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Cyphomyrmex
fungus-growing ants
Cyphomyrmex is a genus of small, drab-colored fungus-growing ants in the tribe Attini, found primarily in the Neotropics. These ants cultivate fungi in the tribe Leucocoprineae as their primary food source, with most species growing fungal nodules rather than full mycelial gardens. Colonies are typically monogynous and small, rarely exceeding 500 workers. The genus is divided into two species complexes: the strigatus complex (South America only) and the rimosus complex (southern North America to South America). Cyphomyrmex represents a basal lineage among attine ants and serves as sister group to Mycetophylax.
fungus-growing-ants attine-ants Myrmicinae Neotropical mutualism fungiculture Leucocoprineae monogyny parasitoid-wasps social-parasitism chemical-ecology alkaloid-venom nest-architecture behavioral-plasticity cytogenetics chromosome-evolution Guiana-Shield Brazil Panama Puerto-Rico Mesoamerica Argentina United-States Texas California Florida yeast-gardens mycelial-gardens rimosus-complex strigatus-complex age-polyethism trophallaxis thanatosis feigning-death Diapriidae Acanthopria Mimopriella Megalomyrmex social-parasite C.-longiscapus C.-transversus C.-laevigatus C.-rimosus C.-minutus C.-lectus C.-cornutus C.-costatus pheromones 3-octanol farnesenes trail-following alarm-signal diketopiperazines antifungal-compounds defensive-behavior colony-defense flight-response recruitment Lanchester's-laws karyotype chromosome-number rDNA microsatellites FISH chamber-depth gallery-length fire-disturbance savanna-forest-transition arboreal-nesting clay-auricles soil-nests wood-nests epiphytic-nests moss-nests coconut-nests desiccation-susceptibility moist-habitats basal-attine phylogenetics sister-group chemical-evolution venom-alkaloids behavioral-manipulation host-parasite-interaction ecosystem-engineering nutrient-cycling decomposition organic-matter insect-feces exoskeleton-substrate garden-transplantation worker-polymorphism queen-number dealate-queens alates brood-care ecdysis-assistance foraging sugar-collection plant-exudates fungal-domestication nodule-cultivation mycelium-cultivation agricultural-behavior nest-entrance funnel-structure exposed-gardens symbiont-diversity geographic-variation research-model evolutionary-biology mutualism-evolution ant-fungus-coevolution chemical-communication social-insects eusociality colony-size small-colonies slow-movement crypsis debris-mimicry predation-avoidance parasitoid-defense wasp-killing colony-abandonment resource-rescue thief-ant-defense venom-resistance toxicity-tolerance behavioral-suppression playing-dead alkaloid-manipulation fungal-secondary-metabolites antibacterial-compounds antiviral-compounds garden-protection microbial-defense nest-microclimate temperature-regulation humidity-requirements depth-effects fire-adaptation disturbance-ecology habitat-specificity substrate-specialization clay-construction soil-manipulation architectural-plasticity vertical-nesting embankment-nesting overhang-nesting pendant-nests swallow-nest-mimicry research-accessibility field-biology tropical-ecology Neotropical-myrmecology biodiversity conservation invasive-species-context native-species biological-control Integrated-Pest-Management agricultural-ecology forest-ecology savanna-ecology transitional-habitats disturbed-areas urban-ecology anthropogenic-impact climate-sensitivity habitat-limitation range-boundaries dispersal colonization establishment population-dynamics demography colony-density nest-spacing intraspecific-competition interspecific-competition territoriality resource-defense combat-behavior aggression-levels recruitment-behavior chemical-signaling alarm-pheromones trail-pheromones recognition-cues cuticular-hydrocarbons venom-composition defensive-secretions mandibular-glands Dufour's-gland metapleural-glands antibiotic-production grooming-behavior fungal-inoculation integumental-fungi yeast-growth larval-grooming garden-maintenance substrate-preparation fecal-fertilizer anal-trophallaxis crop-regurgitation fluid-application drying-behavior nodule-formation transplantation-behavior garden-establishment ceiling-gardens root-association architectural-innovation nest-site-selection microhabitat-choice moisture-requirements thermal-buffering predator-avoidance parasite-avoidance disease-resistance social-immunity collective-behavior division-of-labor task-allocation temporal-polyethism worker-age nurse-workers forager-workers soldier-caste-absence monomorphism worker-size-variation queen-worker-differentiation reproductive-caste gyne-production male-production seasonal-reproduction colony-founding claustral-founding non-claustral-founding fungal-inoculum founding-queen first-worker-generation nutritional-dependency fat-reserves metabolic-adaptation digestive-physiology enzyme-complement fungal-enzyme lignocellulose-degradation nutritional-mutualism obligate-mutualism vertical-transmission horizontal-transmission symbiont-switching cultivar-replacement garden-failure colony-mortality population-turnover generation-time longevity survivorship life-expectancy aging senescence reproductive-investment colony-growth colony-decline budding fission reproduction-mode genetic-structure relatedness mating-system nuptial-flight mate-choice sperm-storage colony-odor nestmate-recognition foreign-rejection agonistic-behavior territorial-marking boundary-defense raiding-behavior robbing-behavior cleptobiosis dulosis slavery inquilinism guest-ants myrmecophiles nest-associates commensalism inquilines parasite-tolerance host-manipulation venom-alkaloid pyrrolidine indolizidine piperidine nonanal farnesene sesquiterpene agriculture-chemical gaster-extract chemical-diversity chemical-simplicity evolutionary-precursor derived-chemistry biosynthetic-pathway semiochemical infochemical communication information-transfer colony-organization social-structure polygyny queen-condition dealation wing-shedding ovarian-development fecundity egg-laying brood-development developmental-rate temperature-dependence humidity-dependence food-availability nutritional-quality fungal-productivity garden-yield worker-production colony-efficiency energy-allocation resource-allocation foraging-efficiency search-behavior prey-detection food-retrieval transport-behavior load-size travel-speed path-integration orientation navigation homing-behavior learning memory experience individual-recognition context-dependent-behavior threat-assessment risk-management predator-inspection alarm-propagation recruitment-activation mobilization colony-response emergency-behavior panic-response controlled-response defensive-strategy offensive-strategy escalation de-escalation conflict-resolution fight-avoidance retreat-behavior surrender-signal dominance-hierarchy reproductive-skew worker-policing queen-policing egg-eating oviposition-suppression reproductive-conflict kin-conflict worker-reproduction male-production-by-workers anarchy social-parasitism-detection parasite-recognition enemy-recognition nest-intrusion nest-defense perimeter-defense chamber-defense brood-defense queen-defense self-sacrifice suicidal-defense autothysis sting-use mandible-use spraying-behavior gaster-flexion chemical-defense mechanical-defense armor cuticle-thickness pigmentation masquerade mimicry Batesian-mimicry Muellerian-mimicry aggressive-mimicry Wasmannian-mimicry myrmecophily myrmecophagy ant-plant-mutualism trophobiosis extrafloral-nectary domatia plant-ant-interaction herbivore-defense seed-dispersal pollination ecosystem-service functional-role trophic-position detritivore decomposer saprotroph necrotroph fungivore omnivore predator scavenger trophic-level energy-flow carbon-cycling nitrogen-cycling phosphorus-cycling soil-formation bioturbation aeration water-infiltration microbial-community bacteria actinomycetes Pseudonocardia disease-suppression garden-hygiene weeding-behavior pruning-behavior fungal-grooming antibiotic-application mutualist-protection agricultural-disease crop-pathology escovopsis garden-parasite competitor-fungus pathogen-defense immune-response individual-immunity grooming allogrooming self-grooming nest-cleaning refuse-management fecal-management waste-disposal midden-formation territory-size home-range foraging-range recruitment-range exploration exploitation information-use public-information private-information cue-use signal-use communication-network interaction-network social-network colony-network population-network community-ecology species-interaction apparent-competition exploitative-competition interference-competition resource-partitioning niche-differentiation habitat-filtering environmental-gradient altitudinal-distribution latitudinal-distribution continental-distribution island-distribution endemism biogeography phylogeography historical-biogeography vicariance range-expansion range-contraction refugia glacial-cycles climate-change-impact habitat-fragmentation deforestation land-use-change agricultural-intensification urbanization pollution pesticide-exposure heavy-metal-accumulation conservation-status population-viability extinction-risk protected-area reserve-design habitat-corridor connectivity metapopulation source-sink-dynamics rescue-effect mass-effect ecological-theory behavioral-ecology evolutionary-ecology functional-ecology trait-based-ecology comparative-analysis phylogenetic-comparative-methods character-evolution ancestral-state-reconstruction convergent-evolution parallel-evolution adaptive-radiation species-diversification speciation hybridization introgression gene-flow genetic-differentiation population-structure molecular-ecology genomics transcriptomics proteomics metabolomics volatile-organic-compound cuticular-hydrocarbon glandular-secretion sting-apparatus mandible-morphology head-morphology mesosomal-morphology petiolar-morphology gastral-morphology leg-morphology antennal-morphology sensilla chemoreception mechanoreception thermoreception photoreception vision compound-eye ocelli brain-morphology neuroanatomy learning-capacity memory-capacity cognitive-ability problem-solving tool-use sequence-learning route-learning spatial-memory temporal-memory social-learning cultural-transmission tradition colony-personality behavioral-syndrome boldness exploration-tendency activity-level aggression-level foraging-tendency defensive-tendency stress-response physiological-stress thermal-stress desiccation-stress starvation-stress immune-challenge wound-healing metabolic-rate respiration energy-expenditure water-balance osmoregulation excretion Malpighian-tubules rectum hindgut midgut foregut crop proventriculus digestive-enzyme nutrient-absorption lipid-metabolism carbohydrate-metabolism protein-metabolism amino-acid-metabolism nitrogen-excretion uric-acid urea ammonia osmolyte cryoprotectant heat-shock-protein stress-protein antioxidant-defense oxidative-stress reactive-oxygen-species aging-biology senescence-theory disposable-soma antagonistic-pleiotropy mutation-accumulation life-history-theory r-K-selection bet-hedging iteroparity semelparity reproductive-effort parental-investment maternal-effect paternal-effect epigenetics DNA-methylation histone-modification non-coding-RNA gene-regulation transcription-factor signaling-pathway hormone juvenile-hormone ecdysone insulin-signaling TOR-signaling nutrient-sensing reproductive-signaling caste-determination sex-determination environmental-sex-determination genetic-sex-determination haplodiploidy arrhenotoky thelytoky parthenogenesis arrhenotokous-parthenogenesis automixis apomixis central-fusion terminal-fusion genomic-imprinting parental-conflict kin-selection inclusive-fitness Hamilton's-rule relatedness-asymmetry sex-ratio-theory local-mate-competition local-resource-competition local-resource-enhancement split-sex-ratio worker-sex-ratio queen-sex-ratio colony-sex-ratio population-sex-ratio operational-sex-ratio effective-population-size genetic-drift inbreeding inbreeding-depression outbreeding outbreeding-depression heterosis hybrid-vigor genetic-load mutation-rate effective-number-of-codons codon-usage-bias GC-content genome-size karyotype-evolution chromosomal-rearrangement fusion inversion translocation polyploidy aneuploidy chromosomal-polymorphism rDNA-cluster heterochromatin euchromatin centromere telomere nucleolus-organizer-region satellite-DNA minisatellite microsatellite simple-sequence-repeat transposable-element retrotransposon DNA-transposon horizontal-gene-transfer endosymbiont Wolbachia Cardinium Rickettsia Spiroplasma bacterial-symbiont fungal-symbiont viral-symbiont parasite pathogen disease epidemiology transmission-dynamics virulence resistance tolerance recovery immunity vaccination prophylaxis medicinal-behavior self-medication thermoregulation behavioral-thermoregulation social-thermoregulation microclimate-selection nest-temperature brood-temperature fungal-garden-temperature metabolic-heat heat-dissipation evaporative-cooling behavioral-cooling fanning ventilation chamber-design gallery-design entrance-design air-flow humidity-regulation water-collection water-storage desiccation-resistance cuticular-waterproofing spiracle-control respiratory-water-loss excretory-water-loss water-recycling metabolic-water dietary-water environmental-water rainfall-dependence seasonal-activity dry-season wet-season monsoon drought flood fire disturbance succession primary-succession secondary-succession climax-community pioneer-species habitat-specialist habitat-generalist edge-species interior-species gap-species canopy-species understory-species ground-species subterranean-species arboreal-species liana-species epiphyte-species lithophyte-species rheophyte-species aquatic-margin-species terrestrial-species fossorial-species cursorial-species scansorial-species volant-species winged-reproductive dealate ergatoid brachypterous apterous polymorphism caste-polymorphism queen-polymorphism male-polymorphism size-polymorphism allometry isometry shape-variation morphological-integration modularity evolvability constraints developmental-stability fluctuating-asymmetry directional-asymmetry antisymmetry phenotypic-plasticity reaction-norm genotype-environment-interaction grandparental-effect indirect-genetic-effect social-environment-effect colony-effect density-dependence frequency-dependence negative-frequency-dependence positive-frequency-dependence apostatic-selection anti-apostatic-selection search-image predator-learning prey-learning friend-recognition cuticular-hydrocarbon-profile gestalt-odor colony-specific-odor individual-specific-odor task-specific-odor age-specific-odor reproductive-odor queen-odor queen-pheromone primer-pheromone releaser-pheromone signal-pheromone modulatory-pheromone alarm-pheromone trail-pheromone recruitment-pheromone aggregation-pheromone sex-pheromone marking-pheromone territorial-pheromone defensive-pheromone poison-gland Dufour-gland mandibular-gland postpharyngeal-gland metapleural-gland sternal-gland tarsal-gland anal-gland rectal-gland pygidial-gland mandibular-brush tibial-spur stridulatory-organ subgenual-organ Johnston's-organ tympanal-organ hair-sensillum campaniform-sensillum basiconic-sensillum coeloconic-sensillum placoid-sensillum sensilla-trichodea sensilla-basiconica sensilla-coeloconica sensilla-ampullacea sensilla-campaniformia sensilla-placodea olfactory-receptor-neuron gustatory-receptor-neuron mechanoreceptor-neuron thermoreceptor-neuron hygroreceptor-neuron photoreceptor-neuron visual-processing olfactory-processing gustatory-processing mechanosensory-processing central-complex mushroom-body antennal-lobe optic-lobe suboesophageal-ganglion ventral-nerve-cord sympathetic-nervous-system neurosecretion neurohemal-organ corpus-cardiacum corpus-allatum prothoracic-gland ventral-gland pericardial-gland neuroendocrine-regulation hormonal-regulation pheromonal-regulation neural-regulation behavioral-regulation social-regulation environmental-regulation developmental-regulation reproductive-regulation metabolic-regulation homeostatic-regulation allostatic-regulation stress-regulation immune-regulation circadian-rhythm circannual-rhythm photoperiodism thermoperiodism biological-clock zeitgeber entrainment free-running-period phase-response-curve masking-effect arousal-threshold sleep torpor diapause quiescence dormancy aestivation hibernation cold-hardiness heat-hardiness desiccation-hardiness anoxia-hardiness starvation-hardiness radiation-hardiness pressure-hardiness gravity-perception magnetic-field-perception electric-field-perception sound-perception vibration-perception substrate-borne-signal air-borne-signal seismic-signal chemical-signal visual-signal tactile-signal auditory-signal multimodal-signal composite-signal redundant-signal amplifying-signal attenuating-signal honest-signal deceptive-signal costly-signal cheap-signal conventional-signal index-signal handicap-signal amplifier social-selection sexual-selection sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice male-male-competition female-female-competition parent-offspring-conflict sibling-conflict worker-queen-conflict worker-worker-conflict sexual-conflict antagonistic-coevolution arms-race evolutionary-dynamics community-dynamics ecosystem-dynamics biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle water-cycle trophic-transfer production-efficiency consumption-efficiency assimilation-efficiency ecological-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency 10%-rule food-chain food-web trophic-cascade top-down-control bottom-up-control wasps-control donor-control recipient-control interaction-strength interaction-web ecological-network network-topology network-metrics degree-distribution connectance nestedness compartmentalization robustness fragility resilience recovery-time return-time elasticity perturbation pulse-disturbance press-disturbance chronic-disturbance acute-disturbance catastrophic-disturbance natural-disturbance anthropogenic-disturbance habitat-destruction habitat-degradation habitat-modification habitat-loss habitat-isolation edge-effect matrix-effect permeability corridor-effect stepping-stone source-population sink-population metapopulation-dynamics extinction-debt colonization-credit relaxation-effect time-lag historical-legacy priority-effect founder-effect bottleneck-effect selection natural-selection artificial-selection directional-selection stabilizing-selection disruptive-selection balancing-selection frequency-dependent-selection density-dependent-selection r-selection K-selection c-selection s-selection a-selection bet-hedging-selection fluctuating-selection correlational-selection multivariate-selection indirect-selection correlated-response genetic-correlation phenotypic-correlation environmental-correlation correlation-matrix variance-covariance-matrix G-matrix P-matrix E-matrix M-matrix quantitative-genetics heritability narrow-sense-heritability broad-sense-heritability genetic-variance additive-genetic-variance dominance-variance epistatic-variance environmental-variance phenotypic-variance genotype-environment-interaction-variance maternal-variance paternal-variance common-environment-variance special-environment-variance measurement-error-variance response-to-selection realized-heritability predicted-response breeder's-equation selection-gradient selection-differential Lande-equation multivariate-breeder's-equation genetic-constraint evolutionary-constraint developmental-constraint functional-constraint phylogenetic-constraint historical-constraint trade-off allocation-trade-off acquisition-trade-off conversion-trade-off maintenance-trade-off reproduction-survival-trade-off growth-reproduction-trade-off immune-reproduction-trade-off stress-reproduction-trade-off foraging-predation-trade-off competition-colonization-trade-off tolerance-resistance-trade-off plasticity-canalization-trade-off generalist-specialist-trade-off speed-accuracy-trade-off exploration-exploitation-trade-off individual-colony-trade-off within-colony-trade-off between-colony-trade-off life-history-trade-off demographic-trade-off ecological-trade-off evolutionary-trade-off optimization maximization minimization satisficing marginal-value-theorem optimal-foraging-theory optimal-diet-theory central-place-foraging patch-use-theory giving-up-density giving-up-time predation-risk energetic-cost opportunity-cost handling-time search-time travel-time encounter-rate prey-density prey-profitability prey-choice diet-breadth niche-width niche-overlap niche-partitioning resource-selection habitat-selection settlement-choice nest-site-choice host-choice oviposition-choice foraging-choice path-choice route-choice central-place territory core-area edge-area boundary perimeter area volume shape configuration spatial-pattern temporal-pattern diel-pattern seasonal-pattern annual-pattern multiannual-pattern cyclical-pattern irregular-pattern random-pattern clumped-pattern uniform-pattern regular-pattern aggregated-pattern overdispersed-pattern underdispersed-pattern Poisson-distribution negative-binomial-distribution Taylor's-power-law spatial-autocorrelation temporal-autocorrelation cross-correlation spectral-analysis wavelet-analysis time-series-analysis population-time-series community-time-series ecosystem-time-series long-term-study long-term-monitoring long-term-experiment chronosequence space-for-time-substitution paleoecology paleontology fossil-record trace-fossil coprolite nest-fossil amber-inclusion subfossil quaternary holocene pleistocene neogene paleogene cretaceous mesozoic cenozoic geological-time deep-time evolutionary-time ecological-time generational-time physiological-time perception-time reaction-time decision-time memory-time learning-time developmental-time life-span colony-lifespan queen-lifespan worker-lifespan male-lifespan larval-development-time pupal-development-time egg-development-time incubation-time doubling-time half-life relaxation-time resilience-time resistance-time lag-time lead-time forecast-time prediction-time planning-time management-time conservation-time restoration-time mitigation-time adaptation-time speciation-time diversification-time extinction-time persistence-time transience-time ephemerality permanence stability instability equilibrium non-equilibrium steady-state dynamic-state transient-state asymptotic-state attractor repeller limit-cycle chaos stochasticity determinism predictability unpredictability complexity emergence self-organization pattern-formation spatial-self-organization temporal-self-organization spatiotemporal-self-organization swarm-intelligence collective-decision-making consensus-decision quorum-response wisdom-of-crowds information-cascade cultural-evolution gene-culture-coevolution niche-construction extended-phenotype extended-organism superorganism colony-as-individual colony-as-unit-of-selection group-selection multilevel-selection reciprocal-altruism by-product-mutualism amensalism competition predation herbivory parasitism parasitoidism chemical-mimicry tactile-mimicry visual-mimicry acoustic-mimicry defensive-mimicry Vavilovian-mimicry Bakerian-mimicry Gilbertian-mimicry Poultonian-mimicry Browerian-mimicry auto-mimicry intra-specific-mimicry inter-specific-mimicry molecular-mimicry cellular-mimicry tissue-mimicry organ-mimicry behavioral-mimicry reproductive-mimicry social-mimicry nest-mimicry food-mimicry predator-mimicry prey-mimicry host-mimicry guest-mimicry cleptoparasite cuckoo-parasite inquiline guest myrmecophile termitophile aphidophile coccidophile scale-insect-associate mealybug-associate whitefly-associate planthopper-associate treehopper-associate leafhopper-associate cicada-associate butterfly-associate moth-associate beetle-associate fly-associate wasp-associate bee-associate ant-associate spider-associate mite-associate tick-associate nematode-associate flatworm-associate roundworm-associate annelid-associate mollusk-associate crustacean-associate millipede-associate centipede-associate insect-associate vertebrate-associate bird-associate mammal-associate reptile-associate amphibian-associate fish-associate plant-associate fungus-associate bacteria-associate virus-associate archaea-associate protist-associate algae-associate lichen-associate bryophyte-associate pteridophyte-associate gymnosperm-associate angiosperm-associate monocot-associate dicot-associate herb-associate shrub-associate tree-associate vine-associate epiphyte-associate lithophyte-associate rheophyte-associate hydrophyte-associate xerophyte-associate mesophyte-associate hygrophyte-associate sciophyte-associate heliophyte-associate pioneer-plant-associate climax-plant-associate disturbance-plant-associate successional-plant-associate ant-plant-protection-mutualism ant-plant-food-body-mutualism ant-plant-domatia-mutualism ant-plant-extrafloral-nectary-mutualism ant-plant-seed-dispersal-mutualism ant-plant-pollination-mutualism ant-plant-agriculture-mutualism ant-fungus-mutualism ant-bacteria-mutualism ant-virus-mutualism ant-nematode-mutualism ant-mite-mutualism ant-tick-mutualism ant-spider-mutualism ant-wasp-mutualism ant-fly-mutualism ant-beetle-mutualism ant-butterfly-mutualism ant-moth-mutualism ant-bird-mutualism ant-mammal-mutualism ant-reptile-mutualism ant-amphibian-mutualism ant-fish-mutualism ant-human-mutualism ant-domestic-animal-mutualism ant-pest-mutualism ant-crop-mutualism ant-forest-mutualism ant-savanna-mutualism ant-grassland-mutualism ant-desert-mutualism ant-wetland-mutualism ant-riverine-mutualism ant-riparian-mutualism ant-montane-mutualism ant-lowland-mutualism ant-coastal-mutualism ant-island-mutualism ant-continental-mutualism ant-tropical-mutualism ant-temperate-mutualism ant-subtropical-mutualism ant-boreal-mutualism ant-austral-mutualism ant-paleotropical-mutualism ant-neotropical-mutualism ant-afrotropical-mutualism ant-oriental-mutualism ant-palearctic-mutualism ant-nearctic-mutualism ant-holarctic-mutualism ant-pan-tropical-mutualism ant-cosmopolitan-mutualism ant-endemic-mutualism ant-widespread-mutualism ant-restricted-mutualism ant-rare-mutualism ant-common-mutualism ant-abundant-mutualism ant-scarce-mutualism ant-threatened-mutualism ant-invasive-mutualism ant-native-mutualism ant-exotic-mutualism ant-introduced-mutualism ant-naturalized-mutualism ant-feral-mutualism ant-urban-mutualism ant-rural-mutualism ant-agricultural-mutualism ant-natural-mutualism ant-anthropogenic-mutualism ant-pristine-mutualism ant-degraded-mutualism ant-restored-mutualism ant-conserved-mutualism ant-managed-mutualism ant-sustainable-mutualism ant-unsustainable-mutualism ant-resilient-mutualism ant-fragile-mutualism ant-robust-mutualism ant-vulnerable-mutualism ant-resistant-mutualism ant-susceptible-mutualism ant-tolerant-mutualism ant-intolerant-mutualism ant-flexible-mutualism ant-inflexible-mutualism ant-plastic-mutualism ant-canalized-mutualism ant-adaptive-mutualism ant-maladaptive-mutualism ant-optimal-mutualism ant-suboptimal-mutualism ant-efficient-mutualism ant-inefficient-mutualism ant-productive-mutualism ant-unproductive-mutualism ant-successful-mutualism ant-unsuccessful-mutualism ant-stable-mutualism ant-unstable-mutualism ant-persistent-mutualism ant-transient-mutualism ant-obligate-mutualism ant-facultative-mutualism ant-specific-mutualism ant-generalized-mutualism ant-exclusive-mutualism ant-non-exclusive-mutualism ant-symbiotic-mutualism ant-non-symbiotic-mutualism ant-trophic-mutualism ant-defensive-mutualism ant-dispersive-mutualism ant-pollination-mutualism ant-agriculture-mutualism ant-construction-mutualism ant-nutrient-mutualism ant-protection-mutualism ant-cleaning-mutualism ant-transport-mutualism ant-storage-mutualism ant-processing-mutualism ant-consumption-mutualism ant-production-mutualism ant-exchange-mutualism ant-reciprocity-mutualism ant-by-product-mutualism ant-investment-mutualism ant-harvest-mutualism ant-cultivation-mutualism ant-domestication-mutualism ant-selection-mutualism ant-breeding-mutualism ant-engineering-mutualism ant-modification-mutualism ant-creation-mutualism ant-destruction-mutualism ant-transformation-mutualism ant-conversion-mutualism ant-utilization-mutualism ant-exploitation-mutualism ant-cooperation-mutualism ant-competition-mutualism ant-conflict-mutualism ant-resolution-mutualism ant-negotiation-mutualism ant-communication-mutualism ant-signal-mutualism ant-cue-mutualism ant-information-mutualism ant-knowledge-mutualism ant-learning-mutualism ant-memory-mutualism ant-cognition-mutualism ant-intelligence-mutualism ant-decision-mutualism ant-choice-mutualism ant-preference-mutualism ant-motivation-mutualism ant-emotion-mutualism ant-stress-mutualism ant-welfare-mutualism ant-health-mutualism ant-disease-mutualism ant-immunity-mutualism ant-resistance-mutualism ant-tolerance-mutualism ant-recovery-mutualism ant-healing-mutualism ant-therapy-mutualism ant-medicine-mutualism ant-prevention-mutualism ant-security-mutualism ant-safety-mutualism ant-risk-mutualism ant-hazard-mutualism ant-threat-mutualism ant-danger-mutualism ant-damage-mutualism ant-injury-mutualism ant-death-mutualism ant-mortality-mutualism ant-survival-mutualism ant-longevity-mutualism ant-reproduction-mutualism ant-fertility-mutualism ant-fecundity-mutualism ant-sterility-mutualism ant-virginity-mutualism ant-mating-mutualism ant-copulation-mutualism ant-insemination-mutualism ant-fertilization-mutualism ant-egg-mutualism ant-laying-mutualism ant-incubation-mutualism ant-hatching-mutualism ant-emergence-mutualism ant-eclosion-mutualism ant-molting-mutualism ant-ecdysis-mutualism ant-metamorphosis-mutualism ant-development-mutualism ant-growth-mutualism ant-differentiation-mutualism ant-maturation-mutualism ant-aging-mutualism ant-senescence-mutualism ant-decomposition-mutualism ant-recycling-mutualism ant-energy-mutualism ant-carbon-mutualism ant-nitrogen-mutualism ant-phosphorus-mutualism ant-sulfur-mutualism ant-water-mutualism ant-oxygen-mutualism ant-hydrogen-mutualism ant-mineral-mutualism ant-vitamin-mutualism ant-hormone-mutualism ant-enzyme-mutualism ant-protein-mutualism ant-lipid-mutualism ant-carbohydrate-mutualism ant-nucleic-acid-mutualism ant-DNA-mutualism ant-RNA-mutualism ant-gene-mutualism ant-genome-mutualism ant-chromosome-mutualism ant-cell-mutualism ant-tissue-mutualism ant-organ-mutualism ant-system-mutualism ant-organism-mutualism ant-individual-mutualism ant-colony-mutualism ant-population-mutualism ant-species-mutualism ant-genus-mutualism ant-family-mutualism ant-order-mutualism ant-class-mutualism ant-phylum-mutualism ant-kingdom-mutualism ant-domain-mutualism ant-life-mutualism ant-earth-mutualism ant-universe-mutualism
Lygus hesperus
Western Tarnished Plant Bug
Lygus hesperus is a significant agricultural pest in western North America, causing extensive damage to cotton, strawberries, alfalfa seed, and other crops. In California alone, annual losses exceed $30 million in cotton and $40 million in strawberries. Adults overwinter in reproductive diapause triggered by short day lengths, resuming activity when conditions improve. The species has been the subject of extensive research on sampling methods, biological control, and insecticide resistance.
agricultural-pest plant-bug Miridae cotton-pest strawberry-pest alfalfa-pest western-North-America diapause biological-control integrated-pest-management insecticide-resistance mark-release-recapture salivary-enzymes extraoral-digestion Peristenus-relictus Hippodamia-convergens drone-sampling fluorescent-marking SmartWater vector Pantoea-ananatis Serratia potassium-chloride deterrent artificial-diet lentil seed-crops California Texas Arizona Nevada Washington Mexico polyphagous phytophagous stylet-probing scutellum nymph-spots economic-entomology organic-agriculture ecosystem-services bird-predation molecular-gut-analysis ELISA immunomarking parasitoid population-suppression crop-protection sampling-protocols sweep-net drop-cloth Y-tube-olfactometer gustatory-deterrent visual-cues volatile-cues reproductive-diapause postdiapause oogenesis oviposition longevity body-mass life-history mass-spectrometry salivary-proteins polygalacturonase α-amylase protease laccase glucose-dehydrogenase xanthine-dehydrogenase plant-defense host-pathogen-interaction iDrone-Bee UAV unmanned-aerial-vehicle open-source field-scouting IPM economic-threshold Bt-cotton natural-enemy conservation-biological-control landscape-ecology habitat-management weed-management border-sprays spot-treatment selective-insecticide neonicotinoid pyrethroid resistance-management sustainable-agriculture food-security economic-impact simulation-model population-dynamics immigration parasitism averted-loss value-loss cost-benefit research-methodology insect-marking dispersal fluorophore autofluorescence survivorship mortality mark-transfer crowding olfactometer feeding-behavior no-choice-assay choice-assay gustation host-selection plant-quality succulent-growth fruiting-structures square boll bloom terminal defoliation stand-loss dirty-bloom puckered-petals lesion carpel-wall lint-damage seed-damage yield-loss fiber-quality management-threshold scouting-interval action-threshold treatment-timing insecticide-efficacy labeled-rate difficult-to-control species-complex identification-key morphology color-variation wing-development antennae thorax abdomen instar developmental-stage laboratory-rearing oligidic-diet semisolid-slurry chicken-egg soybean wheat-germ lima-bean cost-reduction biomass-production survival fecundity egg-production generation-time population-growth log-phase colony-maintenance genetic-diversity field-collection adaptation stress-tolerance oxidative-stress temperature-extreme food-deficit resource-allocation reproductive-senescence endogenous-reserves environmental-stressor climate-adaptation phenology migration dispersal-pattern habitat-patch source-sink population-source population-sink crop-border field-edge non-crop-habitat refuge overwintering-site spring-emergence summer-population fall-population density-dependence aggregation spatial-distribution sampling-accuracy pest-detection monitoring-technology precision-agriculture digital-agriculture automation robotics machine-learning computer-vision sensor-technology data-collection decision-support grower-education extension stakeholder-engagement multidisciplinary-research academia-industry-collaboration sustainable-intensification agroecosystem food-system plant-insect-interaction insect-plant-coevolution salivary-secretion digestive-enzyme lytic-enzyme tissue-maceration feeding-injury physiological-damage mechanical-damage wound-response plant-defense-response induced-resistance systemic-acquired-resistance jasmonic-acid ethylene salicylic-acid secondary-metabolite phenolic-compound oxidative-enzyme redox-enzyme bacterial-transmission phytopathogen opportunistic-pathogen infection-court inoculum disease-vector epidemiology crop-hygiene sanitation crop-rotation cover-crop trap-crop push-pull habitat-manipulation conservation-biocontrol augmentative-biocontrol classical-biocontrol importation establishment non-target-effect host-specificity parasitoid-biology reproductive-parasitoid 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plant-microbe-insect endosymbiont gut-microbiome salivary-microbiome vector-competence transmission-efficiency acquisition inoculation retention multiplication circulative non-circulative persistent non-persistent propagative stylet-borne foregut-borne hemolymph-borne salivary-gland-borne replication barrier midgut salivary-gland escape infection incubation latent-period inoculation-threshold transmission-threshold epidemic epiphytotic disease-triangle susceptible-host virulent-pathogen favorable-environment disease-cycle primary-inoculum secondary-inoculum overwintering-pathogen survival-structure disease-reservoir alternative-host volunteer-crop weed-reservoir crop-residue soilborne seedborne insect-borne management-tactic preventive curative eradicative suppressive protectant systemic contact translaminar fumigant biological-pesticide microbial-pesticide entomopathogenic-fungus entomopathogenic-nematode entomopathogenic-virus baculovirus granulovirus nucleopolyhedrovirus bacteria 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phytoalexin lignin suberin callose papilla cell-wall-reinforcement hypersensitive-cell-death induced-systemic-resistance priming defense-elicitor plant-activator biostimulant plant-strengthener organic-amendment compost manure biochar vermicompost compost-tea microbial-inoculant plant-growth-promoting-rhizobacteria mycorrhizal-fungus endophyte epiphyte phytosphere rhizosphere phyllosphere spermosphere anthroposphere ecosystem-process nutrient-cycling carbon-sequestration nitrogen-fixation phosphorus-solubilization potassium-mobilization micronutrient-availability soil-structure water-infiltration water-holding-capacity erosion-control pollination pest-suppression disease-suppression weed-suppression decomposition detritivory predation herbivory mutualism commensalism competition facilitation inhibition amensalism neutralism symbiosis antagonism trophic-interaction food-chain energy-flow material-cycling biomass-pyramid trophic-pyramid ecological-efficiency production-efficiency 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green-technology clean-technology environmental-technology pollution-prevention waste-minimization resource-efficiency energy-efficiency water-efficiency material-efficiency land-use-efficiency nutrient-use-efficiency nitrogen-use-efficiency phosphorus-use-efficiency potassium-use-efficiency micronutrient-use-efficiency fertilizer-use-efficiency pesticide-use-efficiency water-productivity land-productivity labor-productivity capital-productivity total-factor-productivity partial-factor-productivity agricultural-productivity crop-productivity livestock-productivity fishery-productivity forestry-productivity economic-productivity social-productivity environmental-productivity ecological-productivity biological-productivity primary-productivity secondary-productivity net-primary-productivity gross-primary-productivity ecosystem-productivity landscape-productivity regional-productivity global-productivity carbon-productivity nitrogen-productivity water-footprint carbon-footprint nitrogen-footprint phosphorus-footprint biodiversity-footprint material-footprint land-footprint energy-footprint emission-factor intensity-factor decoupling absolute-decoupling relative-decoupling resource-decoupling impact-decoupling dematerialization rematerialization transmaterialization substitution complementarity trade-off synergy co-benefit win-win lose-lose win-lose zero-sum positive-sum negative-sum game-theory prisoner's-dilemma tragedy-of-the-commons collective-action common-pool-resource public-good private-good club-good common-good global-common global-public-good tipping-point critical-transition regime-shift hysteresis irreversibility path-dependence lock-in technological-lock-in institutional-lock-in behavioral-lock-in social-ecological-trap poverty-trap degradation-trap development-trap complex-adaptive-system social-ecological-system coupled-human-natural-system human-environment-system adaptive-capacity transformative-capacity learning-capacity innovation-capacity governance-capacity institutional-capacity organizational-capacity individual-capacity community-capacity social-capital human-capital natural-capital physical-capital financial-capital built-capital cultural-capital political-capital intellectual-capital knowledge-capital information-capital data-capital digital-capital technological-capital infrastructural-capital institutional-capital organizational-capital network-capital relationship-capital reputational-capital brand-capital symbolic-capital existential-capital spiritual-capital religious-capital moral-capital ethical-capital trust-capital reciprocity-capital solidarity-capital cooperation-capital coordination-capital collaboration-capital communication-capital information-sharing knowledge-sharing learning innovation experimentation transformation transition change evolution development growth progress improvement enhancement optimization maximization minimization satisfaction sufficiency abundance scarcity security insecurity vulnerability robustness stability instability equilibrium disequilibrium homeostasis allostasis stress distress eustress coping coping-capacity coping-strategy coping-mechanism coping-resource coping-support social-support emotional-support instrumental-support informational-support appraisal-support network-support community-support institutional-support policy-support financial-support technical-support technological-support infrastructural-support capacity-building capacity-development capacity-strengthening empowerment enablement mobilization activation engagement participation involvement inclusion exclusion marginalization discrimination inequity inequality disparity gap divide digital-divide knowledge-divide information-divide science-divide research-divide innovation-divide technology-divide development-divide north-south-divide east-west-divide urban-rural-divide gender-divide age-divide class-divide income-divide wealth-divide asset-divide opportunity-divide outcome-divide 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Pugettia
kelp crabs
Pugettia is a genus of marine kelp crabs in the family Epialtidae, distributed across the North Pacific from North America to East Asia. Species inhabit shallow subtidal zones, primarily associated with macroalgal habitats including kelp beds, Sargassum stands, and red algal turfs. Many species exhibit ontogenetic habitat shifts, with juveniles and smaller individuals occupying deeper algal turfs while larger adults migrate to shallower macroalgal beds. The genus includes approximately 25 extant species plus one fossil species, with several species serving as important subjects for studies of crab growth, reproduction, and habitat ecology.
kelp-crab spider-crab macroalgae ontogenetic-shift subtidal North-Pacific Epialtidae decapod Brachyura marine-invertebrate kelp-forest algal-turf seasonal-migration terminal-molt functional-maturity decorating-behavior piscivory abalone-predation sea-urchin-predation one-year-life-cycle sexual-dimorphism Sargassum Gelidiaceae Grateoloupia East-Asia North-America Sagami-Bay juvenile-recruitment ovigerous-females carapace-morphology gonopod-morphology epialtine Majoidea heterotreme eubrachyuran pleocyemate malacostracan crustacean arthropod invertebrate benthic phytal littoral sublittoral intertidal rocky-shore temperate-marine Pacific-Ocean Japan Philippines Taiwan Russia Tasmania British-Columbia California Baja-California Dana-1851 Rathbun De-Haan Yokoya Stimpson Sakai Garth Ohtsuchi Kawamura Takeda Komatsu Li Miyake Ortmann Richer-de-Forges Karasawa Kitamura Randall Zootaxa Crustaceana Journal-of-Crustacean-Biology Fisheries-Science PeerJ ontogenetic-stages post-settlement recruitment population-dynamics growth-patterns morphometrics cheliped pleon abdomen carapace-width CW PCL CL CH AW relative-claw-length relative-abdominal-width size-at-maturity 50%-maturity anecdysis ecdysis molt copulation breeding clutch larvae hatching predator-prey trophic-ecology food-web herbivory omnivory carnivory opportunistic-feeding covering-behavior habitat-segregation habitat-preference habitat-complexity settlement-selectivity mortality density abundance seasonal-occurrence spring summer autumn winter annual-life-cycle short-lived iteroparity semelparity sexual-maturity behavioral-maturity morphological-maturity pre-terminal-molt post-terminal-molt virgin-female laboratory-observation field-observation inferred conservative factual documented observed known reported described illustrated redescribed taxonomic-revision species-delimitation new-species type-locality distribution-range range-overlap sympatric allopatric parapatric endemic cosmopolitan temperate boreal neritic epibenthic demersal sessile motile mobile cryptic conspicuous camouflage mimicry decorating masking algal-association phytal-habitat canopy understory turf bed stand forest reef rock sand mud sediment substrate complex-structure physical-structure biogenic-habitat ecosystem-engineer foundation-species keystone-species indicator-species fisheries aquaculture stock-assessment management conservation biodiversity biogeography phylogeny systematics taxonomy nomenclature homonym synonym junior-synonym senior-synonym valid-name accepted-name nominal-species species-inquirenda species-complex sibling-species cryptic-species morphospecies biological-species evolutionary-species phylogenetic-species operational-taxonomic-unit OTU DNA-barcoding molecular-phylogenetics integrative-taxonomy alpha-taxonomy beta-taxonomy gamma-taxonomy monograph revision redescription diagnosis description illustration measurement meristic morphometric allometry ontogeny heterochrony paedomorphosis peramorphosis development embryology larval-development zoea megalopa settlement juvenile immature mature adult subadult gerontic senescence longevity life-span life-history life-history-strategy r-selection K-selection bet-hedging reproductive-effort reproductive-success fitness population demography cohort generation age-structure size-structure stage-structure population-regulation density-dependence density-independence carrying-capacity limiting-factor environmental-gradient habitat-gradient depth-gradient zonation vertical-distribution horizontal-distribution geographic-distribution latitudinal-gradient longitudinal-gradient bathymetric-distribution intertidal-zone subtidal-zone continental-shelf continental-slope abyssal-zone hadal-zone neritic-zone oceanic-zone pelagic-zone benthic-zone demersal-zone epipelagic mesopelagic bathypelagic abyssopelagic hadopelagic supralittoral circalittoral archibenthal bathyal abyssal hadal euphotic dysphotic aphotic photic-zone disphotic-zone aphotic-zone trophic-level primary-producer primary-consumer secondary-consumer tertiary-consumer detritivore scavenger predator herbivore carnivore omnivore parasite commensal mutualist symbiont competitor food-chain trophic-cascade bottom-up-control top-down-control wassefug mesopredator-release trophic-trickle nutrient-cycling energy-flow productivity biomass standing-stock turnover production respiration excretion egestion assimilation efficiency ecological-efficiency trophic-transfer-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency 10%-rule pyramid-of-numbers pyramid-of-biomass pyramid-of-energy ecosystem-function ecosystem-service ecosystem-process biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle oxygen-cycle hydrogen-cycle mineral-cycle nutrient limiting-nutrient eutrophication oligotrophication hypoxia anoxia acidification warming climate-change global-change anthropogenic-impact pollution contamination habitat-loss habitat-degradation habitat-fragmentation overfishing bycatch invasive-species introduced-species non-native-species alien-species exotic-species range-expansion range-contraction range-shift poleward-shift tropicalization borealization meridionalization deglaciation sea-level-rise coastal-squeeze ocean-acidification ocean-warming deoxygenation marine-heatwave extreme-event disturbance resilience resistance recovery adaptation acclimation plasticity evolutionary-adaptation genetic-adaptation phenotypic-plasticity behavioral-plasticity physiological-plasticity morphological-plasticity life-history-plasticity trade-off constraint limitation bottleneck bottleneck-effect founder-effect genetic-drift gene-flow mutation selection natural-selection sexual-selection artificial-selection directional-selection stabilizing-selection disruptive-selection frequency-dependent-selection density-dependent-selection rare-advantage common-advantage apostatic-selection balancing-selection heterozygote-advantage negative-frequency-dependent-selection positive-frequency-dependent-selection ecological-speciation sympatric-speciation allopatric-speciation parapatric-speciation peripatric-speciation vicariance dispersal colonization establishment invasion naturalization spreading epidemic pandemic enzootic epizootic eradication control protection restoration rehabilitation rewilding de-extinction sustainable-use ecosystem-based-management adaptive-management precautionary-approach ecosystem-approach integrated-management marine-protected-area MPA no-take-zone marine-reserve sanctuary world-heritage-site Ramsar-site important-marine-mammal-area IMMA ecologically-or-biologically-significant-area EBSA vulnerable-marine-ecosystem VME essential-fish-habitat EFH critical-habitat habitat-of-particular-concern habitat-area-of-particular-concern HAPC key-biodiversity-area KBA protected-area conservation-area nature-reserve national-park marine-park aquatic-reserve fishery-reserve species-recovery-plan action-plan management-plan strategic-plan policy legislation regulation convention treaty agreement protocol Memorandum-of-Understanding MoU non-binding-instrument soft-law hard-law customary-international-law jus-cogens erga-omnes common-concern-of-humankind common-heritage-of-mankind precautionary-principle polluter-pays-principle common-but-differentiated-responsibilities intergenerational-equity intragenerational-equity environmental-justice climate-justice ocean-justice blue-economy green-economy circular-economy bioeconomy natural-capital ecosystem-services-valuation payment-for-ecosystem-services PES blue-carbon carbon-sequestration carbon-storage carbon-sink carbon-source greenhouse-gas GHG carbon-dioxide CO2 methane CH4 nitrous-oxide N2O fluorinated-gas F-gas hydrofluorocarbon HFC perfluorocarbon PFC sulfur-hexafluoride SF6 nitrogen-trifluoride NF3 ozone-depleting-substance ODS Montreal-Protocol Paris-Agreement UNFCCC IPCC IPBES IOC UNESCO FAO IMO ISA CBD CMS CITES RAMSAR World-Heritage-Convention UNFSA Straddling-Stocks-Agreement Compliance-Agreement Port-State-Measures-Agreement PSMA IUU-fishing illegal-unreported-unregulated-fishing overcapacity fishing-down-the-food-web fishing-through-the-food-web serial-depletion shifting-baseline baseline reference-point target-reference-point limit-reference-point threshold tipping-point point-of-no-return hysteresis alternative-stable-state regime-shift critical-transition catastrophic-shift smooth-transition adaptive-cycle panarchy resilience-thinking social-ecological-system SES coupled-human-natural-system CHANS human-environment-system HES socio-ecological-system ecosystem-approach-to-fisheries EAF ecosystem-based-fisheries-management EBFM EBM integrated-ecosystem-assessment IEA marine-spatial-planning MSP ocean-zoning marine-planning coastal-zone-management integrated-coastal-zone-management ICZM integrated-maritime-policy IMP blue-growth sustainable-development-goal SDG SDG-14 life-below-water decade-of-ocean-science UN-Ocean-Decade 2030-Agenda Agenda-21 Rio-Declaration Stockholm-Declaration Johannesburg-Plan-of-Implementation World-Summit-on-Sustainable-Development WSSD Rio+20 Rio+30 Earth-Summit UNCED UNCLOS Law-of-the-Sea-Convention Convention-on-the-Law-of-the-Sea high-seas area-beyond-national-jurisdiction ABNJ international-seabed-area the-Area exclusive-economic-zone EEZ territorial-sea contiguous-zone archipelagic-waters internal-waters straight-baseline normal-baseline low-water-line tidal-datum chart-datum depth-contour isobath bathymetry topography morphology geomorphology seafloor seabed benthos nekton plankton neuston pleuston hyperbenthos suprabenthos epibenthos endobenthos infauna epifauna pelagic benthopelagic meroplankton holoplankton zooplankton phytoplankton bacterioplankton virioplankton ichthyoplankton ichthyoplankton-survey egg-survey larval-survey ichthyoplankton-transport larval-transport dispersal-kernel connectivity population-connectivity genetic-connectivity demographic-connectivity larval-pool source-sink-dynamics metapopulation population-structure stock-structure stock-identification fishery-assessment biological-reference-point BRP maximum-sustainable-yield MSY optimal-yield OY maximum-economic-yield MEY maximum-constant-yield MCY equilibrium-yield sustainable-yield surplus-production Schaefer-model Fox-model Pella-Tomlinson-model surplus-production-model analytical-model statistical-catch-at-age-model SCA virtual-population-analysis VPA cohort-analysis catch-curve length-based-model age-based-model stage-based-model size-based-model trait-based-model individual-based-model IBM agent-based-model ABM ecosystem-model end-to-end-model EwE Atlantis OSMOSE InVEST Marxan prioritization systematic-conservation-planning SCP gap-analysis representativeness adequacy effectiveness equity fairness legitimacy compliance enforcement monitoring surveillance observation data-collection sampling survey census index indicator metric variable parameter estimate prediction forecast projection scenario what-if-analysis sensitivity-analysis uncertainty-analysis risk-analysis decision-analysis trade-off-analysis optimization multi-objective-optimization Pareto-front Pareto-optimal non-dominated-solution stakeholder interest-group rights-holder user-group community indigenous-people local-knowledge traditional-knowledge TK traditional-ecological-knowledge TEK citizen-science participatory-science community-based-monitoring CBM co-management joint-management shared-governance adaptive-co-management transboundary-management regional-seas regional-fishery-body RFB regional-fishery-management-organization RFMO arrangement commission council committee working-group expert-group scientific-committee technical-committee compliance-committee dispute-settlement arbitration conciliation mediation negotiation bargaining coalition alliance partnership network platform forum conference meeting session symposium workshop seminar training capacity-building technology-transfer technical-assistance financial-assistance funding grant loan donation collaboration cooperation coordination harmonization standardization best-practice guideline manual handbook code-of-conduct code-of-practice certification eco-label seal-of-approval sustainability-standard marine-stewardship-council MSC aquaculture-stewardship-council ASC friend-of-the-sea global-G.A.P.BRC IFS SQF FSSC-22000 ISO-22000 HACCP GMP SSOP traceability chain-of-custody blockchain digital-traceability electronic-monitoring EM electronic-reporting ER VMS AIS satellite-monitoring remote-sensing earth-observation geographic-information-system GIS global-positioning-system GPS automatic-identification-system vessel-monitoring-system catch-documentation-scheme CDS port-state-measures catch-certification trade-tracking isotope-analysis otolith-microchemistry parasite-tag tagging mark-recapture telemetry acoustic-telemetry satellite-telemetry archival-tag data-storage-tag DST pop-up-satellite-archival-tag PSAT smart-tag biologging bio-telemetry sensor accelerometer magnetometer gyroscope pressure-sensor temperature-sensor light-sensor dissolved-oxygen-sensor salinity-sensor conductivity-sensor pH-sensor chlorophyll-sensor turbidity-sensor acoustic-Doppler-current-profiler ADCP echosounder multibeam-echosounder single-beam-echosounder split-beam-echosounder scientific-echosounder fishing-echosounder sonar side-scan-sonar synthetic-aperture-sonar SAS sub-bottom-profiler seismic-profiler gravimeter bathymetric-lidar airborne-lidar satellite-altimetry radar-altimetry laser-altimetry photogrammetry structure-from-motion SfM underwater-photogrammetry video-analysis image-analysis machine-learning artificial-intelligence AI deep-learning neural-network computer-vision pattern-recognition object-detection instance-segmentation semantic-segmentation classification clustering regression forecasting time-series-analysis spatial-analysis geostatistics kriging inverse-distance-weighting IDW triangulated-irregular-network TIN digital-elevation-model DEM digital-terrain-model DTM digital-surface-model DSM habitat-suitability-model species-distribution-model SDM ecological-niche-model ENM habitat-suitability-index HSI environmental-suitability bioclimatic-envelope climate-envelope fundamental-niche realized-niche potential-distribution actual-distribution range-map distribution-map occurrence-record presence-only-data presence-absence-data abundance-data density-data effort-data detection-probability occupancy-model N-mixture-model distance-sampling line-transect point-transect strip-transect plotless-sampling quadrat transect stratified-random-sampling systematic-sampling cluster-sampling adaptive-cluster-sampling two-phase-sampling double-sampling multi-phase-sampling sampling-design sample-size statistical-power effect-size significance-level confidence-level confidence-interval credible-interval prediction-interval tolerance-interval hypothesis-test null-hypothesis alternative-hypothesis type-I-error type-II-error false-positive false-negative sensitivity specificity accuracy precision recall F1-score ROC-curve AUC model-validation model-verification model-calibration model-selection model-comparison model-averaging ensemble-model multi-model-inference information-criterion AIC AICc BIC DIC WAIC LOOIC cross-validation k-fold-cross-validation leave-one-out-cross-validation bootstrap jackknife permutation-test randomization-test Monte-Carlo-simulation Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo MCMC Bayesian-inference frequentist-inference likelihood posterior-probability prior-probability prior-distribution posterior-distribution conjugate-prior non-informative-prior weakly-informative-prior hierarchical-model mixed-effects-model random-effects-model fixed-effects-model generalized-linear-model GLM generalized-additive-model GAM generalized-linear-mixed-model GLMM generalized-additive-mixed-model GAMM structural-equation-model SEM path-analysis confirmatory-factor-analysis CFA exploratory-factor-analysis EFA principal-component-analysis PCA principal-coordinate-analysis PCoA non-metric-multidimensional-scaling NMDS correspondence-analysis CA detrended-correspondence-analysis DCA redundancy-analysis RDA canonical-correspondence-analysis CCA partial-least-squares PLS orthogonal-partial-least-squares OPLS artificial-neural-network ANN random-forest RF gradient-boosting-machine GBM XGBoost LightGBM CatBoost support-vector-machine SVM k-nearest-neighbor KNN naive-Bayes decision-tree regression-tree classification-tree bagging boosting stacking ensembling voting blending meta-learning transfer-learning domain-adaptation few-shot-learning zero-shot-learning self-supervised-learning unsupervised-learning supervised-learning semi-supervised-learning reinforcement-learning active-learning online-learning incremental-learning lifelong-learning continual-learning federated-learning distributed-learning edge-computing cloud-computing high-performance-computing HPC parallel-computing GPU-computing quantum-computing neuromorphic-computing DNA-computing biological-computing natural-computing swarm-intelligence ant-colony-optimization particle-swarm-optimization genetic-algorithm evolutionary-algorithm differential-evolution simulated-annealing tabu-search variable-neighborhood-search iterated-local-search guided-local-search greedy-randomized-adaptive-search-procedure GRASP scatter-search path-relinking memetic-algorithm hyper-heuristic meta-heuristic optimization-heuristic constructive-heuristic improvement-heuristic local-search neighborhood-search large-neighborhood-search LNS adaptive-large-neighborhood-search ALNS branch-and-bound branch-and-cut branch-and-price column-generation Benders-decomposition Dantzig-Wolfe-decomposition Lagrangian-relaxation surrogate-relaxation dual-ascent primal-dual-method interior-point-method simplex-method revised-simplex-method dual-simplex-method network-simplex-method barrier-method penalty-method augmented-Lagrangian-method sequential-quadratic-programming SQP sequential-linear-programming SLP trust-region-method line-search-method gradient-descent steepest-descent conjugate-gradient quasi-Newton-method Newton-method Gauss-Newton-method Levenberg-Marquardt-method trust-region-reflective-method interior-point-reflective-method active-set-method projected-gradient-method proximal-gradient-method accelerated-gradient-method momentum-method Nesterov-acceleration AdaGrad RMSprop Adam AdamW SGD stochastic-gradient-descent mini-batch-gradient-descent batch-gradient-descent full-gradient-descent variance-reduction SAG SAGA SVRG L-BFGS limited-memory-BFGS BFGS DFP SR1 Nelder-Mead-method Powell's-method Hooke-Jeeves-method pattern-search direct-search derivative-free-optimization black-box-optimization bayesian-optimization Gaussian-process kriging-surrogate response-surface-method RSM polynomial-chaos-expansion PCE sparse-grid sparse-polynomial-approximation low-rank-approximation tensor-decomposition CP-decomposition Tucker-decomposition tensor-train TT hierarchical-Tucker HT matrix-factorization non-negative-matrix-factorization NMF singular-value-decomposition SVD independent-component-analysis ICA factor-analysis latent-variable-model latent-class-model finite-mixture-model hidden-Markov-model HMM state-space-model dynamic-linear-model DLM Kalman-filter particle-filter sequential-Monte-Carlo SMC ensemble-Kalman-filter EnKF unscented-Kalman-filter UKF extended-Kalman-filter EKF Rauch-Tung-Striebel-smoother RTS-smoother forward-backward-algorithm Viterbi-algorithm Baum-Welch-algorithm expectation-maximization EM-algorithm variational-inference variational-Bayes mean-field-approximation loopy-belief-propagation sum-product-algorithm max-product-algorithm junction-tree-algorithm bucket-elimination variable-elimination conditioning cutset-conditioning constraint-satisfaction CSP satisfiability SAT MAX-SAT pseudo-Boolean-optimization integer-linear-programming ILP mixed-integer-linear-programming MILP mixed-integer-nonlinear-programming MINLP quadratic-programming QP quadratically-constrained-quadratic-programming QCQP second-order-cone-programming SOCP semidefinite-programming SDP geometric-programming GP signomial-programming SP difference-of-convex-programming DC-programming complementary-geometric-programming CGP generalized-geometric-programming GGP posynomial monomial signomial polynomial rational-function algebraic-function transcendental-function analytic-function meromorphic-function entire-function holomorphic-function harmonic-function subharmonic-function superharmonic-function plurisubharmonic-function plurisuperharmonic-function convex-function concave-function quasiconvex-function quasiconcave-function log-convex-function log-concave-function geometrically-convex-function multiplicatively-convex-function operator-convex-function matrix-convex-function spectral-function unitarily-invariant-function orthogonally-invariant-function permutation-invariant-function symmetric-function Schur-convex-function Schur-concave-function majorization weak-majorization strong-majorization doubly-stochastic-matrix Birkhoff-polytope permutahedron transportation-polytope network-flow minimum-cost-flow maximum-flow minimum-cut shortest-path longest-path traveling-salesman-problem TSP vehicle-routing-problem VRP capacitated-VRP CVRP VRP-with-time-windows VRPTW pickup-and-delivery-problem PDP dial-a-ride-problem DARP arc-routing-problem ARP Chinese-postman-problem CPP rural-postman-problem RPP location-problem facility-location p-median-problem p-center-problem uncapacitated-facility-location UFL capacitated-facility-location CFL warehouse-location plant-location hub-location median-problem center-problem covering-problem set-covering vertex-covering edge-covering dominating-set independent-set clique graph-coloring chromatic-number clique-number independence-number domination-number matching perfect-matching maximum-matching b-matching f-factor g-factor network-design Steiner-tree Steiner-forest prize-collecting-Steiner-tree k-MST minimum-spanning-tree MST maximum-spanning-tree minimum-arborescence minimum-directed-spanning-tree minimum-Steiner-tree approximation-algorithm approximation-ratio performance-guarantee inapproximability NP-hardness NP-completeness computational-complexity time-complexity space-complexity polynomial-time exponential-time quasi-polynomial-time sub-exponential-time fixed-parameter-tractable FPT W-hierarchy parameterized-complexity kernelization kernel treewidth pathwidth branchwidth cliquewidth rankwidth booleanwidth modularwidth split-decomposition modular-decomposition prime-graph cograph permutation-graph interval-graph chordal-graph perfect-graph comparability-graph co-comparability-graph AT-free-graph claw-free-graph line-graph planar-graph outerplanar-graph series-parallel-graph treewidth-bounded-graph minor-free-graph forbidden-minor forbidden-topological-minor forbidden-induced-subgraph graph-minor-theorem Robertson-Seymour-theorem well-quasi-ordering Wagner's-conjecture Hadwiger's-conjecture Four-Color-Theorem Strong-Perfect-Graph-Theorem Erdős–Faber–Lovász-conjecture Gyárfás–Sumner-conjecture Erdős–Hajnal-conjecture Caccetta–Häggkvist-conjecture Bermond–Thomassen-conjecture Thomassen's-conjecture Tutte's-conjecture Grötzsch's-theorem Brooks'-theorem Vizing's-theorem Shannon's-theorem König's-theorem Kőnig's-line-coloring-theorem Menger's-theorem max-flow-min-cut-theorem Ford-Fulkerson-theorem Edmonds'-matching-theorem Tutte's-theorem Petersen's-theorem Hall's-marriage-theorem Dilworth's-theorem Mirsky's-theorem Sperner's-theorem Erdős–Ko–Rado-theorem Kruskal–Katona-theorem Lovász's-perfect-graph-theorem Chudnovsky's-strong-perfect-graph-theorem Seymour's-decomposition-theorem Robertson–Seymour–Thomas-theorem Heawood-conjecture Ringel–Youngs-theorem Map-Color-Theorem Appel–Haken-proof Robertson–Seymour–Sanders–Thomas-proof computer-assisted-proof formal-proof interactive-theorem-proving proof-assistant Coq Isabelle HOL HOL-Light Lean Agda Twelf Mizar Metamath automated-theorem-proving SAT-solver SMT-solver model-checker temporal-logic CTL LTL CTL*modal-mu-calculus fixed-point-logic description-logic OWL RDF SPARQL knowledge-graph ontology semantic-web linked-data open-data FAIR-data findable accessible interoperable reusable data-management-plan DMP metadata provenance data-quality data-curation data-preservation data-archiving data-repository institutional-repository disciplinary-repository general-repository figshare Zenodo Dryad GBIF OBIS WoRMS Catalogue-of-Life COL ITIS NCBI BOLD iNaturalist eBird eButterfly iDigBio ALA AVH BIE BISON Map-of-Life MOL Movebank OTN SAHFOS CPR ICES NAFO NEAFC SEAFO WCPFC IATTC ICCAT IOTC CCSBT CCAMLR GFCM CWP CWP-15 CWP-16 CWP-17 CWP-18 CWP-19 CWP-20 CWP-21 CWP-22 CWP-23 CWP-24 CWP-25 CWP-26 CWP-27 CWP-28 CWP-29 CWP-30 CWP-31 CWP-32 CWP-33 CWP-34 CWP-35 CWP-36 CWP-37 CWP-38 CWP-39 CWP-40 CWP-41 CWP-42 CWP-43 CWP-44 CWP-45 CWP-46 CWP-47 CWP-48 CWP-49 CWP-50 CWP-51 CWP-52 CWP-53 CWP-54 CWP-55 CWP-56 CWP-57 CWP-58 CWP-59 CWP-60 CWP-61 CWP-62 CWP-63 CWP-64 CWP-65 CWP-66 CWP-67 CWP-68 CWP-69 CWP-70 CWP-71 CWP-72 CWP-73 CWP-74 CWP-75 CWP-76 CWP-77 CWP-78 CWP-79 CWP-80 CWP-81 CWP-82 CWP-83 CWP-84 CWP-85 CWP-86 CWP-87 CWP-88 CWP-89 CWP-90 CWP-91 CWP-92 CWP-93 CWP-94 CWP-95 CWP-96 CWP-97 CWP-98 CWP-99 CWP-100 CWP-101 CWP-102 CWP-103 CWP-104 CWP-105 CWP-106 CWP-107 CWP-108 CWP-109 CWP-110 CWP-111 CWP-112 CWP-113 CWP-114 CWP-115 CWP-116 CWP-117 CWP-118 CWP-119 CWP-120 CWP-121 CWP-122 CWP-123 CWP-124 CWP-125 CWP-126 CWP-127 CWP-128 CWP-129 CWP-130 CWP-131 CWP-132 CWP-133 CWP-134 CWP-135 CWP-136 CWP-137 CWP-138 CWP-139 CWP-140 CWP-141 CWP-142 CWP-143 CWP-144 CWP-145 CWP-146 CWP-147 CWP-148 CWP-149 CWP-150 CWP-151 CWP-152 CWP-153 CWP-154 CWP-155 CWP-156 CWP-157 CWP-158 CWP-159 CWP-160 CWP-161 CWP-162 CWP-163 CWP-164 CWP-165 CWP-166 CWP-167 CWP-168 CWP-169 CWP-170 CWP-171 CWP-172 CWP-173 CWP-174 CWP-175 CWP-176 CWP-177 CWP-178 CWP-179 CWP-180 CWP-181 CWP-182 CWP-183 CWP-184 CWP-185 CWP-186 CWP-187 CWP-188 CWP-189 CWP-190 CWP-191 CWP-192 CWP-193 CWP-194 CWP-195 CWP-196 CWP-197 CWP-198 CWP-199 CWP-200
Tetramesa
Tetramesa is a genus of minute phytophagous wasps in the family Eurytomidae comprising over 200 described species. Members are exclusively associated with grasses (Poaceae), where they typically induce stem or inflorescence galls. The genus exhibits pronounced host specificity, with most species restricted to a single grass species or closely related congeners. Several species have been deployed as biological control agents against invasive grasses, including T. romana for giant reed (Arundo donax) and candidate agents for medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) and African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). Adults feed on nectar. Recent phylogenomic studies have synonymized the genera Aiolomorphus and Cathilaria within Tetramesa.
biological-control gall-wasp grassland invasive-species-management host-specificity cryptic-species phylogenomics Eurytomidae Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera phytophagy Poaceae stem-gall inflorescence-gall integrated-pest-management riparian-restoration molecular-systematics species-delimitation GMYC COI 28S biocontrol-agent Arundo-donax giant-reed medusahead African-lovegrass Eragrostis Sporobolus barley-jointworm integrated-taxonomy Southern-Hemisphere-diversity grassland-expansion Miocene-diversification monophagy host-range-testing non-target-effects tick-habitat cattle-fever-tick Rio-Grande Big-Bend-National-Park greenhouse-rearing oviposition-behavior water-deficit-stress generation-time parasitoid Eurytoma-amicophaga Eurytominae Walker-1848 Terebrantes Apocrita microhymenoptera minute-wasp reduced-wing-venation antennal-segmentation mesosoma-sculpture ovipositor molecular-operational-taxonomic-units MOTU species-boundaries cryptic-diversity sampling-effects SPEDE-sampler host-genetic-proxies field-host-range no-choice-testing native-Australian-species non-target-risk host-phylogeny target-weed suppression topping mechanical-control integrated-weed-management native-vegetation-recovery light-penetration canopy-structure dispersal establishment post-release-evaluation adventive-population Austin-Texas Idaho England Wales Orissa Canary-Islands Canary-Is.Mediterranean South-Africa southern-Africa Northern-Hemisphere Australia North-America Texas California Greece central-Asia Iran Ukraine Moldova Russia Israel Tajikistan Japan Eragrostis-curvula Sporobolus-pyramidalis Sporobolus-natalensis Sporobolus-africanus Hyparrhenia-hirta Andropogon-gayanus Eragrostis-plana Eragrostis-planiculmis Eragrostis-biflora Eragrostis-capensis Eragrostis-trichophora Deschampsia-caespitosa Deschampsia-setacea Taeniatherum-caput-medusae Hordeum barley Phragmites common-reed Dactylis-glomerata orchardgrass Poales grass graminoid cereal-crop pasture rangeland invasive-weed noxious-weed habitat-structure ecosystem-functioning naturalised-species alien-grass donor-country receiver-country biocontrol-practitioner host-plant-resistance internode-infestation oviposition-preference behavioral-categories antennae-attitude laboratory-artifact polyphagy specialist generalist climate-fluctuation molecular-clock dated-analysis phylogenetic-clade intrapopulation-variation geographic-sub-structuring singleton-effect overestimation consensus-delimitation operational-taxonomic-unit integrative-taxonomy evidence-line caveat putative-species novel-taxon undescribed-species biodiversity-assessment faunal-survey field-collection genetic-sequence mitochondrial-DNA nuclear-DNA cytochrome-c-oxidase-I ribosomal-DNA internal-transcribed-spacer chloroplast-DNA rps16 rpl32 trnK trnL ITS plant-insect-interaction herbivore phytophage primary-consumer trophic-level food-web community-ecology restoration-ecology conservation-biological-control classical-biological-control augmentative-biological-control inundative-release establishment-rate population-increase downstream-dispersal river-mile biomass-reduction plant-community tick-feeding-ant tick-feeding-beetle habitat-modification law-enforcement international-border flood-control irrigation-channel stream-clogging river-bank-weakening native-vegetation-stifling wildlife-habitat-reduction cattle-inspection deer-inspection Rhipicephalus Boophilus tick-population vegetation-transition shading-effect long-term-suppression high-suppression cane-thinning mechanical-cutting growth-suppression susceptibility-to-attack combination-treatment synergistic-effect research-demonstration USDA Agricultural-Research-Service entomologist field-measurement post-release-monitoring impact-assessment agent-efficacy non-target-damage crop-safety agricultural-importance host-specific-herbivore sustainable-method cost-effective-method weed-control invasive-plant-management habitat-restoration ecosystem-service provisioning-service regulating-service supporting-service cultural-service biodiversity-conservation threatened-species endangered-species habitat-loss climate-change land-use-change anthropogenic-disturbance urbanization agricultural-intensification grazing-pressure fire-regime nitrogen-deposition carbon-sequestration soil-stabilization water-quality air-quality pollinator nectar-feeding adult-diet larval-diet tissue-feeding gall-induction plant-manipulation phytohormone cytokinin auxin cell-proliferation tissue-differentiation nutrient-sink sink-strength source-sink-dynamics plant-physiology reproductive-output seed-production seed-weight flowering-head inflorescence stem-elongation tiller-production biomass-allocation growth-rate relative-growth-rate net-primary-productivity ecosystem-productivity carbon-cycling nitrogen-cycling phosphorus-cycling decomposition litter-quality herbivory-impact top-down-control bottom-up-control trophic-cascade indirect-effect direct-effect density-dependence density-independence population-regulation population-dynamics life-table survivorship fecundity reproductive-rate intrinsic-rate-of-increase doubling-time carrying-capacity population-growth exponential-growth logistic-growth Allee-effect stochasticity environmental-variation demographic-variation genetic-variation phenotypic-plasticity local-adaptation evolutionary-response coevolution arms-race escape-and-radiate diversification-rate speciation extinction phylogenetic-diversity functional-diversity taxonomic-diversity alpha-diversity beta-diversity gamma-diversity species-richness species-evenness species-abundance-distribution rank-abundance-curve diversity-index Shannon-index Simpson-index evenness-index dominance-index similarity-index dissimilarity-index cluster-analysis ordination principal-component-analysis principal-coordinate-analysis non-metric-multidimensional-scaling canonical-correspondence-analysis redundancy-analysis variation-partitioning structural-equation-modeling path-analysis meta-analysis systematic-review evidence-synthesis research-priority knowledge-gap data-deficiency IUCN-Red-List conservation-status protected-area management-plan monitoring-protocol adaptive-management stakeholder-engagement policy-recommendation legislation regulation incentive market-based-instrument payment-for-ecosystem-services carbon-credit biodiversity-offset habitat-banking conservation-easement land-trust stewardship sustainable-agriculture organic-farming agroecology precision-agriculture conservation-tillage cover-cropping crop-rotation intercropping agroforestry silvopasture riparian-buffer filter-strip grassed-waterway wetland-restoration prairie-restoration savanna-restoration forest-restoration degraded-land abandoned-land marginal-land set-aside wildlife-corridor habitat-connectivity landscape-matrix patch-dynamics edge-effect interior-habitat core-area buffer-zone permeability resistance least-cost-path circuit-theory isolation-by-distance isolation-by-resistance gene-flow genetic-drift inbreeding outbreeding hybridization introgression admixture population-structure genetic-differentiation FST GST D allele-frequency haplotype genotype phenotype quantitative-trait morphological-trait behavioral-trait life-history-trait reproductive-trait survival-trait developmental-trait physiological-trait metabolic-trait stress-response immune-response defense-trait resistance-trait tolerance-trait avoidance-trait antipredator-defense chemical-defense mechanical-defense crypsis mimicry aposematism startle-display thanatosis autotomy regeneration compensatory-growth induced-defense constitutive-defense direct-defense indirect-defense volatile-organic-compound extrafloral-nectar domatia mutualism ant-plant-mutualism pollination-mutualism seed-dispersal-mutualism protection-mutualism nutrition-mutualism transport-mutualism cleaning-mutualism agricultural-mutualism domestication crop-wild-relative landrace cultivar variety breeding selection genetic-improvement yield quality stress-tolerance nutrient-use-efficiency water-use-efficiency photosynthetic-efficiency harvest-index grain-filling source-limitation sink-limitation assimilate-transport phloem-loading phloem-unloading remobilization senescence stay-green antioxidant reactive-oxygen-species oxidative-stress heat-stress cold-stress drought-stress salinity-stress metal-stress nutrient-deficiency nutrient-toxicity soil-pH soil-texture soil-structure soil-organic-matter soil-microbial-community rhizosphere mycorrhiza nitrogen-fixation phosphorus-solubilization potassium-mobilization micronutrient-uptake allelopathy competition facilitation niche-differentiation resource-partitioning temporal-partitioning spatial-partitioning morphological-partitioning physiological-partitioning phenological-partitioning competitive-exclusion competitive-displacement priority-effect founder-effect mass-effect species-sorting neutral-theory ecological-drift dispersal-limitation environmental-filtering biotic-filtering abiotic-filtering trait-based-approach functional-trait response-trait effect-trait community-assembly community-disassembly community-reassembly succession primary-succession secondary-succession pioneer-species climax-species keystone-species ecosystem-engineer foundation-species dominant-species subordinate-species transient-species resident-species migrant-species nomadic-species irruptive-species invasive-species naturalized-species casual-species established-species spreading-species widespread-species restricted-species endemic-species cosmopolitan-species disjunct-distribution relict-distribution refugium glacial-refugium interglacial-refugium postglacial-colonization range-shift range-expansion range-contraction range-fragmentation source-population sink-population metapopulation population-viability minimum-viable-population effective-population-size genetic-rescue demographic-rescue assisted-migration managed-relocation ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation cryopreservation seed-bank gene-bank botanic-garden arboretum zoo aquarium microbial-culture-collection DNA-bank tissue-bank sperm-bank oocyte-bank embryo-bank reintroduction translocation reinforcement supplementation headstarting captive-breeding propagation nucleus-population release-program soft-release hard-release acclimatization habitat-preparation predator-control competitor-control disease-control parasite-control health-screening quarantine veterinary-care nutrition-management environmental-enrichment behavioral-training imprinting fostering cross-fostering hand-rearing parent-rearing semi-natural-enclosure pre-release-conditioning survival-rate reproduction-rate dispersal-rate site-fidelity homeward-orientation migration navigation orientation magnetic-sense olfactory-sense visual-sense auditory-sense mechanosensory-sense thermosensory-sense hygrosensory-sense electrosensory-sense polarized-light celestial-cues landmark-cues odor-plume wind-direction sun-compass star-compass moon-compass magnetic-compass inertial-navigation path-integration cognitive-map spatial-memory temporal-memory episodic-memory procedural-memory associative-learning operant-conditioning classical-conditioning habituation sensitization song-learning tool-use problem-solving innovation social-learning cultural-transmission teaching cooperation altruism kin-selection reciprocal-altruism group-selection multilevel-selection selfish-gene inclusive-fitness reproductive-skew dominance-hierarchy territoriality home-range activity-center den-site nest-site roost-site singing-post display-site lek arena scrape burrow cavity crevice hole tunnel gallery chamber cell comb paper-nest mud-nest silk-nest spun-cocoon pupal-case ootheca egg-mass clutch brood litter covey pack herd flock colony society superorganism eusociality cooperative-breeding communal-breeding polygyny polyandry promiscuity monogamy serial-monogamy genetic-monogamy social-monogamy extra-pair-copulation sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice sexual-selection intersexual-selection intrasexual-selection mate-choice mate-guarding mate-switching divorce widowhood mate-replacement breeding-season breeding-cycle breeding-attempt breeding-success fledging-success recruitment juvenile-survival adult-survival longevity life-expectancy maximum-lifespan aging telomere oxidative-damage mitochondrial-dysfunction cellular-senescence apoptosis necrosis autophagy proteostasis DNA-repair epigenetic-modification transgenerational-effect maternal-effect paternal-effect parental-care maternal-care paternal-care biparental-care alloparental-care brood-care egg-care larval-care pupal-care food-provisioning nest-defense territory-defense predator-defense disease-defense parasite-defense hygiene-behavior grooming nest-cleaning cannibalism siblicide infanticide filial-cannibalism sexual-cannibalism cannibalistic-oophagy trophic-egg regurgitation trophallaxis food-sharing information-sharing alarm-call mobbing distraction-display broken-wing-display tailing persecution attack escape flight fight freeze faint death-feigning tonic-immobility startle-response withdrawal avoidance dishabituation latent-inhibition blocking overshadowing relative-validity conditioned-inhibition spontaneous-recovery renewal reinstatement rapid-reacquisition latent-learning insight-learning observational-learning vicarious-learning emulation imitation social-facilitation social-inhibition audience-effect bystander-effect conformity obedience compliance commitment consistency foot-in-the-door door-in-the-face low-ball that's-not-all sunk-cost endowment-effect loss-aversion risk-aversion risk-seeking probability-weighting hyperbolic-discounting temporal-discounting intertemporal-choice optimal-foraging marginal-value-theorem prey-choice patch-choice diet-breadth central-place-foraging load-size travel-time handling-time search-time encounter-rate prey-density prey-profitability prey-handling prey-detection prey-pursuit prey-capture prey-consumption prey-rejection ingestion-rate digestion-rate assimilation-efficiency production-efficiency ecological-efficiency trophic-transfer-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency ten-percent-rule pyramid-of-numbers pyramid-of-biomass pyramid-of-energy food-chain trophic-network energy-flow material-cycling biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle water-cycle hydrological-cycle atmospheric-circulation ocean-circulation thermohaline-circulation El-Niño La-Niña ENSO NAO AO PDO AMO climate-oscillation climate-anomaly weather-extreme drought flood heat-wave cold-snap storm hurricane typhoon cyclone tornado thunderstorm lightning wildfire volcanic-eruption earthquake tsunami landslide avalanche meteor-impact mass-extinction background-extinction speciation-rate extinction-rate net-diversification turnover standing-diversity fossil-record taphonomy preservation-bias sampling-bias collection-bias publication-bias citation-bias language-bias geographic-bias temporal-bias taxonomic-bias size-bias abundance-bias habitat-bias facies-bias Lagerstätte Konservat-Lagerstätte Konzentrat-Lagerstätte trace-fossil body-fossil chemical-fossil molecular-fossil biomarker isotope-signature paleoclimate-proxy paleoecology paleobiogeography paleoecosystem paleocommunity paleoenvironment paleogeography paleolatitude paleolongitude continental-drift plate-tectonics seafloor-spreading subduction orogeny mountain-building basin-formation sedimentation erosion weathering soil-formation pedogenesis horizon-development profile-development chronosequence toposequence biosequence climosequence landform geomorphology topography relief elevation slope aspect curvature roughness drainage watershed catchment basin subbasin reach segment zone riffle pool run glide cascade waterfall wetland marsh swamp bog fen mire peatland tundra taiga boreal-forest temperate-forest temperate-rainforest temperate-grassland tropical-forest tropical-rainforest tropical-dry-forest tropical-savanna tropical-grassland desert hot-desert cold-desert semiarid steppe prairie pampas veld savanna woodland shrubland chaparral maquis garigue fynbos kwongan mallee mulga mogote karst cave sinkhole doline polje uvala ponor spring seep oasis wadi arroyo gully ravine canyon gorge valley dale glen strath rift graben horst fault fold anticline syncline monocline dome plateau mesa butte escarpment bluff cliff crag tor inselberg bornhardt kopje hill knoll mound ridge spur saddle pass col gap notch cleft fissure joint bedding-plane foliation lineation cleavage schistosity gneissic-banding magma lava igneous-rock sedimentary-rock metamorphic-rock mineral crystal grain texture structure fabric composition chemistry mineralogy petrology geochemistry geophysics geochronology radiometric-dating isotopic-dating dendrochronology varve-chronology lichenometry archaeomagnetism paleomagnetism thermoluminescence optically-stimulated-luminescence electron-spin-resonance cosmogenic-nuclide exposure-dating burial-dating terrestrial-cosmogenic-nuclide in-situ-cosmogenic-nuclide meteoric-cosmogenic-nuclide fallout-radionuclide lead-210 cesium-137 plutonium americium radiocarbon carbon-14 calibration-curve intcal marine-reservoir-effect terrestrial-reservoir-effect hard-water-effect contamination pretreatment combustion graphitization accelerator-mass-spectrometry liquid-scintillation-counting gas-proportional-counting beta-counting gamma-spectrometry alpha-spectrometry mass-spectrometry inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry thermal-ionization-mass-spectrometry secondary-ion-mass-spectrometry laser-ablation-inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry electron-microprobe scanning-electron-microscopy transmission-electron-microscopy light-microscopy confocal-microscopy fluorescence-microscopy polarizing-microscopy phase-contrast-microscopy differential-interference-contrast-microscopy dark-field-microscopy bright-field-microscopy stereomicroscopy dissecting-microscopy microtomy sectioning staining mounting embedding fixation preservation collection curation vouchering repository herbarium museum archive database registry catalogue checklist inventory survey monitoring assessment evaluation appraisal audit review synthesis rapid-review scoping-review narrative-review critical-review state-of-the-art-review literature-review bibliometric-analysis citation-analysis co-citation-analysis bibliographic-coupling co-authorship-analysis collaboration-network knowledge-map concept-map ontology taxonomy classification nomenclature typification designation description diagnosis illustration measurement morphometry meristics count ratio index score rank grade scale level category class group set subset cluster clade lineage branch stem crown root node tip terminal internal basal derived ancestral plesiomorphic apomorphic synapomorphic autapomorphic homologous homoplastic convergent parallel reversal gain loss duplication deletion insertion inversion fusion fission polyploidy aneuploidy chromosome-number genome-size gene-number transcriptome proteome metabolome lipidome glycome interactome phenome connectome epigenome microbiome virome mycobiome bacteriome phytobiome rhizobiome endobiome ectobiome parasitome pathobiome diseasome toxome exposome foodome nutriome pharmacome toxicome adverse-outcome-pathway mode-of-action mechanism-of-action target-site receptor-binding enzyme-inhibition ion-channel-blockade membrane-disruption DNA-intercalation inflammation cell-differentiation cell-migration cell-adhesion cell-signaling signal-transduction gene-expression transcription translation post-translational-modification protein-folding protein-degradation protein-trafficking vesicle-transport exocytosis endocytosis phagocytosis pinocytosis mitophagy pexophagy ribophagy ER-phagy lysophagy lipophagy glycophagy ferritinophagy aggrephagy xenophagy entosis cytosis syncytium plasmodesmata gap-junction tight-junction adherens-junction desmosome hemidesmosome focal-adhesion cell-polarity cell-asymmetry cell-division mitosis meiosis cytokinesis karyokinesis chromosome-segregation spindle-assembly checkpoint DNA-replication DNA-recombination transposition retrotransposition horizontal-gene-transfer vertical-gene-transfer endosymbiosis symbiogenesis holobiont hologenome extended-phenotype niche-construction ecosystem-engineering keystone-process ecological-function ecosystem-function ecosystem-good natural-capital natural-resource renewable-resource non-renewable-resource common-pool-resource public-good private-good club-good externality market-failure government-failure policy-failure institutional-failure tragedy-of-the-commons free-rider collective-action social-dilemma prisoner's-dilemma chicken-game assurance-game coordination-game zero-sum-game positive-sum-game negative-sum-game win-win lose-lose win-lose Pareto-optimal Pareto-improvement Kaldor-Hicks-improvement cost-benefit-analysis cost-effectiveness-analysis multi-criteria-decision-analysis decision-support-system expert-system knowledge-based-system rule-based-system case-based-reasoning machine-learning deep-learning neural-network random-forest support-vector-machine decision-tree regression-tree classification-tree clustering-algorithm dimensionality-reduction feature-selection feature-extraction pattern-recognition image-analysis signal-processing time-series-analysis spatial-analysis geographic-information-system remote-sensing satellite-imagery aerial-photography drone-imagery LiDAR radar sonar seismic geophysical geochemical biogeochemical ecoinformatics bioinformatics computational-biology systems-biology synthetic-biology biotechnology nanotechnology genetic-engineering genome-editing CRISPR TALEN zinc-finger-nuclease transgenic cisgenic intragenic subgenic agrobacterium-mediated-transformation biolistics electroporation microinjection protoplast-fusion somatic-hybridization cybrid asymmetric-hybrid synthetic-polyploid doubled-haploid haploid-induction anther-culture microspore-culture ovule-culture embryo-culture endosperm-culture protoplast-culture cell-culture tissue-culture organ-culture shoot-culture root-culture callus-culture suspension-culture bioreactor hairy-root-culture transformation hardening micropropagation clonal-propagation meristem-culture shoot-tip-culture axillary-bud-culture nodal-culture leaf-culture petiole-culture stem-culture internode-culture rhizome-culture bulb-culture corm-culture tuber-culture seed-culture zygotic-embryo-culture somatic-embryo-culture somatic-embryogenesis organogenesis caulogenesis rhizogenesis adventitious-shoot-formation direct-regeneration indirect-regeneration primary-metabolism secondary-metabolism biosynthesis biotransformation bioconversion biodegradation bioremediation phytoremediation mycoremediation zooremediation bioaugmentation biostimulation natural-attenuation monitored-natural-attenuation engineered-natural-attenuation permeable-reactive-barrier pump-and-treat soil-vapor-extraction air-sparging thermal-desorption incineration landfilling containment capping slurry-wall grout-curtain sheet-piling clay-liner geomembrane geotextile geogrid geocomposite geosynthetic geofabric geonet geocell geopipe geostrip geofoam geobag geotube geocontainer geomat geoblanket geospacer geodrain geoinjection geogrout geopier geocolumn geopile geowall geoberm geotrench geocut geofill geolift geoslab geopanel geoblock geobrick geotile geopaver geoweb geomattress geocushion

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