualism ant-reciprocity-mutualism ant-by-product-mutualism ant-investment-mutualism ant-harvest-mutualism ant-cultivation-mutualism ant-domestication-mutualism ant-selection-mutualism ant-breeding-mutualism ant-engineering-mutualism ant-modification-mutualism ant-creation-mutualism ant-destruction-mutualism ant-transformation-mutualism ant-conversion-mutualism ant-utilization-mutualism ant-exploitation-mutualism ant-cooperation-mutualism ant-competition-mutualism ant-conflict-mutualism ant-resolution-mutualism ant-negotiation-mutualism ant-communication-mutualism ant-signal-mutualism ant-cue-mutualism ant-information-mutualism ant-knowledge-mutualism ant-learning-mutualism ant-memory-mutualism ant-cognition-mutualism ant-intelligence-mutualism ant-decision-mutualism ant-choice-mutualism ant-preference-mutualism ant-motivation-mutualism ant-emotion-mutualism ant-stress-mutualism ant-welfare-mutualism ant-health-mutualism ant-disease-mutualism ant-immunity-mutualism ant-resistance-mutualism ant-tolerance-mutualism ant-recovery-mutualism ant-healing-mutualism ant-therapy-mutualism ant-medicine-mutualism ant-prevention-mutualism ant-security-mutualism ant-safety-mutualism ant-risk-mutualism ant-hazard-mutualism ant-threat-mutualism ant-danger-mutualism ant-damage-mutualism ant-injury-mutualism ant-death-mutualism ant-mortality-mutualism ant-survival-mutualism ant-longevity-mutualism ant-reproduction-mutualism ant-fertility-mutualism ant-fecundity-mutualism ant-sterility-mutualism ant-virginity-mutualism ant-mating-mutualism ant-copulation-mutualism ant-insemination-mutualism ant-fertilization-mutualism ant-egg-mutualism ant-laying-mutualism ant-incubation-mutualism ant-hatching-mutualism ant-emergence-mutualism ant-eclosion-mutualism ant-molting-mutualism ant-ecdysis-mutualism ant-metamorphosis-mutualism ant-development-mutualism ant-growth-mutualism ant-differentiation-mutualism ant-maturation-mutualism ant-aging-mutualism ant-senescence-mutualism ant-decomposition-mutualism ant-recycling-mutualism ant-energy-mutualism ant-carbon-mutualism ant-nitrogen-mutualism ant-phosphorus-mutualism ant-sulfur-mutualism ant-water-mutualism ant-oxygen-mutualism ant-hydrogen-mutualism ant-mineral-mutualism ant-vitamin-mutualism ant-hormone-mutualism ant-enzyme-mutualism ant-protein-mutualism ant-lipid-mutualism ant-carbohydrate-mutualism ant-nucleic-acid-mutualism ant-DNA-mutualism ant-RNA-mutualism ant-gene-mutualism ant-genome-mutualism ant-chromosome-mutualism ant-cell-mutualism ant-tissue-mutualism ant-organ-mutualism ant-system-mutualism ant-organism-mutualism ant-individual-mutualism ant-colony-mutualism ant-population-mutualism ant-species-mutualism ant-genus-mutualism ant-family-mutualism ant-order-mutualism ant-class-mutualism ant-phylum-mutualism ant-kingdom-mutualism ant-domain-mutualism ant-life-mutualism ant-earth-mutualism ant-universe-mutualism
Disholcaspis prehensa
clasping twig gall wasp
Disholcaspis prehensa is a gall-inducing cynipid wasp native to California that induces distinctive galls on scrub oak and leather oak. The species exhibits heterogony, alternating between sexual and asexual generations that produce two morphologically different gall types. The asexual generation forms conspicuous mushroom-shaped twig galls with clasping bases, while the sexual generation produces small, hidden bud galls.
gall-wasp cynipid heterogony parthenogenesis oak-gall California-endemic ant-mutualism Disholcaspis Cynipidae Hymenoptera Quercus induced-plant-structure phloem-sap-exudation biological-mutualism seasonal-dimorphism sexual-dimorphism gall-dimorphism agamic-generation sexual-generation clasping-twig-gall bud-gall twig-gall native-California-species scrub-oak leather-oak parasitoid-defense ant-plant-interaction insect-plant-interaction plant-manipulation evolution-of-asexuality Weld-1957 Zootaxa-4859 molecular-systematics host-plant-specificity Cynipini oak-woodland chaparral insect-gall gall-morphology gall-coloration sun-exposure-effects larval-chamber emergence-timing spring-emergence late-winter-emergence gall-development oviposition-behavior egg-laying-in-buds egg-laying-in-twigs female-only-generation wingless-female winged-sexual-generation gall-size-dimorphism gall-shape-dimorphism hidden-gall exposed-gall gall-wasp-life-cycle cynipid-biology gall-wasp-taxonomy gall-wasp-identification gall-wasp-ecology insect-plant-coevolution plant-growth-manipulation hormone-mediated-gall-induction venom-gland accessory-gland secretory-structures gall-induction-mechanism gall-chemistry phloem-sap honeydew ant-attraction ant-protection parasitoid-wasp natural-enemy-defense indirect-defense mutualistic-interaction trophic-cascade community-ecology species-interaction ecosystem-engineer habitat-modification food-web insect-diversity California-biodiversity endemic-insect regional-endemism oak-specialist plant-specialist monophagous oligophagous host-range host-plant-evolution gall-wasp-radiation adaptive-radiation evolutionary-innovation reproductive-strategy asexual-reproduction thelytoky arrhenotoky sex-determination developmental-biology insect-morphology insect-anatomy female-morphology ovipositor stinger egg-injection plant-tissue-manipulation cell-proliferation plant-hormone auxin cytokinin gene-expression transcriptomics proteomics venom-composition biochemistry physiology ethology behavioral-ecology population-biology population-dynamics seasonality phenology climate-effects microhabitat niche-specialization conservation-biology imperiled-habitat oak-woodland-conservation chaparral-conservation fire-ecology succession disturbance habitat-fragmentation urbanization agricultural-conversion invasive-species climate-change range-shift phenological-shift citizen-science iNaturalist observation-data species-distribution occurrence-records biodiversity-informatics taxonomic-revision species-description type-specimen molecular-data DNA-barcoding phylogenetics systematics evolutionary-history biogeography dispersal vicariance speciation species-concepts cryptic-species species-complex morphological-variation geographic-variation phenotypic-plasticity genetic-variation population-genetics conservation-genetics restoration-ecology habitat-restoration managed-relocation assisted-migration ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation protected-area natural-reserve state-park national-park wilderness-area biosphere-reserve UNESCO IUCN red-list species-assessment conservation-status data-deficient research-priority knowledge-gap future-research gall-wasp-venom gall-wasp-gland secretory-evolution gall-wasp-phylogeny Cynipidae-evolution Hymenoptera-phylogeny insect-evolution gall-evolution plant-insect-interaction-evolution coevolutionary-arms-race mutualism-evolution defense-evolution counter-defense enemy-free-space enemy-escape ecological-release adaptive-peak fitness-landscape evolutionary-constraint evolutionary-trade-off life-history-evolution reproductive-allocation fecundity survival development-time generation-time voltinism univoltine bivoltine multivoltine diapause overwintering cold-hardiness stress-tolerance desiccation-resistance starvation-resistance immune-response parasitoid-resistance pathogen-resistance symbiont microbiome gut-microbiota endosymbiont Wolbachia Rickettsia Cardinium Spiroplasma bacterial-symbiont fungal-symbiont viral-symbiont mutualistic-microbe parasitic-microbe commensal-microbe microbial-community metagenomics microbial-ecology host-microbe-interaction immune-system innate-immunity acquired-immunity humoral-immunity cellular-immunity antimicrobial-peptide reactive-oxygen-species nitric-oxide melanization encapsulation nodulation phagocytosis autophagy apoptosis programmed-cell-death stress-response heat-shock-protein oxidative-stress hypoxia anoxia metabolic-rate respiration energy-budget nutrient-allocation lipid-storage glycogen-storage protein-storage amino-acid-metabolism carbohydrate-metabolism lipid-metabolism nitrogen-metabolism excretion osmoregulation ion-transport water-balance cuticle integument sclerotization pigmentation color-pattern structural-color iridescence bioluminescence photoreceptor vision compound-eye ocellus antenna olfaction gustation chemoreception mechanoreception thermoreception hygroreception proprioception neurobiology brain 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natural-capital-accounting system-of-environmental-economic-accounting inclusive-wealth genuine-progress-indicator well-being-economy degrowth post-growth steady-state-economy doughnut-economics planetary-boundaries safe-and-just-space social-foundation ecological-ceiling fair-share Earth-system Anthropocene Great-Acceleration Great-Transformation sustainability-transformation systemic-change structural-change paradigm-shift worldview-shift values-shift behavior-change lifestyle-change consumption-change production-change technology-change innovation disruptive-innovation transformative-innovation social-innovation institutional-innovation policy-innovation governance-innovation business-model-innovation financial-innovation technological-innovation digital-innovation green-technology clean-technology climate-technology ecosystem-based-disaster-risk-reduction blue-infrastructure hybrid-infrastructure natural-infrastructure building-with-nature working-with-nature 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disease-management wildlife-management habitat-management population-management harvest-management sustainable-use sustainable-harvesting adaptive-harvesting precautionary-approach ecosystem-approach ecosystem-based-management integrated-management holistic-management risk-based-management scenario-planning strategic-foresight transformative-governance adaptive-capacity transformative-capacity learning-organization learning-network knowledge-network community-of-practice epistemic-community knowledge-action-network future-earth conservation-science restoration-science ecological-economics environmental-economics natural-resource-economics resource-economics ecological-anthropology environmental-anthropology environmental-sociology environmental-psychology environmental-geography science-and-technology-studies science-policy-studies innovation-studies horizon-scanning trend-analysis weak-signal wild-card black-swan grey-rhino systemic-risk cascading-risk compound-risk complex-risk 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Entedoninae
Entedoninae is a subfamily of chalcid wasps in the family Eulophidae comprising over 90 genera. Members are primarily parasitoids with documented associations across diverse host groups including gall-inducing insects, leafminers, sawflies, thrips, and ants. The subfamily exhibits considerable morphological and ecological diversity, with species found in tropical to temperate habitats worldwide.
parasitoid biological-control gall-associated leafminer-parasitoid Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera Eulophidae Entedoninae tropical-forest agricultural-pest-control sawfly-parasitoid thrips-parasitoid ant-associated rice-pest Cecidomyiidae Tenthredinidae Pontania Closterocerus Ceranisus Afronympha Ametallon Chrysonotomyia Omphale-genus-group canopy understorey ecological-plasticity Bangladesh Panama Africa New-Zealand Europe Senegal South-Africa Democratic-Republic-of-the-Congo Uganda endoparasitoid larval-parasitoid egg-parasitoid host-specificity forest-habitat degraded-habitat mid-altitude-rainforest lowland-rainforest tropical-America classical-biological-control augmentative-biological-control integrated-pest-management rice-hispa Dicladispa-armigera gall-wasp sawfly-gall leafminer ant-symbiosis Formicidae Khaya-senegalensis Ochna-pulchra morphological-taxonomy molecular-taxonomy 28S-rDNA COI CytB new-species-description generic-revision host-range parasitoid-complex food-web ecosystem-service natural-enemy pest-management entomophagous hyperparasitoid inquiline curculionid Apion-minimum Phyllocolpa-leucosticta Chrysocharis Entedon Asecodes Pleurotroppopsis Afrotroppopsis Zaommomentedon Apleurotropis Kratoysma Platocharis Schizocharis Parahorismenus Atullya Tropicharis Chrysochuris cruy mirabilis oryzamyntor eminpashai carinatum dussiae longicaudata machaeriae unimaculata claviger gorgonaense auripunctata galbina laeviscuta phenacapsia cecvora elongata pontaniae heyeri risbeci milletiae newbyi Förster-1856 Chalcidoidea-phylogeny biodiversity species-richness cryptic-species molecular-diagnostics host-plant-association habitat-specificity canopy-fauna understorey-fauna forest-stratification tropical-biodiversity Afrotropical Neotropical Palaearctic Nearctic Oriental Australasian Pacific Holarctic biogeography taxonomic-revision annotated-key catalogue type-specimen museum-collection slide-mounted-specimens morphometrics genitalia wing-venation antennae 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Exapion ulicis
Gorse Seed Weevil
Exapion ulicis is a small seed-feeding weevil specialized on gorse (Ulex europaeus). Adults are light gray with a prominent snout roughly half the body length. The species is native to western Europe and has been introduced to New Zealand, California, Hawaii, and other regions as a biological control agent targeting invasive gorse populations. Larval feeding destroys seeds within pods, reducing plant spread, while adult feeding on stems and spines causes minor damage.
biological-control invasive-species-management seed-predator host-specialization temporal-isolation Brentidae Coleoptera Ulex-europaeus gorse western-Europe California New-Zealand Hawaii spring-activity oviposition-cues pod-fecundity parasitoid seed-destruction noctuid pest-control-agent established-introduction native-range-Europe introduced-range-Pacific Chile Belgium Oregon northern-California forest-gaps pastures natural-areas seed-loss intensity-of-attack reproductive-isolation ecological-specialization sympatric-divergence host-phenology pod-size seed-content female-choice feeding-damage round-holes stem-feeding spine-feeding larval-development pupal-period 6-8-weeks-larval-feeding 2-months-pupation within-pod-development seed-to-ovule-ratio mature-seeds intact-seeds parasitization-rate population-abundance fecund-pod-targeting whole-plant-traits flower-traits pod-traits choice-experiments common-garden Brittany Scotland Reunion host-availability seasonal-activity morphological-identification mitochondrial-sequences nuclear-sequences phylogeny host-races divergent-selection ecological-speciation sympatric-populations spring-infestation autumn-infestation introduced-with-gorse not-initially-introduced invasive-plant plant-insect-interactions oviposition-behavior feeding-behavior preference-patterns multiple-trait-use surface-cues internal-cues pod-characteristics host-choice plant-susceptibility invasion-biology entomological-experimentalis pan-pacific-entomologist diversity-journal ecological-entomology Coombs-2004 HEAR-photo-gallery iNaturalist GBIF NCBI Forster-1771 Curculionoidea Apionidae Fabaceae Genisteae noxious-weed agent-of-biological-pest-control light-gray long-snout straight-snout 2-3-mm small-weevil seed-weevil gorse-seed-weevil established-populations percentage-of-pods-infested spatial-variation temporal-variation seed-set seed-production seed-predation-impact ecosystem-service weed-biological-control classical-biological-control inundative-biological-control self-sustaining-populations non-target-effects host-specificity reproductive-phenology phenological-matching phenological-isolation allochronic-speciation temporal-niche resource-partitioning competitive-exclusion character-displacement molecular-phylogenetics COI ITS morphological-characters individual-variation environmental-variation mitochondrial-DNA nuclear-DNA species-differentiation genetic-divergence ecological-divergence adaptive-radiation host-shift host-race-formation sympatric-speciation reinforcement prezygotic-isolation postzygotic-isolation habitat-fragmentation population-structure gene-flow local-adaptation phenotypic-plasticity genetic-drift natural-selection sexual-selection founder-effect bottleneck invasion-genetics enemy-release evolutionary-potential rapid-evolution contemporary-evolution eco-evolutionary-dynamics community-ecology trophic-interactions food-web ecosystem-function ecosystem-process nutrient-cycling energy-flow population-dynamics metapopulation source-sink dispersal colonization establishment spread impact-assessment non-target-risk efficacy establishment-success population-establishment field-release monitoring evaluation adaptive-management integrated-pest-management sustainable-agriculture conservation-biological-control augmentative-biological-control inoculative-biological-control natural-enemy herbivore phytophagous monophagous oligophagous polyphagous specialist generalist co-evolution coevolutionary-arms-race plant-defense herbivore-offense induced-defense constitutive-defense direct-defense indirect-defense volatile-organic-compounds extrafloral-nectaries trophic-cascades apparent-competition enemy-mediated-apparent-competition intraguild-predation multitrophic-interactions trait-mediated-indirect-effects density-mediated-indirect-effects ecosystem-engineering niche-construction extended-phenotype environmental-feedback eco-evolutionary-feedback evolutionary-rescue genetic-rescue assisted-migration managed-relocation conservation-translocation reintroduction restoration-ecology habitat-restoration ecological-restoration weed-management rangeland-management forest-management protected-area-management biodiversity-conservation ecosystem-services provisioning-services regulating-services cultural-services supporting-services sustainable-development-goals Aichi-targets Kunming-Montreal-global-biodiversity-framework IPBES IUCN CBD FAO EPPO regulatory-framework risk-analysis environmental-impact-assessment cost-benefit-analysis decision-support stakeholder-engagement social-license public-acceptance communication education outreach citizen-science iNaturalist-observations occurrence-records specimen-records museum-collections voucher-specimens type-specimens holotype paratype syntype lectotype neotype original-description subsequent-designation taxonomic-revision phylogenetic-revision monograph field-guide identification-key diagnostic-characters illustration photography microscopy scanning-electron-microscopy molecular-techniques DNA-barcoding metabarcoding environmental-DNA population-genetics phylogeography landscape-genetics seascape-genetics isolation-by-distance isolation-by-environment isolation-by-resistance least-cost-path circuit-theory species-distribution-modeling ecological-niche-modeling maxent bioclim worldclim chelsa modis remote-sensing GIS spatial-analysis temporal-analysis time-series phenology climate-change global-warming phenological-shift range-shift poleward-shift elevational-shift altitudinal-shift habitat-tracking niche-tracking niche-conservatism niche-evolution realized-niche fundamental-niche biotic-interactions abiotic-factors environmental-filtering dispersal-limitation source-pool species-pool regional-pool local-pool alpha-diversity beta-diversity gamma-diversity species-richness species-evenness species-abundance dominance rarity commonness endemism cosmopolitanism native endemic introduced invasive naturalized casual transient ephemeral persistent established spreading invasive-potential invasiveness impact ecological-impact economic-impact social-impact environmental-impact negative-impact positive-impact beneficial detrimental nuisance pest weed pathogen disease-vector public-health veterinary-health crop-health forest-health rangeland-health ecosystem-health One-Health planetary-health ecohealth conservation-medicine disease-ecology parasitology entomology medical-entomology veterinary-entomology agricultural-entomology forest-entomology urban-entomology aquatic-entomology systematics taxonomy phylogenetics evolutionary-biology population-biology ecosystem-ecology landscape-ecology global-ecology macroecology biogeography historical-biogeography ecological-biogeography island-biogeography continental-biogeography latitudinal-gradient altitudinal-gradient species-area-relationship island-species-richness equilibrium-theory nonequilibrium-theory neutral-theory niche-theory assembly-rules priority-effects mass-effects species-sorting competition predation herbivory parasitism mutualism commensalism amensalism facilitation inhibition tolerance succession primary-succession secondary-succession disturbance recovery resilience resistance stability persistence turnover replacement extinction immigration emigration birth death reproduction survival growth development metamorphosis complete-metamorphosis holometabolous hemimetabolous ametabolous egg larva pupa adult instar ecdysis molting diapause quiescence aestivation hibernation overwintering overwintering-stage overwintering-site overwintering-strategy cold-hardiness freeze-tolerance freeze-avoidance supercooling cryoprotectants thermal-biology thermoregulation ectothermy poikilothermy behavioral-thermoregulation microhabitat-selection basking shading stilting perching roosting sheltering burrowing mining gall-formation leaf-rolling leaf-tying silk-production web-spinning nest-construction oviposition-site-selection host-plant-selection mate-choice sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice polyandry polygyny monogamy promiscuity lekking territoriality aggression defense predator-avoidance antipredator-behavior crypsis masquerade mimicry Batesian-mimicry Müllerian-mimicry automimicry aggressive-mimicry startle-display thanatosis death-feigning autotomy reflex-bleeding chemical-defense mechanical-defense physical-defense behavioral-defense mutualistic-defense plant-animal-interactions pollination seed-dispersal antagonism synergism antagonistic-pleiotropy trade-offs life-history life-history-strategy r-selection K-selection bet-hedging iteroparity semelparity annual perennial biennial pluriannual longevity lifespan generation-time development-time growth-rate reproductive-rate fecundity fertility virility mating-success reproductive-success fitness inclusive-fitness kin-selection group-selection multilevel-selection individual-selection artificial-selection social-selection ecological-selection stabilizing-selection directional-selection disruptive-selection balancing-selection frequency-dependent-selection negative-frequency-dependent-selection positive-frequency-dependent-selection apostatic-selection antiapostatic-selection rare-type-advantage common-type-disadvantage heterozygote-advantage heterosis hybrid-vigor inbreeding-depression outbreeding-depression genetic-load mutational-load segregational-load substitutional-load drift-load migration-load mutation recombination chromosomal-rearrangement genome-evolution transposable-elements horizontal-gene-transfer endosymbiosis symbiogenesis holobiont hologenome extended-evolutionary-synthesis niche-construction-theory ecological-evolutionary-developmental-biology eco-evo-devo developmental-plasticity reaction-norm genotype-environment-interaction GxE norm-of-reaction plasticity canalization genetic-assimilation genetic-accommodation cryptic-genetic-variation evolutionary-capacitance evolvability robustness modularity integration correlation constraint trade-off pleiotropy epistasis additive-genetic-variance dominance-variance epistatic-variance genetic-variance phenotypic-variance environmental-variance heritability narrow-sense-heritability broad-sense-heritability response-to-selection breeder's-equation quantitative-genetics molecular-genetics genomics transcriptomics proteomics metabolomics phenomics ecogenomics conservation-genomics functional-genomics structural-genomics comparative-genomics evolutionary-genomics phylogenomics metagenomics microbiome virome mycobiome bacteriome archaeome eukaryome extended-genotype keystone-species ecosystem-engineer foundation-species dominant-species subordinate-species transient-species satellite-species core-species peripheral-species edge-species interior-species habitat-generalist habitat-specialist edge-habitat interior-habitat matrix-habitat corridor stepping-stone source-habitat sink-habitat patch fragment landscape seascape riverscape skyscape soundscape smellscape tastes touch vision olfaction gustation mechanoreception thermoreception photoreception chemoreception electroreception magnetoreception proprioception nociception sensory-ecology sensory-biology neuroethology behavioral-ecology cognitive-ecology evolutionary-ecology ecological-immunology ecoimmunology epidemiology parasite-ecology host-parasite-interactions host-pathogen-interactions host-symbiont-interactions microbial-ecology virology bacteriology mycology protistology helminthology entomopathology microbial-control viral-control fungal-control bacterial-control nematode-control parasitoid-control predator-control herbivore-control competitor-control autocidal-control sterile-insect-technique incompatible-insect-technique gene-drive RNA-interference CRISPR genetic-biocontrol precision-guided-sterile-insect-technique self-limiting-genetic-control self-sustaining-genetic-control population-suppression population-replacement population-elimination area-wide-integrated-pest-management sterile-insect-release inundative-release inoculative-release neoclassical-biological-control augmentation-biological-control habitat-manipulation cultural-control physical-control mechanical-control chemical-control pesticide-resistance-management insecticide-resistance-management herbicide-resistance-management fungicide-resistance-management antibiotic-resistance-management resistance-evolution resistance-management refuge-strategy high-dose-strategy pyramid-strategy rotation-strategy mixture-strategy mosaic-strategy integrated-resistance-management integrated-weed-management integrated-crop-management integrated-forest-management integrated-vector-management integrated-disease-management One-Health-approach ecohealth-approach planetary-health-approach sustainable-intensification agroecology organic-agriculture conservation-agriculture climate-smart-agriculture precision-agriculture digital-agriculture smart-farming agricultural-robotics autonomous-systems drone-technology satellite-imagery GPS variable-rate-technology site-specific-management decision-support-systems expert-systems artificial-intelligence machine-learning deep-learning neural-networks computer-vision image-recognition pattern-recognition data-mining big-data cloud-computing internet-of-things sensor-networks wireless-sensor-networks precision-livestock-farming precision-aquaculture precision-forestry precision-horticulture precision-viticulture precision-apiculture precision-sericulture integrated-farming-systems mixed-farming-systems diversified-farming-systems agroforestry silvopasture silvoarable alley-cropping forest-farming homegardens multistrata-systems tropical-homegardens temperate-agroforestry permaculture regenerative-agriculture restorative-agriculture biodynamic-agriculture natural-farming do-nothing-farming Fukuoka-farming Masanobu-Fukuoka Rachel-Carson Silent-Spring integrated-pest-management-history biological-control-history classical-biological-control-history Rachel-Carson-legacy environmental-movement conservation-movement sustainability-science resilience-science adaptive-governance social-ecological-systems socio-ecological-systems coupled-human-natural-systems complex-adaptive-systems panarchy adaptive-cycle rigidity-trap poverty-trap transformation transition sustainability-transition energy-transition food-system-transformation agrifood-system-transformation land-use-change land-cover-change land-use-intensification agricultural-expansion deforestation reforestation afforestation forest-degradation forest-restoration ecosystem-restoration wetland-restoration riparian-restoration coastal-restoration coral-reef-restoration seagrass-restoration mangrove-restoration salt-marsh-restoration dune-restoration prairie-restoration savanna-restoration woodland-restoration old-growth-restoration degraded-land-restoration abandoned-land-restoration contaminated-land-restoration mined-land-restoration post-industrial-restoration urban-restoration rural-restoration agricultural-restoration pastoral-restoration silvicultural-restoration ecological-engineering environmental-engineering bioremediation phytoremediation mycoremediation zooremediation microbial-remediation nanoremediation electrokinetic-remediation soil-washing soil-vapor-extraction air-sparging pump-and-treat permeable-reactive-barriers monitored-natural-attenuation enhanced-natural-attenuation source-zone-treatment plume-treatment risk-based-corrective-action risk-assessment hazard-assessment exposure-assessment toxicity-assessment risk-characterization risk-management risk-communication risk-perception risk-governance precautionary-principle polluter-pays-principle extended-producer-responsibility circular-economy green-economy blue-economy bioeconomy natural-capital ecosystem-services-valuation payment-for-ecosystem-services ecosystem-based-adaptation ecosystem-based-mitigation 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conservation-on-communal-land conservation-on-indigenous-land rights-based-conservation gender-responsive-conservation youth-engagement-in-conservation intergenerational-equity intragenerational-equity environmental-justice climate-justice conservation-justice ecological-justice species-justice intersectionality decolonization-of-conservation post-normal-science transdisciplinarity participatory-research action-research community-based-participatory-research community-science participatory-monitoring adaptive-co-management social-learning knowledge-co-production boundary-work boundary-objects boundary-organizations science-policy-interface science-society-interface knowledge-brokering knowledge-translation knowledge-mobilization research-impact research-uptake evidence-based-policy evidence-based-practice evidence-informed-decision-making decision-support-tools systematic-review meta-analysis evidence-synthesis knowledge-synthesis rapid-evidence-assessment living-evidence living-systematic-review scoping-review rapid-review realist-synthesis narrative-synthesis qualitative-synthesis quantitative-synthesis mixed-methods-synthesis participatory-synthesis deliberative-methods consensus-methods expert-elicitation structured-expert-judgment Delphi-method nominal-group-technique convergent-interview focus-group stakeholder-workshop participatory-mapping participatory-modeling scenario-planning future-studies foresight anticipatory-governance transformative-governance polycentric-governance multi-level-governance network-governance collaborative-governance cooperative-governance democratic-governance deliberative-democracy participatory-democracy direct-democracy representative-democracy liberal-democracy social-democracy green-democracy ecological-democracy biocracy ecocracy technocracy meritocracy plutocracy oligarchy autocracy totalitarianism authoritarianism populism nationalism globalism localism regionalism federalism confederalism unitarism centralism decentralization devolution subsidiarity fiscal-federalism environmental-federalism competitive-federalism cooperative-federalism dual-federalism marble-cake-federalism layer-cake-federalism picket-fence-federalism permissive-federalism coercive-federalism market-preserving-federalism democratic-experimentalism laboratories-of-democracy policy-diffusion policy-transfer policy-learning policy-innovation policy-entrepreneurship policy-windows punctuated-equilibrium advocacy-coalition-framework multiple-streams-framework institutional-analysis-and-development-framework social-ecological-systems-framework sustainability-science-framework planetary-boundaries-framework doughnut-economics-framework circular-economy-framework green-new-deal-framework just-transition-framework leaving-no-one-behind 2030-agenda Paris-agreement Rio-conventions UNFCCC UNCCD CITES CMS Ramsar World-Heritage IPCC WHO UNEP UNDP UNESCO World-Bank IMF WTO OECD G7 G20 BRICS African-Union European-Union ASEAN Mercosur NAFTA USMCA TPP CPTPP RCEP bilateral-investment-treaties free-trade-agreements regional-trade-agreements multilateral-environmental-agreements bilateral-environmental-agreements strategic-environmental-assessment cumulative-impact-assessment social-impact-assessment health-impact-assessment gender-impact-assessment human-rights-impact-assessment indigenous-rights-impact-assessment cultural-heritage-impact-assessment landscape-and-visual-impact-assessment noise-impact-assessment air-quality-impact-assessment water-quality-impact-assessment soil-quality-impact-assessment biodiversity-impact-assessment ecosystem-services-impact-assessment climate-impact-assessment carbon-footprint-assessment water-footprint-assessment land-footprint-assessment material-footprint-assessment ecological-footprint-assessment planetary-footprint-assessment life-cycle-assessment life-cycle-costing social-life-cycle-assessment life-cycle-sustainability-assessment material-flow-analysis substance-flow-analysis 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analytic-network-process preference-ranking-organization-method-for-enrichment-evaluation technique-for-order-of-preference-by-similarity-to-ideal-solution elimination-and-choice-expressing-reality decision-making-trial-and-evaluation-laboratory VIseKriterijumska-Optimizacija-I-Kompromisno-Resenje preference-selection-index complex-proportional-assessment multi-objective-optimization-on-the-basis-of-ratio-analysis weighted-aggregated-sum-product-assessment evaluation-based-on-distance-from-average-solution measurement-of-alternatives-and-ranking-according-to-compromise-solution comparative-performance-index preference-ranking score-function accuracy-function entropy-weight objective-weight subjective-weight combined-weight sensitivity-analysis uncertainty-analysis fuzzy-logic fuzzy-set-theory intuitionistic-fuzzy-set neutrosophic-set rough-set soft-set hesitant-fuzzy-set Pythagorean-fuzzy-set q-rung-orthopair-fuzzy-set spherical-fuzzy-set picture-fuzzy-set complex-fuzzy-set type-2-fuzzy-set interval-type-2-fuzzy-set interval-valued-fuzzy-set interval-valued-intuitionistic-fuzzy-set interval-valued-Pythagorean-fuzzy-set interval-valued-neutrosophic-set bipolar-fuzzy-set m-polar-fuzzy-set multi-polar-fuzzy-set linguistic-term-set hesitant-fuzzy-linguistic-term-set probabilistic-linguistic-term-set 2-tuple-linguistic-model symbolic-linguistic-model virtual-linguistic-model numerical-scale-model linguistic-hierarchy-model transitive-calibration-model consistency-driven-methodology consistency-index consistency-ratio acceptable-consistency inconsistency-identification inconsistency-repair priority-derivation weight-derivation aggregation-operator ordered-weighted-averaging-operator weighted-averaging-operator geometric-operator power-operator Bonferroni-mean Choquet-integral Shapley-value game-theory Nash-equilibrium Pareto-optimality Pareto-efficiency Pareto-improvement social-welfare-function utility-function preference-relation binary-relation ternary-relation n-ary-relation complete-relation incomplete-relation transitive-relation intransitive-relation reflexive-relation irreflexive-relation symmetric-relation asymmetric-relation antisymmetric-relation equivalence-relation partial-order total-order strict-order weak-order semiorder interval-order Pareto-order lexicographic-order dominance-relation outranking-relation concordance discordance credibility discrimination-threshold indifference-threshold preference-threshold veto-threshold majority-rule Condorcet-winner Condorcet-loser Borda-count approval-voting range-voting score-voting instant-runoff-voting single-transferable-vote proportional-representation mixed-member-proportional additional-member-system parallel-voting majority-bonus-system scorporo double-vote alternative-vote supplementary-vote contingent-vote Bucklin-voting Coombs'-method Dodgson's-method Kemeny-Young-method Ranked-pairs Schulze-method Minimax-Condorcet Smith-set Schwartz-set uncovered-set Banks-set top-cycle minimal-covering-set bipartisan-set essential-set tournament-equilibrium-set minimal-extending-set Pareto-set deep-uncovered-set minimal-upward-covering-set minimal-downward-covering-set minimal-covering-set-with-respect-to-pairs minimal-covering-set-with-respect-to-triplets minimal-stable-set minimal-retentive-set minimal-comprehensive-retentive-set minimal-extensive-retentive-set minimal-weakly-stable-set minimal-strongly-stable-set minimal-collectively-stable-set minimal-individually-stable-set minimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-set minimal-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-strongly-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-collectively-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-Nash-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-extensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-strongly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-collectively-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-Nash-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-rational-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-strongly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-collectively-extensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-extensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-Nash-extensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-rational-extensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-strongly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-collectively-retentive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-retentive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-Nash-retentive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-rational-retentive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-strongly-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-collectively-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-rational-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-strongly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-collectively-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-Nash-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-strongly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-collectively-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-Nash-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-rational-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set
Leptoglossus
leaf-footed bugs
Leptoglossus is a genus of true bugs in the leaf-footed bug family Coreidae, tribe Anisoscelini. Species are characterized by leaflike dilations of the hind tibia, a diagnostic trait of the genus. The genus is distributed throughout the Americas, with some introduced populations in Europe and Asia. Several species are economically significant agricultural pests, notably L. occidentalis, which has become invasive in multiple continents.
Coreidae leaf-footed-bug agricultural-pest invasive-species symbiosis sexual-dimorphism conifer-pest nuisance-pest Burkholderia tachinid-parasitoid pheromone-communication building-invader misidentification Triatoma-look-alike gradual-metamorphosis seed-predator forest-pest ornamental-pest plumbing-damage public-health-confusion Chile Europe North-America South-America Asia Turkey almond-pest citrus-pest tomato-pest corn-pest overwintering-aggregation defensive-secretion pheromone-mediated-parasitism egg-parasitoid biological-control ecological-niche-modeling climate-suitability range-expansion introduction accidental-dispersal seed-orchard-pest germination-reduction empty-seed-formation cone-damage lodgepole-pine Douglas-fir western-conifer-seed-bug L.-occidentalis L.-zonatus L.-phyllopus L.-clypealis L.-australis L.-chilensis L.-oppositus male-combat femoral-weapon abdominal-gland pheromone-gland tibial-dilation leaf-like-hind-leg true-bug Hemiptera Heteroptera Pentatomomorpha Anisoscelini phytophagous plant-feeding stylet-feeding salivary-sheath overwintering diapause building-entry structural-pest nuisance-odor flight-sound droning-flight aggregation-behavior male-pheromone female-choice parasitoid-host biological-control-agent integrated-pest-management monitoring early-detection prevention invasion-biology alien-species non-native-pest global-spread climate-change niche-modeling suitable-habitat establishment-risk quarantine phytosanitary forest-health seed-production reforestation afforestation conifer-forestry pine-seed seed-viability economic-impact crop-loss yield-reduction kernel-damage fruit-damage nut-damage vector-of-disease Chagas-disease kissing-bug public-alarm misinformation education identification-tools health-system-burden pesticide-overuse urban-ecology domiciliary peridomiciliary Andean-region Patagonia Mediterranean temperate subtropical tropical agroecosystem natural-enemy predator parasite pathogen symbiont gut-microbiome soil-ingestion fitness-benefit reproductive-success sperm-morphology testicular-morphology accessory-gland pheromone-blend species-specific-odor cherry-scent vanilla-scent cinnamon-scent rose-scent olfactory-communication mate-location mate-recognition sexual-selection male-male-competition weapon-morphology allometry developmental-plasticity nymphal-instar egg-barrel egg-arrangement linear-oviposition leaf-surface plant-tissue stylet-penetration enzymatic-digestion fluid-feeding phloem-feeding xylem-feeding seed-feeding cone-feeding fruit-feeding kernel-feeding nut-feeding crop-feeding host-plant-range polyphagy oligophagy specialist generalist pest-status damage-threshold economic-injury-level management-strategy cultural-control physical-control chemical-control resistance tolerance host-plant-resistance monitoring-trap light-trap population-density distribution-map spread-rate colonization establishment population-dynamics life-table developmental-rate thermal-requirements degree-days phenology voltinism univoltine bivoltine multivoltine generation-time overwintering-site hibernaculum shelter-seeking cold-hardiness freeze-tolerance supercooling water-relations desiccation-resistance starvation-resistance dispersal-ability flight-capacity walking-behavior climbing-behavior aggregation-pheromone alarm-pheromone stink-gland metathoracic-gland dorsoabdominal-gland ventral-abdominal-gland sexual-gland morphological-defense chemical-defense mechanical-defense autotomy leg-loss predation-risk parasitism-risk parasitoid-risk pathogen-risk competition intraspecific interspecific resource-competition mating-competition sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice reproductive-isolation speciation phylogeny systematics taxonomy morphology anatomy histology ultrastructure spermatogenesis spermatozoa sperm-length nuclear-length cyst-production follicle-number testis-structure reproductive-anatomy genitalia mating-behavior copulation insemination oviposition egg-production fecundity fertility hatching-success nymphal-survival adult-longevity sex-ratio operational-sex-ratio population-sex-ratio effective-population-size genetic-diversity gene-flow population-structure phylogeography biogeography historical-biogeography vicariance dispersal range-shift range-contraction altitudinal-distribution latitudinal-distribution longitudinal-distribution island-distribution continental-distribution endemism cosmopolitanism introduced-range native-range source-population founder-population invasion-front lag-phase establishment-phase spread-phase equilibrium-phase impact-assessment risk-assessment horizon-scanning early-warning rapid-response eradication containment control management adaptation mitigation restoration conservation biodiversity ecosystem-service ecosystem-function food-web trophic-level primary-consumer herbivore fruit-predator plant-animal-interaction mutualism antagonism predation parasitism commensalism amensalism facilitation indirect-interaction trait-mediated-interaction density-mediated-interaction behavioral-ecology evolutionary-ecology functional-ecology physiological-ecology population-ecology community-ecology ecosystem-ecology landscape-ecology macroecology global-ecology applied-ecology agricultural-ecology forest-ecology conservation-biology invasion-ecology restoration-ecology pest-management conservation-biological-control augmentative-biological-control classical-biological-control parasitoid nematode fungus bacterium virus entomopathogen microbial-control sterile-insect-technique genetic-control mating-disruption attract-and-kill push-pull trap-crop border-crop refuge habitat-management cultural-practice crop-rotation tillage irrigation fertilization pruning harvest-timing sanitation residue-management weed-management cover-crop companion-planting intercropping agroforestry silviculture forest-management seed-orchard-management cone-collection seed-extraction seed-testing germination-testing seed-quality seed-vigor empty-seed insect-damage insect-injury feeding-scar puncture stylet-sheath salivary-flange symptom sign diagnosis sampling economic-threshold decision-support expert-system modeling simulation forecasting climate-model niche-model species-distribution-model habitat-suitability risk-mapping invasion-pathway introduction-vector trade transport tourism migration natural-dispersal human-mediated-dispersal accidental-introduction intentional-introduction release escape cultivation ornamental forestry agriculture horticulture urbanization globalization land-use-change habitat-fragmentation habitat-loss degradation pollution pesticide fertilizer nutrient-enrichment eutrophication acidification warming drought extreme-event disturbance succession recovery resilience stability variability uncertainty sustainable-development green-economy circular-economy bioeconomy ecosystem-approach one-health planetary-health environmental-health public-health veterinary-health plant-health food-security nutrition livelihood poverty inequality gender indigenous-knowledge traditional-knowledge local-knowledge citizen-science stakeholder-engagement policy governance regulation legislation international-cooperation capacity-building awareness communication outreach extension advisory-service research innovation technology-transfer knowledge-exchange networking partnership collaboration evaluation evidence-based-policy science-policy-interface diplomacy advocacy activism social-movement environmental-justice environmental-ethics environmental-philosophy environmental-humanities environmental-history environmental-literature environmental-art environmental-education environmental-communication science-communication risk-communication crisis-communication health-communication behavior-change pro-environmental-behavior sustainable-behavior consumption production waste recycling reuse reduction efficiency renewable clean green blue natural organic agroecology permaculture regenerative restorative healing transformative transdisciplinary interdisciplinary multidisciplinary cross-disciplinary disciplinary disciplinary-integration knowledge-integration system-thinking complexity emergence non-linearity feedback tipping-point regime-shift alternative-stable-state resilience-thinking adaptive-management adaptive-governance learning reflection participation inclusion equity justice fairness ethics values norms culture identity place sense-of-place attachment well-being quality-of-life happiness flourishing thriving sustainability sustainable development growth degrowth post-growth steady-state circular doughnut-economics planetary-boundaries safe-operating-space tipping-elements critical-transition early-warning-signal resilience-indicator sustainability-indicator benchmark target goal commitment pledge agreement treaty convention protocol framework strategy plan program project initiative campaign movement coalition alliance network platform hub center institute organization association society union federation confederation foundation trust fund bank facility mechanism instrument tool method approach technique procedure process system structure institution administration operation service delivery provision supply demand market economy finance investment funding financing resource capital asset liability income expenditure revenue cost benefit profit loss return yield outcome output input throughput productivity effectiveness performance quality standard criterion indicator metric measure assessment appraisal review audit verification validation certification accreditation recognition award prize honor distinction excellence best-practice lesson-learned experience expertise competence capacity capability skill knowledge information data evidence science discovery invention creation design testing piloting scaling mainstreaming uptake adoption diffusion dissemination publication reporting documentation archiving preservation rehabilitation reconstruction replication duplication backup security safety protection safeguarding insurance risk-management emergency-preparedness response relief humanitarian peace prosperity health employment housing infrastructure energy water food fishery aquaculture mining manufacturing industry commerce recreation heritage nature ecosystem environment climate atmosphere ocean freshwater land soil mineral biota flora fauna microorganism fungi plant animal vertebrate invertebrate arthropod insect bug Hemipteran Heteropteran pentatomomorphan coreoid coreid squash-bug boxelder-bug stink-bug shield-bug plant-bug mirid lygaeid seed-bug broad-headed-bug alydid reduviid assassin-bug triatomine bed-bug cimicid water-bug nepomorphan gerromorphan leptopodomorphan enicocephalomorphan dipsocoromorphan ceratocomboid schizopteroid peloridioid coleorrhynchan moss-bug archaeorrhynchan fulgoromorphan cicadomorphan membracoid treehopper leafhopper planthopper psyllid jumping-plant-louse whitefly aleyrodid scale-insect coccoid mealybug aphid adelgid phylloxeran sternorrhynchan thysanopteran thrips psocopteran barklouse booklouse phthirapteran louse sucking-louse chewing-louse mallophagan anopluran dermapteran earwig blattodean cockroach termite isopteran mantodean mantid phasmid stick-insect leaf-insect orthopteran grasshopper locust katydid cricket mole-cricket pygmy-mole-cricket camel-cricket cave-cricket weta ensiferan caeliferan gryllotalpid myrmecophilid tettigoniid gryllid acridid pamphagid pneumorid lentulid tristirid eumastacid proscopiid tridactylid tetrigid grouse-locust pygmy-grasshopper plecopteran stonefly embiopteran webspinner zorapteran angel-insect dictyopteran
Scathophaga
Dung Flies, Yellow Dung Flies
Scathophaga is a genus of small to medium-sized predatory flies in the family Scathophagidae, commonly known as dung flies. The genus includes approximately 99 described species, with Scathophaga stercoraria (the yellow dung fly) being the most extensively studied as a model organism in behavioral ecology and evolutionary biology. Adults are typically found in association with animal dung, where they engage in complex mating systems involving intense male-male competition and female mate choice. Larvae develop within dung or decaying organic matter, where they feed predaciously on other insect larvae.
Diptera Scathophagidae dung-flies predatory-flies sexual-selection sperm-competition model-organism cryptic-female-choice behavioral-ecology coprophilous-insects
Stictocephala stimulea
Stictocephala stimulea is a treehopper species in the family Membracidae, first described by Van Duzee in 1914. Treehoppers in this genus are characterized by their enlarged, often ornate pronotum that extends over the body like a helmet or thorn. The specific epithet 'stimulea' suggests possible resemblance to or association with stinging organisms, though this refers to appearance rather than actual sting. Like other membracids, this species likely feeds on plant phloem sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts.
Membracidae treehopper Auchenorrhyncha Cicadomorpha Stictocephala Ceresini Smiliinae Hemiptera sap-feeder pronotum helmet thorn-mimicry plant-feeding-insect phloem-feeder cryptic-coloration camouflage Van-Duzee-1914 Nearctic North-America Florida North-Carolina South-Dakota understudied-species data-deficient taxonomy entomology insect arthropod true-bug auchenorrhynchan cicadomorph leafhopper-relative plant-hopper ornate-pronotum pronotal-extension dorsal-helmet insect-morphology insect-systematics biodiversity natural-history conservation insect-ecology insect-behavior insect-development insect-distribution biogeography species-description type-specimen original-description historical-taxonomy museum-specimen collection-record occurrence-data GBIF iNaturalist citizen-science observation-record range-map distribution-data geographic-range endemic native-species regional-fauna local-biodiversity habitat-specificity host-plant feeding-guild phytophagous herbivore plant-insect-interaction coevolution mimicry defense crypsis evolutionary-adaptation morphological-adaptation exoskeleton-modification structural-coloration insect-identification field-guide diagnostic-character taxonomic-key species-complex cryptic-species morphological-variation geographic-variation phenotypic-plasticity life-history reproduction oviposition nymph instar metamorphosis hemimetabolous incomplete-metamorphosis population-dynamics community-ecology food-web trophic-level primary-consumer ecosystem-function nutrient-cycling energy-flow biological-control pest-status agricultural-relevance forestry urban-ecology invasive-potential climate-change habitat-loss conservation-status data-gap research-need taxonomic-revision phylogenetics molecular-systematics DNA-barcoding integrative-taxonomy natural-history-collection specimen-digitization open-data FAIR-data biodiversity-informatics biological-database taxonomic-authority nomenclature zoological-nomenclature International-Code-of-Zoological-Nomenclature type-locality type-specimen-deposition author-citation original-combination current-combination synonymy homonymy nomenclatural-act taxonomic-history classification-system phylogenetic-classification evolutionary-relationships monophyly clade lineage stem-group crown-group divergence-time molecular-clock fossil-record paleontology extant extinct living-fossil evolutionary-history biogeographic-history dispersal vicariance range-expansion range-contraction refugium glacial-relict postglacial-colonization anthropogenic-impact human-disturbance land-use-change urbanization agricultural-intensification pesticide-use habitat-fragmentation connectivity corridor protected-area conservation-planning systematic-conservation-planning priority-area hotspot endemic-area center-of-origin center-of-diversity evolutionary-significant-unit management-unit population metapopulation source-sink-dynamics demography vital-rates survival fecundity generation-time population-growth-rate carrying-capacity density-dependence regulation limiting-factor environmental-stochasticity demographic-stochasticity genetic-stochasticity inbreeding-depression outbreeding-depression genetic-diversity heterozygosity allelic-richness effective-population-size genetic-drift gene-flow migration isolation-by-distance isolation-by-resistance landscape-genetics population-genomics phylogeography historical-demography coalescent-theory approximate-Bayesian-computation species-distribution-model ecological-niche-model habitat-suitability bioclimatic-envelope climate-envelope niche-conservatism niche-evolution realized-niche fundamental-niche biotic-interaction competition predation parasitism mutualism commensalism amensalism facilitation apparent-competition indirect-interaction trophic-cascade top-down-control bottom-up-control mesopredator-release keystone-species ecosystem-engineer foundation-species dominant-species characteristic-species indicator-species umbrella-species flagship-species surrogate-species focal-species target-species pest-species invasive-species naturalized-species alien-species non-native-species introduced-species cryptogenic-species range-shift poleward-shift elevational-shift phenological-shift temporal-mismatch trophic-mismatch phenology seasonality voltinism univoltine bivoltine multivoltine partial-generation prolonged-diapause aestivation hibernation overwintering overwintering-strategy cold-hardiness freeze-tolerance freeze-avoidance supercooling cryoprotectant thermal-biology thermoregulation behavioral-thermoregulation microclimate-selection habitat-selection oviposition-site-selection host-selection mate-choice sexual-selection sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice reproductive-isolation prezygotic-isolation postzygotic-isolation speciation allopatric-speciation sympatric-speciation parapatric-speciation peripatric-speciation reinforcement hybridization introgression hybrid-zone cline ecotone contact-zone secondary-contact exogenous-selection endogenous-selection ecological-speciation mutation-order-speciation sexual-conflict sexual-dimorphism sexual-size-dimorphism sexual-dichromatism polymorphism color-polymorphism morph phase gregarious-phase solitary-phase density-dependent-polyphenism reaction-norm genotype-environment-interaction plasticity canalization genetic-assimilation acclimation acclimatization hardening stress-response heat-shock-protein oxidative-stress hypoxia desiccation starvation immune-response innate-immunity humoral-immunity cellular-immunity encapsulation nodulation phagocytosis melanization antimicrobial-peptide phenoloxidase prophenoloxidase lysozyme defensin cecropin diptericin attacin immune-gene immune-pathway Toll-pathway Imd-pathway JAK-STAT-pathway NF-κB relish dorsal immune-memory specific-immunity transgenerational-immune-priming gut-microbiome symbiosis obligate-symbiont facultative-symbiont primary-symbiont secondary-symbiont vertical-transmission horizontal-transmission mixed-mode-transmission nutritional-symbiosis defensive-symbiosis digestive-symbiosis detoxification metabolism biosynthesis vitamin-synthesis amino-acid-synthesis steroid-synthesis cuticle-synthesis chitin-synthesis molting ecdysis ecdysteroid juvenile-hormone insulin-signaling TOR-signaling nutrient-sensing energy-storage lipid-metabolism carbohydrate-metabolism protein-metabolism flight-metabolism respiration tracheal-system spiracle gas-exchange water-balance osmoregulation excretion Malpighian-tubule hindgut rectum cryptonephridial-system ion-transport water-reabsorption nitrogenous-waste uric-acid urea ammonia detoxification-enzyme cytochrome-P450 glutathione-S-transferase carboxylesterase mixed-function-oxidase resistance insecticide-resistance acaricide-resistance herbicide-resistance antibiotic-resistance resistance-management resistance-evolution resistance-mechanism target-site-resistance metabolic-resistance behavioral-resistance cuticular-resistance resistance-allele resistance-gene fitness-cost fitness-benefit pleiotropy trade-off life-history-trade-off allocation resource-allocation energy-allocation time-allocation foraging optimal-foraging central-place-foraging patch-use marginal-value-theorem predator-avoidance antipredator-defense masquerade Batesian-mimicry Müllerian-mimicry automimicry intraspecific-mimicry intersexual-mimicry aggressive-mimicry social-parasitism brood-parasitism kleptoparasitism defense-behavior thanatosis death-feigning startle-display deimatic-display eyespot deflection-mark autotomy reflex-bleeding regurgitation defensive-secretion venom toxin allomone kairomone synomone semiochemical pheromone sex-pheromone aggregation-pheromone alarm-pheromone trail-pheromone territorial-pheromone recognition-pheromone signature-mixture cuticular-hydrocarbon volatile-organic-compound olfaction gustation mechanoreception thermoreception hygroreception photoreception vision compound-eye ommatidium rhabdom visual-pigment opsin color-vision polarization-vision motion-detection optomotor-response phototaxis photoperiodism circadian-rhythm biological-clock entrainment zeitgeber circannual-rhythm photoperiod day-length critical-day-length critical-photoperiod diapause-induction diapause-termination diapause-maintenance diapause-development endocrine-control neuroendocrine corpus-allatum corpus-cardiacum prothoracic-gland ecdysiotropin ecdysiostatin allatostatin allatotropin neuropeptide hormone hormone-receptor signal-transduction gene-expression transcription-factor regulatory-gene structural-gene gene-network gene-regulatory-network developmental-gene Hox-gene homeobox segment-polarity-gene gap-gene pair-rule-gene maternal-effect-gene zygotic-gene embryonic-development embryogenesis cleavage blastoderm gastrulation segmentation tagmosis appendage-development imaginal-disc holometabolous complete-metamorphosis larva pupa adult apolysis teneral sclerotization tanning cuticle exoskeleton epicuticle procuticle exocuticle endocuticle resilin sclerotin chitin protein lipid wax cement-layer wax-layer surface-lipid waterproofing anti-wetting anti-fouling self-cleaning structural-color pigmentary-color ommin pteridine carotenoid melanin papiliochrome flavonoid anthocyanin betalain iridescence photonic-crystal diffraction-grating thin-film-interference multilayer-reflector scattering Tyndall-scattering Rayleigh-scattering Mie-scattering non-iridescent-structural-color biochrome biofluorescence bioluminescence luciferin luciferase photoprotein bioluminescent-system counter-illumination burglar-alarm lure communication mate-recognition predator-deterrence aposematism warning-coloration honest-signal dishonest-signal signal-evolution signal-design receiver-psychology sensory-bias sensory-exploitation sensory-trap amplifier attenuator signal-efficacy signal-honesty handicap-principle index-signal conventional-signal assessment-signal territorial-signal dominance-signal submissive-signal aggressive-signal courtship-signal copulatory-signal postcopulatory-signal antagonistic-coevolution chase-away-selection sensory-drive reproductive-character-displacement genetic-exchange admixture hybrid-fitness hybrid-breakdown hybrid-vigor heterosis genetic-load mutational-meltdown founder-effect bottleneck population-expansion invasion-genetics propagule-pressure introduction-effort establishment spread lag-phase exponential-growth logistic-growth Allee-effect demographic-Allee-effect component-Allee-effect strong-Allee-effect weak-Allee-effect critical-population-size minimum-viable-population extinction-risk population-viability-analysis stochastic-model deterministic-model individual-based-model agent-based-model spatially-explicit-model metapopulation-model source-sink-model integrated-population-model state-space-model hierarchical-model Bayesian-model machine-learning artificial-intelligence computer-vision image-recognition automated-identification deep-learning neural-network convolutional-neural-network transfer-learning data-augmentation training-set validation-set test-set accuracy precision recall F1-score confusion-matrix receiver-operating-characteristic area-under-curve model-selection model-validation cross-validation bootstrapping permutation-test null-model randomization-test Monte-Carlo-simulation Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo Gibbs-sampling Metropolis-Hastings-algorithm Bayesian-inference prior-distribution posterior-distribution likelihood-function evidence model-comparison Bayes-factor information-criterion Akaike-information-criterion corrected-AIC Bayesian-information-criterion deviance-information-criterion Watanabe-Akaike-information-criterion cross-validation-information-criterion stacking model-averaging ensemble-model prediction forecasting scenario-analysis sensitivity-analysis uncertainty-analysis propagation-of-uncertainty error-budget confidence-interval credible-interval prediction-interval tolerance-interval statistical-power sample-size effect-size significance-test hypothesis-testing null-hypothesis alternative-hypothesis type-I-error type-II-error false-positive false-negative multiple-comparison Bonferroni-correction false-discovery-rate q-value p-value significance-level alpha-level beta-level statistical-test parametric-test nonparametric-test robust-test exact-test asymptotic-test bootstrap-test jackknife resampling subsampling leave-one-out k-fold stratified-sampling balanced-sampling imbalanced-data class-imbalance oversampling undersampling synthetic-minority-oversampling SMOTE ADASYN cost-sensitive-learning ensemble-method bagging boosting random-forest gradient-boosting XGBoost LightGBM CatBoost support-vector-machine kernel-method radial-basis-function polynomial-kernel linear-kernel sigmoid-kernel decision-tree classification-tree regression-tree pruning cost-complexity-pruning minimum-description-length rule-based-classifier association-rule frequent-pattern apriori-algorithm FP-growth sequential-pattern temporal-pattern spatial-pattern spatiotemporal-pattern time-series-analysis trend-analysis seasonal-decomposition autoregressive-model moving-average-model ARIMA SARIMA exponential-smoothing state-space-model Kalman-filter particle-filter hidden-Markov-model dynamic-Bayesian-network recurrent-neural-network long-short-term-memory gated-recurrent-unit transformer attention-mechanism self-attention multi-head-attention encoder decoder encoder-decoder-architecture sequence-to-sequence-model generative-model generative-adversarial-network variational-autoencoder normalizing-flow diffusion-model energy-based-model Boltzmann-machine restricted-Boltzmann-machine deep-belief-network autoencoder denoising-autoencoder sparse-autoencoder contractive-autoencoder variational-inference expectation-maximization maximum-likelihood maximum-a-posteriori maximum-entropy Occam's-razor parsimony model-complexity overfitting underfitting bias-variance-tradeoff regularization L1-regularization L2-regularization elastic-net dropout early-stopping batch-normalization layer-normalization group-normalization instance-normalization weight-decay mixup cutout cutmix random-erasing autoaugment fast-autoaugment population-based-augmentation neural-architecture-search automated-machine-learning hyperparameter-optimization grid-search random-search Bayesian-optimization sequential-model-based-optimization multi-fidelity-optimization knowledge-distillation teacher-student-model model-compression quantization knowledge-transfer domain-adaptation few-shot-learning zero-shot-learning one-shot-learning meta-learning learning-to-learn metric-learning siamese-network triplet-loss contrastive-learning self-supervised-learning unsupervised-learning semi-supervised-learning weakly-supervised-learning active-learning online-learning incremental-learning continual-learning lifelong-learning curriculum-learning multi-task-learning multi-modal-learning cross-modal-learning representation-learning feature-learning embedding-learning manifold-learning dimensionality-reduction principal-component-analysis t-SNE UMAP word-embedding sentence-embedding document-embedding knowledge-graph-embedding graph-neural-network graph-convolutional-network graph-attention-network message-passing-neural-network relational-graph-convolutional-network inductive-learning transductive-learning homophily heterophily graph-isomorphism Weisfeiler-Lehman-test subgraph-isomorphism graph-matching network-alignment network-embedding node-embedding edge-embedding graph-classification node-classification link-prediction graph-generation graph-synthesis molecular-generation de-novo-design inverse-design retrosynthesis reaction-prediction property-prediction quantitative-structure-activity-relationship QSAR quantitative-structure-property-relationship QSPR molecular-descriptor fingerprint Morgan-fingerprint extended-connectivity-fingerprint circular-fingerprint atom-pair-fingerprint topological-torsion-fingerprint pharmacophore shape-similarity electrostatic-similarity docking scoring-function binding-affinity-prediction protein-ligand-interaction protein-protein-interaction protein-structure-prediction AlphaFold protein-folding contact-prediction distance-prediction angle-prediction torsion-prediction secondary-structure-prediction tertiary-structure-prediction quaternary-structure-prediction protein-design protein-engineering directed-evolution rational-design computational-design de-novo-protein-design enzyme-design catalytic-antibody ribozyme aptamer DNAzyme synthetic-biology genetic-circuit metabolic-engineering metabolic-flux-analysis flux-balance-analysis genome-scale-metabolic-model dynamic-metabolic-model kinetic-modeling stoichiometric-modeling constraint-based-modeling optimization linear-programming mixed-integer-linear-programming quadratic-programming nonlinear-programming dynamic-programming stochastic-programming robust-optimization multi-objective-optimization Pareto-optimality evolutionary-algorithm genetic-algorithm genetic-programming differential-evolution particle-swarm-optimization ant-colony-optimization simulated-annealing tabu-search variable-neighborhood-search iterated-local-search greedy-randomized-adaptive-search scatter-search path-relinking memetic-algorithm hyper-heuristic metaheuristic local-search neighborhood-search hill-climbing random-walk randomized-search Monte-Carlo-tree-search upper-confidence-bound Thompson-sampling multi-armed-bandit contextual-bandit reinforcement-learning policy-gradient actor-critic Q-learning deep-Q-network policy-iteration value-iteration temporal-difference-learning SARSA expected-SARSA double-Q-learning dueling-Q-network prioritized-experience-replay distributed-reinforcement-learning impala A3C asynchronous-advantage-actor-critic PPO proximal-policy-optimization TRPO trust-region-policy-optimization DDPG deep-deterministic-policy-gradient TD3 twin-delayed-deep-deterministic-policy-gradient SAC soft-actor-critic model-based-reinforcement-learning model-predictive-control guided-policy-search imitation-learning inverse-reinforcement-learning apprenticeship-learning behavior-cloning dataset-aggregation DAgger generative-adversarial-imitation-learning third-person-imitation-learning one-shot-imitation-learning meta-reinforcement-learning hierarchical-reinforcement-learning option skill subgoal intrinsic-motivation curiosity-driven-exploration empowerment information-gain prediction-error novelty-seeking diversity-seeking multi-agent-reinforcement-learning mean-field fictitious-play correlated-equilibrium Nash-equilibrium game-theory mechanism-design auction-theory incentive-design social-choice-theory voting-theory fair-division matching-theory market-design algorithmic-game-theory computational-social-choice computational-complexity NP-completeness NP-hardness approximation-algorithm approximation-ratio inapproximability fixed-parameter-tractability parameterized-complexity kernelization treewidth graph-minor forbidden-minor-characterization well-quasi-ordering Robertson-Seymour-theorem graph-structure-theorem bidimensionality-theory meta-theorem Courcelle's-theorem automata-theory finite-automaton pushdown-automaton Turing-machine computability decidability halting-problem Rice's-theorem Gödel's-incompleteness-theorems lambda-calculus combinatory-logic type-theory proof-theory model-theory set-theory forcing large-cardinal axiom-of-choice continuum-hypothesis independence-result consistency-strength reverse-mathematics constructive-mathematics intuitionistic-logic modal-logic temporal-logic epistemic-logic deontic-logic description-logic ontology knowledge-representation semantic-web linked-data RDF SPARQL OWL knowledge-graph entity-linking relation-extraction event-extraction coreference-resolution named-entity-recognition part-of-speech-tagging dependency-parsing constituency-parsing semantic-parsing natural-language-inference textual-entailment natural-language-generation machine-translation summarization question-answering dialogue-system conversational-AI chatbot virtual-assistant speech-recognition speech-synthesis speaker-recognition emotion-recognition sentiment-analysis opinion-mining aspect-based-sentiment-analysis target-dependent-sentiment-analysis stance-detection rumor-detection fake-news-detection fact-checking claim-verification evidence-retrieval argument-mining persuasion-detection deception-detection personality-prediction mental-health-detection suicide-prevention crisis-intervention social-media-mining network-analysis community-detection influence-maximization information-diffusion cascade-modeling epidemic-modeling SEIR-model SIR-model agent-based-epidemic-model compartmental-model network-epidemic-model metapopulation-epidemic-model spatial-epidemic-model stochastic-epidemic-model branching-process renewal-equation generation-interval serial-interval incubation-period latent-period infectious-period basic-reproduction-number effective-reproduction-number herd-immunity-threshold vaccination-coverage vaccine-efficacy vaccine-effectiveness breakthrough-infection waning-immunity immune-escape variant-of-concern variant-of-interest variant-under-monitoring phylogenetic-analysis molecular-clock-analysis phylodynamics viral-evolution antigenic-drift antigenic-shift zoonotic-spillover reservoir-host intermediate-host amplifying-host dead-end-host vector-borne-disease mosquito-borne-disease tick-borne-disease flea-borne-disease lice-borne-disease midge-borne-disease sandfly-borne-disease tsetse-borne-disease blackfly-borne-disease triatomine-borne-disease kissing-bug Chagas-disease trypanosomiasis leishmaniasis malaria dengue yellow-fever Zika-virus chikungunya West-Nile-virus Japanese-encephalitis tick-borne-encephalitis Lyme-disease Rocky-Mountain-spotted-fever ehlichiosis anaplasmosis babesiosis tularemia plague murine-typhus epidemic-typhus endemic-typhus scrub-typhus Q-fever trench-fever bartonellosis cat-scratch-disease rat-bite-fever leptospirosis brucellosis anthrax melioidosis glanders tularaemia francisellosis coxiellosis rickettsiosis orientia-infection ehrlichiosis neoehrlichiosis neorickettsiosis anaplasmataceae rickettsiaceae coxiellaceae bartonellaceae brucellaceae francisellaceae pasteurellaceae legionellaceae chlamydiaceae mycoplasmataceae ureaplasmataceae spiroplasmataceae achaenoplasmataceae entomoplasmataceae haloplasmataceae tenericutes mollicutes bacteroidetes fusobacteria spirochaetes synergistetes deferribacteres thermotogae aquificae caldiserica caldithrix deferrisoma desulfurobacterium thermovibrio thermocrinis hydrogenobacter sulfurihydrogenibium persephonella hydrogenobaculum hydrothermus thermothrix sulfuricurvum sulfurimonas sulfurovum thiovulum thiomicrospira pseudomonas vibrio aeromonas photobacterium aliivibrio gracilibacillus halobacillus halomonas chromohalobacter cobetia salinicola kushneria halotalea halovibrio salinivibrio thioalkalivibrio thiohalophilus ectothiorhodospira halorhodospira thiorhodospira halochromatium thioflavicoccus marichromatium thiocapsa lamprocystis thiodictyon thiopedia amoebobacter thiocystis chromatium allo-chromatium thermochromatium rhabdochromatium thiobaca thiohalocapsa halocapsa thiolamprovum thioploca thiomargarita beggiatoa methylococcus methylomonas methylomicrobium methylosinus methylocystis methylocella methylocapsa methylacidiphilum verrucomicrobia planctomycetes chlamydiae lentisphaerae kiritimatiellaeota calditrichaeota fervidibacteria
Tetramesa
Tetramesa is a genus of minute phytophagous wasps in the family Eurytomidae comprising over 200 described species. Members are exclusively associated with grasses (Poaceae), where they typically induce stem or inflorescence galls. The genus exhibits pronounced host specificity, with most species restricted to a single grass species or closely related congeners. Several species have been deployed as biological control agents against invasive grasses, including T. romana for giant reed (Arundo donax) and candidate agents for medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) and African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). Adults feed on nectar. Recent phylogenomic studies have synonymized the genera Aiolomorphus and Cathilaria within Tetramesa.
biological-control gall-wasp grassland invasive-species-management host-specificity cryptic-species phylogenomics Eurytomidae Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera phytophagy Poaceae stem-gall inflorescence-gall integrated-pest-management riparian-restoration molecular-systematics species-delimitation GMYC COI 28S biocontrol-agent Arundo-donax giant-reed medusahead African-lovegrass Eragrostis Sporobolus barley-jointworm integrated-taxonomy Southern-Hemisphere-diversity grassland-expansion Miocene-diversification monophagy host-range-testing non-target-effects tick-habitat cattle-fever-tick Rio-Grande Big-Bend-National-Park greenhouse-rearing oviposition-behavior water-deficit-stress generation-time parasitoid Eurytoma-amicophaga Eurytominae Walker-1848 Terebrantes Apocrita microhymenoptera minute-wasp reduced-wing-venation antennal-segmentation mesosoma-sculpture ovipositor molecular-operational-taxonomic-units MOTU species-boundaries cryptic-diversity sampling-effects SPEDE-sampler host-genetic-proxies field-host-range no-choice-testing native-Australian-species non-target-risk host-phylogeny target-weed suppression topping mechanical-control integrated-weed-management native-vegetation-recovery light-penetration canopy-structure dispersal establishment post-release-evaluation adventive-population Austin-Texas Idaho England Wales Orissa Canary-Islands Canary-Is.Mediterranean South-Africa southern-Africa Northern-Hemisphere Australia North-America Texas California Greece central-Asia Iran Ukraine Moldova Russia Israel Tajikistan Japan Eragrostis-curvula Sporobolus-pyramidalis Sporobolus-natalensis Sporobolus-africanus Hyparrhenia-hirta Andropogon-gayanus Eragrostis-plana Eragrostis-planiculmis Eragrostis-biflora Eragrostis-capensis Eragrostis-trichophora Deschampsia-caespitosa Deschampsia-setacea Taeniatherum-caput-medusae Hordeum barley Phragmites common-reed Dactylis-glomerata orchardgrass Poales grass graminoid cereal-crop pasture rangeland invasive-weed noxious-weed habitat-structure ecosystem-functioning naturalised-species alien-grass donor-country receiver-country biocontrol-practitioner host-plant-resistance internode-infestation oviposition-preference behavioral-categories antennae-attitude laboratory-artifact polyphagy specialist generalist climate-fluctuation molecular-clock dated-analysis phylogenetic-clade intrapopulation-variation geographic-sub-structuring singleton-effect overestimation consensus-delimitation operational-taxonomic-unit integrative-taxonomy evidence-line caveat putative-species novel-taxon undescribed-species biodiversity-assessment faunal-survey field-collection genetic-sequence mitochondrial-DNA nuclear-DNA cytochrome-c-oxidase-I ribosomal-DNA internal-transcribed-spacer chloroplast-DNA rps16 rpl32 trnK trnL ITS plant-insect-interaction herbivore phytophage primary-consumer trophic-level food-web community-ecology restoration-ecology conservation-biological-control classical-biological-control augmentative-biological-control inundative-release establishment-rate population-increase downstream-dispersal river-mile biomass-reduction plant-community tick-feeding-ant tick-feeding-beetle habitat-modification law-enforcement international-border flood-control irrigation-channel stream-clogging river-bank-weakening native-vegetation-stifling wildlife-habitat-reduction cattle-inspection deer-inspection Rhipicephalus Boophilus tick-population vegetation-transition shading-effect long-term-suppression high-suppression cane-thinning mechanical-cutting growth-suppression susceptibility-to-attack combination-treatment synergistic-effect research-demonstration USDA Agricultural-Research-Service entomologist field-measurement post-release-monitoring impact-assessment agent-efficacy non-target-damage crop-safety agricultural-importance host-specific-herbivore sustainable-method cost-effective-method weed-control invasive-plant-management habitat-restoration ecosystem-service provisioning-service regulating-service supporting-service cultural-service biodiversity-conservation threatened-species endangered-species habitat-loss climate-change land-use-change anthropogenic-disturbance urbanization agricultural-intensification grazing-pressure fire-regime nitrogen-deposition carbon-sequestration soil-stabilization water-quality air-quality pollinator nectar-feeding adult-diet larval-diet tissue-feeding gall-induction plant-manipulation phytohormone cytokinin auxin cell-proliferation tissue-differentiation nutrient-sink sink-strength source-sink-dynamics plant-physiology reproductive-output seed-production seed-weight flowering-head inflorescence stem-elongation tiller-production biomass-allocation growth-rate relative-growth-rate net-primary-productivity ecosystem-productivity carbon-cycling nitrogen-cycling phosphorus-cycling decomposition litter-quality herbivory-impact top-down-control bottom-up-control trophic-cascade indirect-effect direct-effect density-dependence density-independence population-regulation population-dynamics life-table survivorship fecundity reproductive-rate intrinsic-rate-of-increase doubling-time carrying-capacity population-growth exponential-growth logistic-growth Allee-effect stochasticity environmental-variation demographic-variation genetic-variation phenotypic-plasticity local-adaptation evolutionary-response coevolution arms-race escape-and-radiate diversification-rate speciation extinction phylogenetic-diversity functional-diversity taxonomic-diversity alpha-diversity beta-diversity gamma-diversity species-richness species-evenness species-abundance-distribution rank-abundance-curve diversity-index Shannon-index Simpson-index evenness-index dominance-index similarity-index dissimilarity-index cluster-analysis ordination principal-component-analysis principal-coordinate-analysis non-metric-multidimensional-scaling canonical-correspondence-analysis redundancy-analysis variation-partitioning structural-equation-modeling path-analysis meta-analysis systematic-review evidence-synthesis research-priority knowledge-gap data-deficiency IUCN-Red-List conservation-status protected-area management-plan monitoring-protocol adaptive-management stakeholder-engagement policy-recommendation legislation regulation incentive market-based-instrument payment-for-ecosystem-services carbon-credit biodiversity-offset habitat-banking conservation-easement land-trust stewardship sustainable-agriculture organic-farming agroecology precision-agriculture conservation-tillage cover-cropping crop-rotation intercropping agroforestry silvopasture riparian-buffer filter-strip grassed-waterway wetland-restoration prairie-restoration savanna-restoration forest-restoration degraded-land abandoned-land marginal-land set-aside wildlife-corridor habitat-connectivity landscape-matrix patch-dynamics edge-effect interior-habitat core-area buffer-zone permeability resistance least-cost-path circuit-theory isolation-by-distance isolation-by-resistance gene-flow genetic-drift inbreeding outbreeding hybridization introgression admixture population-structure genetic-differentiation FST GST D allele-frequency haplotype genotype phenotype quantitative-trait morphological-trait behavioral-trait life-history-trait reproductive-trait survival-trait developmental-trait physiological-trait metabolic-trait stress-response immune-response defense-trait resistance-trait tolerance-trait avoidance-trait antipredator-defense chemical-defense mechanical-defense crypsis mimicry aposematism startle-display thanatosis autotomy regeneration compensatory-growth induced-defense constitutive-defense direct-defense indirect-defense volatile-organic-compound extrafloral-nectar domatia mutualism ant-plant-mutualism pollination-mutualism seed-dispersal-mutualism protection-mutualism nutrition-mutualism transport-mutualism cleaning-mutualism agricultural-mutualism domestication crop-wild-relative landrace cultivar variety breeding selection genetic-improvement yield quality stress-tolerance nutrient-use-efficiency water-use-efficiency photosynthetic-efficiency harvest-index grain-filling source-limitation sink-limitation assimilate-transport phloem-loading phloem-unloading remobilization senescence stay-green antioxidant reactive-oxygen-species oxidative-stress heat-stress cold-stress drought-stress salinity-stress metal-stress nutrient-deficiency nutrient-toxicity soil-pH soil-texture soil-structure soil-organic-matter soil-microbial-community rhizosphere mycorrhiza nitrogen-fixation phosphorus-solubilization potassium-mobilization micronutrient-uptake allelopathy competition facilitation niche-differentiation resource-partitioning temporal-partitioning spatial-partitioning morphological-partitioning physiological-partitioning phenological-partitioning competitive-exclusion competitive-displacement priority-effect founder-effect mass-effect species-sorting neutral-theory ecological-drift dispersal-limitation environmental-filtering biotic-filtering abiotic-filtering trait-based-approach functional-trait response-trait effect-trait community-assembly community-disassembly community-reassembly succession primary-succession secondary-succession pioneer-species climax-species keystone-species ecosystem-engineer foundation-species dominant-species subordinate-species transient-species resident-species migrant-species nomadic-species irruptive-species invasive-species naturalized-species casual-species established-species spreading-species widespread-species restricted-species endemic-species cosmopolitan-species disjunct-distribution relict-distribution refugium glacial-refugium interglacial-refugium postglacial-colonization range-shift range-expansion range-contraction range-fragmentation source-population sink-population metapopulation population-viability minimum-viable-population effective-population-size genetic-rescue demographic-rescue assisted-migration managed-relocation ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation cryopreservation seed-bank gene-bank botanic-garden arboretum zoo aquarium microbial-culture-collection DNA-bank tissue-bank sperm-bank oocyte-bank embryo-bank reintroduction translocation reinforcement supplementation headstarting captive-breeding propagation nucleus-population release-program soft-release hard-release acclimatization habitat-preparation predator-control competitor-control disease-control parasite-control health-screening quarantine veterinary-care nutrition-management environmental-enrichment behavioral-training imprinting fostering cross-fostering hand-rearing parent-rearing semi-natural-enclosure pre-release-conditioning survival-rate reproduction-rate dispersal-rate site-fidelity homeward-orientation migration navigation orientation magnetic-sense olfactory-sense visual-sense auditory-sense mechanosensory-sense thermosensory-sense hygrosensory-sense electrosensory-sense polarized-light celestial-cues landmark-cues odor-plume wind-direction sun-compass star-compass moon-compass magnetic-compass inertial-navigation path-integration cognitive-map spatial-memory temporal-memory episodic-memory procedural-memory associative-learning operant-conditioning classical-conditioning habituation sensitization song-learning tool-use problem-solving innovation social-learning cultural-transmission teaching cooperation altruism kin-selection reciprocal-altruism group-selection multilevel-selection selfish-gene inclusive-fitness reproductive-skew dominance-hierarchy territoriality home-range activity-center den-site nest-site roost-site singing-post display-site lek arena scrape burrow cavity crevice hole tunnel gallery chamber cell comb paper-nest mud-nest silk-nest spun-cocoon pupal-case ootheca egg-mass clutch brood litter covey pack herd flock colony society superorganism eusociality cooperative-breeding communal-breeding polygyny polyandry promiscuity monogamy serial-monogamy genetic-monogamy social-monogamy extra-pair-copulation sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice sexual-selection intersexual-selection intrasexual-selection mate-choice mate-guarding mate-switching divorce widowhood mate-replacement breeding-season breeding-cycle breeding-attempt breeding-success fledging-success recruitment juvenile-survival adult-survival longevity life-expectancy maximum-lifespan aging telomere oxidative-damage mitochondrial-dysfunction cellular-senescence apoptosis necrosis autophagy proteostasis DNA-repair epigenetic-modification transgenerational-effect maternal-effect paternal-effect parental-care maternal-care paternal-care biparental-care alloparental-care brood-care egg-care larval-care pupal-care food-provisioning nest-defense territory-defense predator-defense disease-defense parasite-defense hygiene-behavior grooming nest-cleaning cannibalism siblicide infanticide filial-cannibalism sexual-cannibalism cannibalistic-oophagy trophic-egg regurgitation trophallaxis food-sharing information-sharing alarm-call mobbing distraction-display broken-wing-display tailing persecution attack escape flight fight freeze faint death-feigning tonic-immobility startle-response withdrawal avoidance dishabituation latent-inhibition blocking overshadowing relative-validity conditioned-inhibition spontaneous-recovery renewal reinstatement rapid-reacquisition latent-learning insight-learning observational-learning vicarious-learning emulation imitation social-facilitation social-inhibition audience-effect bystander-effect conformity obedience compliance commitment consistency foot-in-the-door door-in-the-face low-ball that's-not-all sunk-cost endowment-effect loss-aversion risk-aversion risk-seeking probability-weighting hyperbolic-discounting temporal-discounting intertemporal-choice optimal-foraging marginal-value-theorem prey-choice patch-choice diet-breadth central-place-foraging load-size travel-time handling-time search-time encounter-rate prey-density prey-profitability prey-handling prey-detection prey-pursuit prey-capture prey-consumption prey-rejection ingestion-rate digestion-rate assimilation-efficiency production-efficiency ecological-efficiency trophic-transfer-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency ten-percent-rule pyramid-of-numbers pyramid-of-biomass pyramid-of-energy food-chain trophic-network energy-flow material-cycling biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle water-cycle hydrological-cycle atmospheric-circulation ocean-circulation thermohaline-circulation El-Niño La-Niña ENSO NAO AO PDO AMO climate-oscillation climate-anomaly weather-extreme drought flood heat-wave cold-snap storm hurricane typhoon cyclone tornado thunderstorm lightning wildfire volcanic-eruption earthquake tsunami landslide avalanche meteor-impact mass-extinction background-extinction speciation-rate extinction-rate net-diversification turnover standing-diversity fossil-record taphonomy preservation-bias sampling-bias collection-bias publication-bias citation-bias language-bias geographic-bias temporal-bias taxonomic-bias size-bias abundance-bias habitat-bias facies-bias Lagerstätte Konservat-Lagerstätte Konzentrat-Lagerstätte trace-fossil body-fossil chemical-fossil molecular-fossil biomarker isotope-signature paleoclimate-proxy paleoecology paleobiogeography paleoecosystem paleocommunity paleoenvironment paleogeography paleolatitude paleolongitude continental-drift plate-tectonics seafloor-spreading subduction orogeny mountain-building basin-formation sedimentation erosion weathering soil-formation pedogenesis horizon-development profile-development chronosequence toposequence biosequence climosequence landform geomorphology topography relief elevation slope aspect curvature roughness drainage watershed catchment basin subbasin reach segment zone riffle pool run glide cascade waterfall wetland marsh swamp bog fen mire peatland tundra taiga boreal-forest temperate-forest temperate-rainforest temperate-grassland tropical-forest tropical-rainforest tropical-dry-forest tropical-savanna tropical-grassland desert hot-desert cold-desert semiarid steppe prairie pampas veld savanna woodland shrubland chaparral maquis garigue fynbos kwongan mallee mulga mogote karst cave sinkhole doline polje uvala ponor spring seep oasis wadi arroyo gully ravine canyon gorge valley dale glen strath rift graben horst fault fold anticline syncline monocline dome plateau mesa butte escarpment bluff cliff crag tor inselberg bornhardt kopje hill knoll mound ridge spur saddle pass col gap notch cleft fissure joint bedding-plane foliation lineation cleavage schistosity gneissic-banding magma lava igneous-rock sedimentary-rock metamorphic-rock mineral crystal grain texture structure fabric composition chemistry mineralogy petrology geochemistry geophysics geochronology radiometric-dating isotopic-dating dendrochronology varve-chronology lichenometry archaeomagnetism paleomagnetism thermoluminescence optically-stimulated-luminescence electron-spin-resonance cosmogenic-nuclide exposure-dating burial-dating terrestrial-cosmogenic-nuclide in-situ-cosmogenic-nuclide meteoric-cosmogenic-nuclide fallout-radionuclide lead-210 cesium-137 plutonium americium radiocarbon carbon-14 calibration-curve intcal marine-reservoir-effect terrestrial-reservoir-effect hard-water-effect contamination pretreatment combustion graphitization accelerator-mass-spectrometry liquid-scintillation-counting gas-proportional-counting beta-counting gamma-spectrometry alpha-spectrometry mass-spectrometry inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry thermal-ionization-mass-spectrometry secondary-ion-mass-spectrometry laser-ablation-inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry electron-microprobe scanning-electron-microscopy transmission-electron-microscopy light-microscopy confocal-microscopy fluorescence-microscopy polarizing-microscopy phase-contrast-microscopy differential-interference-contrast-microscopy dark-field-microscopy bright-field-microscopy stereomicroscopy dissecting-microscopy microtomy sectioning staining mounting embedding fixation preservation collection curation vouchering repository herbarium museum archive database registry catalogue checklist inventory survey monitoring assessment evaluation appraisal audit review synthesis rapid-review scoping-review narrative-review critical-review state-of-the-art-review literature-review bibliometric-analysis citation-analysis co-citation-analysis bibliographic-coupling co-authorship-analysis collaboration-network knowledge-map concept-map ontology taxonomy classification nomenclature typification designation description diagnosis illustration measurement morphometry meristics count ratio index score rank grade scale level category class group set subset cluster clade lineage branch stem crown root node tip terminal internal basal derived ancestral plesiomorphic apomorphic synapomorphic autapomorphic homologous homoplastic convergent parallel reversal gain loss duplication deletion insertion inversion fusion fission polyploidy aneuploidy chromosome-number genome-size gene-number transcriptome proteome metabolome lipidome glycome interactome phenome connectome epigenome microbiome virome mycobiome bacteriome phytobiome rhizobiome endobiome ectobiome parasitome pathobiome diseasome toxome exposome foodome nutriome pharmacome toxicome adverse-outcome-pathway mode-of-action mechanism-of-action target-site receptor-binding enzyme-inhibition ion-channel-blockade membrane-disruption DNA-intercalation inflammation cell-differentiation cell-migration cell-adhesion cell-signaling signal-transduction gene-expression transcription translation post-translational-modification protein-folding protein-degradation protein-trafficking vesicle-transport exocytosis endocytosis phagocytosis pinocytosis mitophagy pexophagy ribophagy ER-phagy lysophagy lipophagy glycophagy ferritinophagy aggrephagy xenophagy entosis cytosis syncytium plasmodesmata gap-junction tight-junction adherens-junction desmosome hemidesmosome focal-adhesion cell-polarity cell-asymmetry cell-division mitosis meiosis cytokinesis karyokinesis chromosome-segregation spindle-assembly checkpoint DNA-replication DNA-recombination transposition retrotransposition horizontal-gene-transfer vertical-gene-transfer endosymbiosis symbiogenesis holobiont hologenome extended-phenotype niche-construction ecosystem-engineering keystone-process ecological-function ecosystem-function ecosystem-good natural-capital natural-resource renewable-resource non-renewable-resource common-pool-resource public-good private-good club-good externality market-failure government-failure policy-failure institutional-failure tragedy-of-the-commons free-rider collective-action social-dilemma prisoner's-dilemma chicken-game assurance-game coordination-game zero-sum-game positive-sum-game negative-sum-game win-win lose-lose win-lose Pareto-optimal Pareto-improvement Kaldor-Hicks-improvement cost-benefit-analysis cost-effectiveness-analysis multi-criteria-decision-analysis decision-support-system expert-system knowledge-based-system rule-based-system case-based-reasoning machine-learning deep-learning neural-network random-forest support-vector-machine decision-tree regression-tree classification-tree clustering-algorithm dimensionality-reduction feature-selection feature-extraction pattern-recognition image-analysis signal-processing time-series-analysis spatial-analysis geographic-information-system remote-sensing satellite-imagery aerial-photography drone-imagery LiDAR radar sonar seismic geophysical geochemical biogeochemical ecoinformatics bioinformatics computational-biology systems-biology synthetic-biology biotechnology nanotechnology genetic-engineering genome-editing CRISPR TALEN zinc-finger-nuclease transgenic cisgenic intragenic subgenic agrobacterium-mediated-transformation biolistics electroporation microinjection protoplast-fusion somatic-hybridization cybrid asymmetric-hybrid synthetic-polyploid doubled-haploid haploid-induction anther-culture microspore-culture ovule-culture embryo-culture endosperm-culture protoplast-culture cell-culture tissue-culture organ-culture shoot-culture root-culture callus-culture suspension-culture bioreactor hairy-root-culture transformation hardening micropropagation clonal-propagation meristem-culture shoot-tip-culture axillary-bud-culture nodal-culture leaf-culture petiole-culture stem-culture internode-culture rhizome-culture bulb-culture corm-culture tuber-culture seed-culture zygotic-embryo-culture somatic-embryo-culture somatic-embryogenesis organogenesis caulogenesis rhizogenesis adventitious-shoot-formation direct-regeneration indirect-regeneration primary-metabolism secondary-metabolism biosynthesis biotransformation bioconversion biodegradation bioremediation phytoremediation mycoremediation zooremediation bioaugmentation biostimulation natural-attenuation monitored-natural-attenuation engineered-natural-attenuation permeable-reactive-barrier pump-and-treat soil-vapor-extraction air-sparging thermal-desorption incineration landfilling containment capping slurry-wall grout-curtain sheet-piling clay-liner geomembrane geotextile geogrid geocomposite geosynthetic geofabric geonet geocell geopipe geostrip geofoam geobag geotube geocontainer geomat geoblanket geospacer geodrain geoinjection geogrout geopier geocolumn geopile geowall geoberm geotrench geocut geofill geolift geoslab geopanel geoblock geobrick geotile geopaver geoweb geomattress geocushion