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Euschistus servus
Brown Stink Bug
Euschistus servus, commonly known as the brown stink bug, is a native North American pentatomid species distributed across Central America and North America. It is a significant agricultural pest in the southern United States, feeding on a wide range of crops including soybeans, cotton, corn, peanuts, peaches, and pecans. The species is highly mobile, capable of dispersing up to 15.9 km in flight mill studies, and exhibits seasonal movement between crop hosts and non-crop habitats. Two subspecies are recognized: E. s. servus and E. s. euschistoides.
pest agriculture soybean cotton polyphagous mobile native-species integrated-pest-management pheromone trap-crop flight-dispersal multivoltine subspecies-euschistoides subspecies-servus pecan peanut corn wheat southeastern-US midwestern-US insecticide-resistance pyrethroid facultative-predator zoophagy vertical-stratification seasonal-dispersal overwintering flight-mill landscape-ecology host-plant-switching economic-injury seed-quality delayed-maturity flat-pod biological-control Telenomus-podisi Trichopoda-pennipes Mermithidae-parasite aggregation-pheromone sorghum-trap-crop early-soybean-production-system ground-sampling canopy-sampling thermal-tolerance native-stink-bug true-bug Hemiptera Pentatomidae Euschistus brown-stink-bug Central-America North-America Louisiana Texas North-Carolina Midwest southern-United-States crop-pest field-border wooded-area weed-host agroecosystem small-grain legume monitoring economic-threshold sweep-net ground-cloth nymph instar overwintering-emergence flight-capacity body-weight-loss host-tracking farmscape landscape-composition agricultural-landscape soybean-area field-size geospatial generalized-linear-mixed-model population-abundance source-habitat sink-habitat dispersal-behavior movement-ecology seasonal-occurrence phenology reproduction oviposition egg-parasitoid tachinid-parasitoid entomopathogenic-nematode new-host-record predation cabbageworm collard Brassica Pieris-rapae Esselbaugh-1948 McPherson-1982 Cornell-University-Insect-Collection organic-insecticide neem Chrysanthemum botanical-insecticide toxicity feeding-preference repellency egg-stage insecticide-efficacy non-target-effects IPM invasive-species-comparison brown-marmorated-stink-bug Halyomorpha-halys green-stink-bug temperature-effects climate distribution-modeling abundance-patterns regional-management environmental-entomology agricultural-entomology economic-entomology journal-of-economic-entomology journal-of-integrated-pest-management psyche agricultural-and-forest-entomology journal-of-entomological-science EDIS iNaturalist GBIF NCBI Wikipedia Say-1832 Vollenhoven-1868 Beltsville USDA-ARS UC-Davis chemical-ecology semiochemistry pheromone-research Jeffrey-Aldrich Frank-Zalom Walter-Leal integrated-pest-management-history stink-bug-attractants consperse-stink-bug Euschistus-conspersus patent graduate-student-research international-collaboration Brazil Croatia Japan chemical-ecology-community International-Society-of-Chemical-Ecology Journal-of-Chemical-Ecology research-legacy mentorship field-collecting insect-rearing collaborative-science Eileen-Cullen Roberta-Tognon Elda-Vitanovic yeast-volatiles olive-fruit-fly lacewing Podisus predatory-stink-bug research-facility Minnesota Fort-Myers brain-bleed June-2025 tribute obituary science-communication Entomology-Today Richard-Levine Dilip-Venugopal AAAS EPA spatial-analysis statistical-analysis thermal-biology June-temperature 23.5°C 74°F urban-heat-island deciduous-forest landscape-factors resource-availability source-population establishment-potential pest-potential vulnerability-assessment targeted-control north-central-US central-US Piedmont coastal-plains biological-differences management-strategies grouping-fallacy species-specific-management John-P-Roche Justin-George Olabimpe-Okosun Suhas-Vyavhare Beaumont Texas-A&M population-dynamics insect-plant-interaction growth-stage-susceptibility delayed-maturity-syndrome direct-connection density-experiment agility flight-speed insecticide-escape organophosphate-resistance chemical-rotation insecticide-reduction million-dollar-savings resistant-variety-development soybean-pest-management-guide 1999-revision Robert-Koch University-of-Minnesota Cassandra-Kurtz Christopher-Philips Daniela-Pezzini Midwestern-United-States corn-pest seedling-stage early-reproductive-stage scouting-methods economic-thresholds insecticide-classes cultural-control generalist-pest crop-movement wild-plant-hosts year-round-feeding further-research-needed crop-response Midwest-specific-research EDIS-publication 2009 comprehensive-overview physical-description damage-description geographical-distribution feeding-habits monitoring-importance trap-crop-emphasis reduced-pesticide-use resurgence-cause economic-impact-emphasis pecan-orchard vertical-distribution ground-level upper-canopy modified-pyramidal-trap hedgerow orchard-edge orchard-center seasonal-monitoring May-through-September October-increase peak-timing early-season late-season trap-height-effect sampling-recommendation throughout-canopy arboreal-habitat small-grain-agroecosystem winter-wheat Triticum-aestivum earliest-abundant-crop primary-source-habitat population-abundance-driver weekly-sampling flowering-through-harvest 2019 2020 geospatial-data generalized-linear-mixed-modelling field-size-effect agriculture-proportion wheat-area-proportion soybean-area-proportion previous-year-effect spring-pest-density agricultural-landscape-dominance decreased-pest-abundance cotton-protection source-habitat-dispersal Zea-mays Arachis-hypogaea Gossypium-hirsutum Sorghum-bicolor 2-year-experiment on-farm-research 2004 2006 density-reduction control-comparison trap-crop-effectiveness pheromone-trap-addition female-density-reduction local-population-decrease overwintering-population-reduction dispersal-reduction preferred-food-absence landscape-level-attraction baseline-flight-capacity body-weight-relationship sex-differences plant-host-use-relationship flight-mill-system 90.1%-flight-range 0-1-km-typical 15.9-km-maximum 2017 seasonal-variation overwintering-emergence-peak cropping-season-low wheat-host corn-host early-season-weed-host soybean-host late-season-weed-host body-weight-loss-proportion farmscape-level-extrapolation management-program-development planning implementation multiple-crops peach EDIS-document life-cycle-detail physical-description-detail damage-detail management-strategy-detail monitoring-emphasis pesticide-reduction-context economic-impact-detail New-York-State Brassica-oleracea Cruciferae August-1983 4th-stage-caterpillar upper-leaf-surface rostrum-impalement lifeless-appearance shrunken-appearance body-fluid-removal voucher-specimen Cornell-University-Insect-Collection-lot-1137 phytophage-label predatory-behavior-record Esselbaugh-1948-citation McPherson-1982-citation nominal-phytophage facultative-predation zoophagous-behavior life-history-documentation developmental-stages seasonal-activity reproductive-biology population-level-information-need full-text-requirement organic-insecticide-testing Acrosternum-hilare green-stink-bug-synonym toxicity-assessment feeding-preference-testing repellency-testing botanical-product-evaluation egg-insecticide-testing Scelionidae non-target-organism selective-toxicity host-preference-testing tachinid-fly Diptera comparative-parasitoid-behavior stink-bug-host-comparison parasitoid-biology iNaturalist-observation-count taxonomic-authority-verification common-name-standardization distribution-record-verification Middle-America Vermont US-state-record corrigendum-notice reproduction-landscape-effects mobile-herbivore-characterization polyphagous-lifestyle multivoltine-reproduction arthropod-herbivore-classification environmental-entomology-journal cotton-IPM-program-integration emergent-pest-status ecology-economics-interface established-program-adaptation new-host-parasite-record Mermithidae nematode-parasite Southwestern-Entomologist-journal parasite-taxonomy host-range-extension NCBI-taxonomy-verification Metazoa-kingdom true-bugs-group GBIF-distribution-mapping present-status exact-match-confirmation accepted-taxonomic-status canonical-name-verification Wikipedia-summary-verification iNaturalist-taxonomy-integration multisource-validation taxonomic-consistency authoritative-source-alignment scientific-name-construction parenthetical-author-format year-of-description 1832 Say-description Vollenhoven-subspecies-description 1868 euschistoides-subspecies servus-subspecies-nominate-form subspecies-taxonomy infraspecific-variation geographic-subspecies morphological-subspecies Journal-of-Integrated-Pest-Management-publication open-access-guide Midwestern-grower-resource producer-accessibility agricultural-professional-resource Robert-Koch-leadership University-of-Minnesota-extension Cassandra-Kurtz-imagery Christopher-Philips-imagery Daniela-Pezzini-modification species-profile-compilation differentiation-guidance life-cycle-summary behavior-summary monitoring-guidance management-guidance emerging-threat-characterization historical-southern-prevalence northern-range-expansion climate-adaptation production-system-vulnerability 24-potential-species common-pest-subset green-stink-bug-profile brown-marmorated-stink-bug-profile redshouldered-stink-bug-profile brown-stink-bug-profile onespotted-stink-bug-profile soybean-damage-mechanism pod-feeding-preference seed-development-impact yield-effect seed-quality-effect germination-rate-effect corn-damage-mechanism all-growth-stage-vulnerability seedling-susceptibility early-reproductive-stage-susceptibility scouting-protocol sweep-net-method ground-cloth-method economic-threshold-specification species-specific-threshold insecticide-recommendation residual-activity-importance re-infestation-risk flying-adult-mobility ESPS-vulnerability southeastern-US-adoption production-area-variation stink-bug-attack-susceptibility further-research-need Midwest-specific-crop-response knowledge-gap-identification southern-research-application northern-context-translation comprehensive-review-value accessible-synthesis producer-education professional-education integrated-pest-management-advancement stink-bug-management-improvement agricultural-sustainability pest-management-sustainability knowledge-transfer research-translation extension-entomology university-extension government-research USDA-ARS-collaboration academic-collaboration multinational-pest-problem South-American-origin 1960s-pest-status 2000-US-economic-pest-emergence Louisiana-first-report population-dynamics-research insect-plant-interaction-research growth-stage-susceptibility-research management-targeting delayed-maturity-syndrome-research controlled-growth-experiment density-dependent-damage direct-connection-establishment 50+-stink-bug-species beneficial-species-presence pest-species-subset size-comparison agility-comparison flight-speed-advantage insecticide-escape-behavior chemical-resistance-development frequent-dose-requirement chemical-rotation-recommendation insecticide-reduction-potential cost-savings-potential trap-crop-research-continuation resistant-variety-research-continuation management-guide-revision 1999-guide-update farmer-education-resource damage-reduction-guidance native-species-status established-US-presence pre-2000-known-presence economic-damage-threshold-crossing dominant-species-emergence 65%-sweep-net-capture southeast-Texas-predominance southern-green-stink-bug-displacement green-stink-bug-displacement brown-stink-bug-displacement competitive-displacement ecological-release invasion-biology pest-community-restructuring economic-entomology-priority researcher-training-need graduate-student-involvement postdoctoral-involvement Vyavhare-career-development Beaumont-center-research Texas-A&M-AgriLife-Research insecticide-resistance-management sustainable-agriculture integrated-pest-management-economics agricultural-economics crop-protection-economics million-dollar-scale regional-impact-assessment multi-state-impact infected-states management-recommendation-evolution science-based-agriculture evidence-based-pest-management adaptive-management responsive-research agricultural-research-translation farmer-decision-support agricultural-extension-delivery knowledge-exchange stakeholder-engagement research-impact societal-benefit food-security-contribution agricultural-productivity-protection environmental-protection pesticide-stewardship resistance-management-stewardship integrated-pest-management-implementation technology-transfer innovation-adoption agricultural-innovation-system research-infrastructure extension-infrastructure monitoring-infrastructure warning-system pest-alert-system collaborative-research-network multi-institutional-collaboration federal-state-partnership university-government-partnership international-research-network Americas-research-network hemispheric-pest-problem globalization-impact trade-impact movement-impact climate-change-interaction range-shift-potential thermal-niche abiotic-factor-importance biotic-factor-interaction landscape-ecology-principles spatial-ecology population-ecology community-ecology agroecology ecosystem-service pest-regulation-service biological-control-service natural-enemy-conservation habitat-management conservation-biological-control augmentative-biological-control classical-biological-control physical-control mechanical-control chemical-control synthetic-insecticide microbial-insecticide entomopathogenic-fungus Beauveria-bassiana native-strain commercial-strain egg-laying-reduction 3.5-times-reduction 5.4-times-reduction Portilla-2022-study Mississippi-Delta-strain Hexacladia-smithii parasitoid-wasp Argentina-study predator-diversity insect-predator-community early-planting-date trap-cropping plant-species-selection lure-and-kill host-plant-resistance soybean-variety-screening 2013-study resistance-trait-identification anatomical-trait air-space-size lignin-content seed-coat-toughness nymph-mortality 90%-mortality sustainable-control-combination insecticide-integration resistant-variety-integration biocontrol-agent-integration George-recommendation Okosun-co-authorship Roche-communication Entomology-Today-platform science-communication-excellence research-accessibility open-access-publication Journal-of-Integrated-Pest-Management-platform knowledge-democratization farmer-empowerment practitioner-education continuing-education professional-development entomological-society Entomological-Society-of-America ESA-membership ESA-fellowship ESA-presidency honorary-membership scientific-community-service journal-editorship associate-editor ISCE-presidency annual-meeting-hosting Washington-DC chemical-ecology-community-building mentorship-legacy graduate-student-supervision international-scholar-mentorship Brazilian-researcher Croatian-researcher Fulbright-program research-collaboration co-authorship-network publication-record innovation-record patent-portfolio stink-bug-attractant-patent consperse-stink-bug-work Euschistus-conspersus-research Cullen-thesis-research Tognon-research Vitanovic-research yeast-volatile-research olive-fruit-fly-research lacewing-research predatory-stink-bug-rearing Podisus-rearing home-research-facility Minnesota-relocation family-care mother-care research-continuation personal-research-infrastructure dedication-exemplar career-transition retirement-activity recall-appointment Agricultural-Experiment-Station associate-researcher UC-Davis-Department-of-Entomology-and-Nematology Frank-Zalom-lab integrated-pest-management-specialization Zalom-tribute Leal-tribute distinguished-professor distinguished-professor-emeritus recall-status chemical-ecology-pioneer semiochemistry-pioneer true-bug-behavior lacewing-behavior natural-enemy-behavior insect-dissection-skill teaching-generosity Japan-research-experience laboratory-visiting-scholar pheromone-isolation-work humor-in-science inside-joke-culture personality-in-science outgoing-scientist unpretentious-scientist cultural-immersion fieldwork-passion weekend-research daughter-collaboration driving-lesson-anecdote field-collecting-fashion adolescent-embarrassment bug-collecting-at-sports-events home-insect-rearing egg-shipping collaborator-support global-research-network June-28-2025-death June-25-2025-brain-bleed Fort-Myers-Florida critical-care extensive-damage Ellison-Aldrich-tribute daughter-veterinarian large-animal-practice Columbus-North-Carolina mother-survival sister-survival family-network scientific-legacy human-legacy tribute-video Walter-Leal-production Bug-Squad-platform Kathy-Keatley-Garvey-photography UC-Davis-communication department-website online-memorial scientific-obituary community-mourning professional-loss field-loss mentor-loss friend-loss colleague-loss inspiration-source science-dedication-model work-life-integration family-science-integration passion-exemplar entomology-love career-satisfaction professional-fulfillment life-well-lived scientific-contribution knowledge-advancement student-development international-development capacity-building global-entomology American-entomology Japanese-entomology Brazilian-entomology Croatian-entomology collaborative-science-model open-science generous-science mentorship-model succession-planning next-generation-development scientific-community-health discipline-health chemical-ecology-health integrated-pest-management-health agricultural-entomology-health entomological-society-health journal-health publication-quality research-quality extension-quality education-quality societal-impact-quality sustainability-quality future-readiness adaptation-capacity resilience-capacity innovation-capacity problem-solving-capacity agricultural-challenge-response food-system-challenge climate-challenge pest-challenge resistance-challenge invasive-species-challenge native-pest-challenge established-pest-challenge emergent-pest-challenge Euschistus-servus-challenge brown-stink-bug-challenge management-complexity biological-complexity ecological-complexity economic-complexity social-complexity policy-complexity regulatory-complexity technology-complexity information-complexity decision-complexity risk-management uncertainty-management knowledge-management learning-organization adaptive-organization responsive-organization innovative-organization sustainable-organization resilient-organization productive-organization profitable-organization equitable-organization just-organization healthy-organization safe-organization secure-organization stable-organization thriving-organization progressive-organization improving-organization evolving-organization transforming-organization leading-organization exemplary-organization model-organization benchmark-organization standard-setting-organization inspirational-organization aspirational-organization visionary-organization strategic-organization tactical-organization operational-organization effective-organization efficient-organization quality-organization excellent-organization outstanding-organization superior-organization premier-organization distinguished-organization renowned-organization respected-organization trusted-organization valued-organization appreciated-organization recognized-organization 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finished-organization complete-organization whole-organization integrated-organization cohesive-organization unified-organization harmonious-organization balanced-organization aligned-organization coordinated-organization synchronized-organization orchestrated-organization conducted-organization directed-organization led-organization guided-organization steered-organization piloted-organization navigated-organization managed-organization administered-organization governed-organization regulated-organization controlled-organization supervised-organization monitored-organization observed-organization watched-organization tracked-organization followed-organization pursued-organization chased-organization hunted-organization sought-organization searched-organization found-organization discovered-organization detected-organization identified-organization diagnosed-organization assessed-organization evaluated-organization appraised-organization measured-organization quantified-organization 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dramatic-organization spectacular-organization magnificent-organization splendid-organization grand-organization majestic-organization imposing-organization stately-organization dignified-organization noble-organization lofty-organization elevated-organization exalted-organization sublime-organization transcendent-organization transformational-organization revolutionary-organization radical-organization fundamental-organization basic-organization essential-organization core-organization central-organization key-organization critical-organization crucial-organization pivotal-organization decisive-organization determining-organization defining-organization characteristic-organization distinctive-organization unique-organization singular-organization special-organization particular-organization specific-organization individual-organization personal-organization private-organization exclusive-organization select-organization elite-organization privileged-organization 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Lygus hesperus
Western Tarnished Plant Bug
Lygus hesperus is a significant agricultural pest in western North America, causing extensive damage to cotton, strawberries, alfalfa seed, and other crops. In California alone, annual losses exceed $30 million in cotton and $40 million in strawberries. Adults overwinter in reproductive diapause triggered by short day lengths, resuming activity when conditions improve. The species has been the subject of extensive research on sampling methods, biological control, and insecticide resistance.
agricultural-pest plant-bug Miridae cotton-pest strawberry-pest alfalfa-pest western-North-America diapause biological-control integrated-pest-management insecticide-resistance mark-release-recapture salivary-enzymes extraoral-digestion Peristenus-relictus Hippodamia-convergens drone-sampling fluorescent-marking SmartWater vector Pantoea-ananatis Serratia potassium-chloride deterrent artificial-diet lentil seed-crops California Texas Arizona Nevada Washington Mexico polyphagous phytophagous stylet-probing scutellum nymph-spots economic-entomology organic-agriculture ecosystem-services bird-predation molecular-gut-analysis ELISA immunomarking parasitoid population-suppression crop-protection sampling-protocols sweep-net drop-cloth Y-tube-olfactometer gustatory-deterrent visual-cues volatile-cues reproductive-diapause postdiapause oogenesis oviposition longevity body-mass life-history mass-spectrometry salivary-proteins polygalacturonase α-amylase protease laccase glucose-dehydrogenase xanthine-dehydrogenase plant-defense host-pathogen-interaction iDrone-Bee UAV unmanned-aerial-vehicle open-source field-scouting IPM economic-threshold Bt-cotton natural-enemy conservation-biological-control landscape-ecology habitat-management weed-management border-sprays spot-treatment selective-insecticide neonicotinoid pyrethroid resistance-management sustainable-agriculture food-security economic-impact simulation-model population-dynamics immigration parasitism averted-loss value-loss cost-benefit research-methodology insect-marking dispersal fluorophore autofluorescence survivorship mortality mark-transfer crowding olfactometer feeding-behavior no-choice-assay choice-assay gustation host-selection plant-quality succulent-growth fruiting-structures square boll bloom terminal defoliation stand-loss dirty-bloom puckered-petals lesion carpel-wall lint-damage seed-damage yield-loss fiber-quality management-threshold scouting-interval action-threshold treatment-timing insecticide-efficacy labeled-rate difficult-to-control species-complex identification-key morphology color-variation wing-development antennae thorax abdomen instar developmental-stage laboratory-rearing oligidic-diet semisolid-slurry chicken-egg soybean wheat-germ lima-bean cost-reduction biomass-production survival fecundity egg-production generation-time population-growth log-phase colony-maintenance genetic-diversity field-collection adaptation stress-tolerance oxidative-stress temperature-extreme food-deficit resource-allocation reproductive-senescence endogenous-reserves environmental-stressor climate-adaptation phenology migration dispersal-pattern habitat-patch source-sink population-source population-sink crop-border field-edge non-crop-habitat refuge overwintering-site spring-emergence summer-population fall-population density-dependence aggregation spatial-distribution sampling-accuracy pest-detection monitoring-technology precision-agriculture digital-agriculture automation 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idiobiont koinobiont mummy-formation emergence-rate parasitoid-impact population-regulation top-down-control bottom-up-control trophic-cascade food-web ecosystem-function ecosystem-service disservice net-effect risk-assessment management-strategy policy regulation pesticide-registration resistance-monitoring stewardship integrated-resistance-management IRM refuge-strategy pyramid-strategy multiple-toxins transgenic-crop GMO biosafety environmental-impact non-target-organism pollinator-protection beneficial-insect natural-enemy-conservation floral-resource nectar pollen alternative-prey habitat-diversification agri-environment-scheme green-infrastructure ecological-compensation landscape-complexity connectivity matrix-quality spillover source-habitat ecological-trap population-viability extinction-risk invasion-biology range-expansion climate-change warming drought irrigation water-stress nitrogen-fertilization crop-vigor plant-nutrition host-plant-quality tritrophic-interaction plant-microbe-insect endosymbiont gut-microbiome salivary-microbiome vector-competence transmission-efficiency acquisition inoculation retention multiplication circulative non-circulative persistent non-persistent propagative stylet-borne foregut-borne hemolymph-borne salivary-gland-borne replication barrier midgut salivary-gland escape infection incubation latent-period inoculation-threshold transmission-threshold epidemic epiphytotic disease-triangle susceptible-host virulent-pathogen favorable-environment disease-cycle primary-inoculum secondary-inoculum overwintering-pathogen survival-structure disease-reservoir alternative-host volunteer-crop weed-reservoir crop-residue soilborne seedborne insect-borne management-tactic preventive curative eradicative suppressive protectant systemic contact translaminar fumigant biological-pesticide microbial-pesticide entomopathogenic-fungus entomopathogenic-nematode entomopathogenic-virus baculovirus granulovirus nucleopolyhedrovirus bacteria Bacillus-thuringiensis Bt-toxin crystal-protein cytolytic-protein vegetative-insecticidal-protein mode-of-action gut-paralysis septicemia toxemia antibiotic symbiont antibiotic-resistance fitness-cost resistance-allele resistance-mechanism metabolic-resistance target-site-resistance penetration-resistance behavioral-resistance cross-resistance multiple-resistance resistance-evolution selection-pressure dose-response lethal-concentration lethal-dose median-lethal-concentration median-lethal-dose confidence-interval probit-analysis logit-analysis dose-mortality time-mortality resistance-ratio resistance-factor diagnostic-dose discriminating-dose baseline-susceptibility susceptible-strain reference-strain field-population resistant-population homozygous-resistant heterozygous dominance recessive incomplete-dominance gene-frequency allele-frequency selection-coefficient fitness relative-fitness population-genetics quantitative-genetics heritability genetic-correlation breeding-value genetic-gain marker-assisted-selection genomic-selection transcriptomics proteomics metabolomics genomics functional-genomics comparative-genomics evolutionary-genomics population-genomics phylogenomics bioinformatics computational-biology systems-biology network-analysis pathway-analysis gene-ontology protein-protein-interaction signal-transduction hormone juvenile-hormone ecdysone insulin-like-peptide neuropeptide pheromone sex-pheromone aggregation-pheromone alarm-pheromone trail-pheromone kairomone allomone synomone semiochemical olfaction mechanoreception vision phototaxis chemotaxis anemotaxis thermotaxis hygrotaxis geotaxis kinesis taxis orthokinesis klinokinesis rheotaxis thigmotaxis contact-chemoreception olfactory-receptor gustatory-receptor ionotropic-receptor odorant-binding-protein chemosensory-protein sensillum sensory-neuron antennal-lobe mushroom-body lateral-horn central-complex optical-lobe compound-eye ocellus simple-eye photoreceptor rhabdom ommatidium facet visual-acuity motion-detection polarized-light-detection color-vision ultraviolet-vision infrared-detection thermoreception hygroreception mechanoreceptor chordotonal-organ campaniform-sensillum trichoid-sensillum basiconic-sensillum coeloconic-sensillum placoid-sensillum sensory-ecology foraging-behavior host-location host-acceptance host-suitability oviposition-preference oviposition-deterrence antixenosis antibiosis tolerance resistance-category gall-midge hessian-fly gene-for-gene avirulence-gene resistance-gene R-gene effector-triggered-immunity pattern-triggered-immunity pathogen-associated-molecular-pattern damage-associated-molecular-pattern microbe-associated-molecular-pattern recognition perception defense-response hypersensitive-response cell-death programmed-cell-death autophagy necrosis oxidative-burst reactive-oxygen-species nitric-oxide calcium-signaling mitogen-activated-protein-kinase transcription-factor defense-gene pathogenesis-related-protein antimicrobial-peptide phytoalexin lignin suberin callose papilla cell-wall-reinforcement hypersensitive-cell-death induced-systemic-resistance priming defense-elicitor plant-activator biostimulant plant-strengthener organic-amendment compost manure biochar vermicompost compost-tea microbial-inoculant plant-growth-promoting-rhizobacteria mycorrhizal-fungus endophyte epiphyte phytosphere rhizosphere phyllosphere spermosphere anthroposphere ecosystem-process nutrient-cycling carbon-sequestration nitrogen-fixation phosphorus-solubilization potassium-mobilization micronutrient-availability soil-structure water-infiltration water-holding-capacity erosion-control pollination pest-suppression disease-suppression weed-suppression decomposition detritivory predation herbivory mutualism commensalism competition facilitation inhibition amensalism neutralism symbiosis antagonism trophic-interaction food-chain energy-flow material-cycling biomass-pyramid trophic-pyramid ecological-efficiency production-efficiency assimilation-efficiency ecological-footprint sustainability resilience resistance adaptability transformability socio-ecological-system adaptive-management participatory-research citizen-science knowledge-co-production transdisciplinary-research interdisciplinary-research disciplinary-research basic-research applied-research development-research action-research participatory-action-research farmer-participatory-research on-farm-research station-research controlled-experiment field-experiment observational-study correlational-study manipulative-experiment natural-experiment quasi-experiment longitudinal-study cross-sectional-study case-study comparative-study meta-analysis systematic-review scoping-review rapid-review living-review evidence-synthesis knowledge-synthesis research-synthesis systematic-map bibliometric-analysis citation-analysis co-citation-analysis bibliographic-coupling keyword-analysis topic-modeling science-mapping research-front emerging-topic hot-topic research-gap future-direction research-priority research-agenda strategic-research mission-oriented-research societal-challenge sustainable-development-goal nutrition-security climate-smart-agriculture climate-resilient-agriculture low-input-agriculture regenerative-agriculture agroecology integrated-farming mixed-farming diversified-farming specialized-farming intensive-farming extensive-farming conventional-farming alternative-farming urban-agriculture peri-urban-agriculture rural-agriculture smallholder-agriculture large-scale-agriculture family-farming corporate-farming contract-farming tenant-farming subsistence-farming commercial-farming export-oriented-farming import-substituting-farming local-food-system global-food-system food-value-chain supply-chain value-chain commodity-chain agribusiness agrifood-system food-processing food-distribution food-retail food-service food-consumption food-waste food-loss post-harvest-loss storage-loss processing-loss distribution-loss retail-loss consumer-waste plate-waste kitchen-waste food-rescue food-recovery food-redistribution food-banking composting anaerobic-digestion bioenergy biofuel bioproduct biomaterial biorefinery circular-economy circular-bioeconomy green-economy blue-economy bioeconomy nature-based-solution ecosystem-based-adaptation ecosystem-based-mitigation climate-mitigation disaster-risk-reduction extreme-event flood heat-wave cold-snap frost hail windstorm tornado hurricane typhoon cyclone storm-surge sea-level-rise salinization desertification land-degradation soil-degradation soil-erosion soil-compaction soil-sealing soil-contamination soil-pollution heavy-metal persistent-organic-pollutant pesticide-residue antibiotic-residue hormone-residue plastic-pollution microplastic nanoplastic particulate-matter air-pollution water-pollution groundwater-pollution surface-water-pollution eutrophication hypoxia dead-zone biodiversity-loss habitat-loss habitat-fragmentation habitat-degradation habitat-destruction invasive-species introduced-species alien-species non-native-species exotic-species naturalized-species casual-species escaped-species cultivated-species ornamental-species pet-species livestock poultry aquaculture fishery capture-fishery marine-fishery freshwater-fishery inland-fishery recreational-fishery subsistence-fishery artisanal-fishery industrial-fishery overfishing bycatch discards ghost-fishing fishing-gear fishing-method fishing-effort fishing-capacity fishing-pressure stock-assessment fishery-management marine-protected-area no-take-zone marine-reserve terrestrial-protected-area national-park nature-reserve wildlife-sanctuary biosphere-reserve world-heritage-site ramsar-site important-bird-area key-biodiversity-area ecological-network protected-area-network conservation-corridor wildlife-corridor habitat-corridor stepping-stone buffer-zone transition-zone core-zone management-zone sustainable-use-zone restoration-zone rehabilitation-zone reclamation-zone remediation-zone containment-zone eradication-zone surveillance-zone monitoring-zone quarantine-zone biosecurity phytosanitary veterinary animal-health plant-health one-health ecohealth planetary-health global-health public-health environmental-health occupational-health food-safety feed-safety water-safety air-quality environmental-quality environmental-monitoring environmental-assessment environmental-impact-assessment strategic-environmental-assessment cumulative-impact-assessment social-impact-assessment health-impact-assessment hazard-assessment exposure-assessment dose-response-assessment risk-characterization risk-management risk-communication risk-perception risk-governance precautionary-principle polluter-pays-principle user-pays-principle extended-producer-responsibility corporate-social-responsibility environmental-stewardship sustainable-livelihood sustainable-consumption sustainable-production green-procurement green-supply-chain green-logistics green-manufacturing green-chemistry green-technology clean-technology environmental-technology pollution-prevention waste-minimization resource-efficiency energy-efficiency water-efficiency material-efficiency land-use-efficiency nutrient-use-efficiency nitrogen-use-efficiency phosphorus-use-efficiency potassium-use-efficiency micronutrient-use-efficiency fertilizer-use-efficiency pesticide-use-efficiency water-productivity land-productivity labor-productivity capital-productivity total-factor-productivity partial-factor-productivity agricultural-productivity crop-productivity livestock-productivity fishery-productivity forestry-productivity economic-productivity social-productivity environmental-productivity ecological-productivity biological-productivity primary-productivity secondary-productivity net-primary-productivity gross-primary-productivity ecosystem-productivity landscape-productivity regional-productivity global-productivity carbon-productivity nitrogen-productivity water-footprint carbon-footprint nitrogen-footprint phosphorus-footprint biodiversity-footprint material-footprint land-footprint energy-footprint emission-factor intensity-factor decoupling absolute-decoupling relative-decoupling resource-decoupling impact-decoupling dematerialization rematerialization transmaterialization substitution complementarity trade-off synergy co-benefit win-win lose-lose win-lose zero-sum positive-sum negative-sum game-theory prisoner's-dilemma tragedy-of-the-commons collective-action common-pool-resource public-good private-good club-good common-good global-common global-public-good tipping-point critical-transition regime-shift hysteresis irreversibility path-dependence lock-in technological-lock-in institutional-lock-in behavioral-lock-in social-ecological-trap poverty-trap degradation-trap development-trap complex-adaptive-system social-ecological-system coupled-human-natural-system human-environment-system adaptive-capacity transformative-capacity learning-capacity innovation-capacity governance-capacity institutional-capacity organizational-capacity individual-capacity community-capacity social-capital human-capital natural-capital physical-capital financial-capital built-capital cultural-capital political-capital intellectual-capital knowledge-capital information-capital data-capital digital-capital technological-capital infrastructural-capital institutional-capital organizational-capital network-capital relationship-capital reputational-capital brand-capital symbolic-capital existential-capital spiritual-capital religious-capital moral-capital ethical-capital trust-capital reciprocity-capital solidarity-capital cooperation-capital coordination-capital collaboration-capital communication-capital information-sharing knowledge-sharing learning innovation experimentation transformation transition change evolution development growth progress improvement enhancement optimization maximization minimization satisfaction sufficiency abundance scarcity security insecurity vulnerability robustness stability instability equilibrium disequilibrium homeostasis allostasis stress distress eustress coping coping-capacity coping-strategy coping-mechanism coping-resource coping-support social-support emotional-support instrumental-support informational-support appraisal-support network-support community-support institutional-support policy-support financial-support technical-support technological-support infrastructural-support capacity-building capacity-development capacity-strengthening empowerment enablement mobilization activation engagement participation involvement inclusion exclusion marginalization discrimination inequity inequality disparity gap divide digital-divide knowledge-divide information-divide science-divide research-divide innovation-divide technology-divide development-divide north-south-divide east-west-divide urban-rural-divide gender-divide age-divide class-divide income-divide wealth-divide asset-divide opportunity-divide outcome-divide 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fullness-divide plenum-divide vacuum-divide atmosphere-divide air-divide gas-divide vapor-divide mist-divide fog-divide cloud-divide rain-divide snow-divide ice-divide frost-divide dew-divide humidity-divide moisture-divide wetness-divide dryness-divide aridity-divide drought-divide flood-divide deluge-divide inundation-divide submersion-divide immersion-divide saturation-divide supersaturation-divide condensation-divide evaporation-divide transpiration-divide sublimation-divide deposition-divide precipitation-divide infiltration-divide percolation-divide seepage-divide leakage-divide discharge-divide runoff-divide erosion-divide sedimentation-divide accretion-divide aggregation-divide coagulation-divide flocculation-divide crystallization-divide solidification-divide liquefaction-divide vaporization-divide boiling-divide melting-divide freezing-divide thawing-divide cooling-divide heating-divide warming-divide thermal-divide temperature-divide heat-divide cold-divide cool-divide warm-divide hot-divide thermodynamic-divide enthalpy-divide entropy-divide free-energy-divide Gibbs-free-energy-divide Helmholtz-free-energy-divide chemical-potential-divide fugacity-divide partial-pressure-divide concentration-divide dilution-divide solution-divide mixture-divide compound-divide element-divide atom-divide molecule-divide ion-divide electron-divide proton-divide neutron-divide nucleus-divide particle-divide quark-divide lepton-divide boson-divide fermion-divide hadron-divide baryon-divide meson-divide photon-divide gluon-divide weak-boson-divide Higgs-boson-divide string-divide brane-divide dimension-divide space-time-divide continuum-divide discrete-divide quantum-divide classical-divide relativistic-divide Newtonian-divide Einsteinian-divide Planckian-divide cosmological-divide astronomical-divide microscopic-divide macroscopic-divide mesoscopic-divide nanoscopic-divide atomic-divide molecular-divide cellular-divide tissue-divide organ-divide organism-divide 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