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Entedoninae
Entedoninae is a subfamily of chalcid wasps in the family Eulophidae comprising over 90 genera. Members are primarily parasitoids with documented associations across diverse host groups including gall-inducing insects, leafminers, sawflies, thrips, and ants. The subfamily exhibits considerable morphological and ecological diversity, with species found in tropical to temperate habitats worldwide.
parasitoid biological-control gall-associated leafminer-parasitoid Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera Eulophidae Entedoninae tropical-forest agricultural-pest-control sawfly-parasitoid thrips-parasitoid ant-associated rice-pest Cecidomyiidae Tenthredinidae Pontania Closterocerus Ceranisus Afronympha Ametallon Chrysonotomyia Omphale-genus-group canopy understorey ecological-plasticity Bangladesh Panama Africa New-Zealand Europe Senegal South-Africa Democratic-Republic-of-the-Congo Uganda endoparasitoid larval-parasitoid egg-parasitoid host-specificity forest-habitat degraded-habitat mid-altitude-rainforest lowland-rainforest tropical-America classical-biological-control augmentative-biological-control integrated-pest-management rice-hispa Dicladispa-armigera gall-wasp sawfly-gall leafminer ant-symbiosis Formicidae Khaya-senegalensis Ochna-pulchra morphological-taxonomy molecular-taxonomy 28S-rDNA COI CytB new-species-description generic-revision host-range parasitoid-complex food-web ecosystem-service natural-enemy pest-management entomophagous hyperparasitoid inquiline curculionid Apion-minimum Phyllocolpa-leucosticta Chrysocharis Entedon Asecodes Pleurotroppopsis Afrotroppopsis Zaommomentedon Apleurotropis Kratoysma Platocharis Schizocharis Parahorismenus Atullya Tropicharis Chrysochuris cruy mirabilis oryzamyntor eminpashai carinatum dussiae longicaudata machaeriae unimaculata claviger gorgonaense auripunctata galbina laeviscuta phenacapsia cecvora elongata pontaniae heyeri risbeci milletiae newbyi Förster-1856 Chalcidoidea-phylogeny biodiversity species-richness cryptic-species molecular-diagnostics host-plant-association habitat-specificity canopy-fauna understorey-fauna forest-stratification tropical-biodiversity Afrotropical Neotropical Palaearctic Nearctic Oriental Australasian Pacific Holarctic biogeography taxonomic-revision annotated-key catalogue type-specimen museum-collection slide-mounted-specimens morphometrics genitalia wing-venation antennae clypeus mandibles malar-space scape pedicel flagellum gaster vertex suture color-pattern pale-femora dark-gaster sexual-dimorphism male female ovipositor emergence rearing quarantine field-collection foreign-exploration augmentative-release pesticide-resistance sustainable-agriculture food-security rice-production cereal-pest vegetable-pest fruit-pest ornamental-pest forest-pest urban-pest invasive-species native-range introduced-range establishment spread impact non-target-effects host-specificity risk-assessment environmental-safety regulatory-approval research-symposium proceedings peer-reviewed Zootaxa ZooKeys Insect-Systematics-&-Evolution Australian-Journal-of-Entomology Far-Eastern-Entomologist Russian-Entomological-Journal Belgian-Journal-of-Entomology Florida-Entomologist Pan-Pacific-Entomologist Entomological-News Proceedings-of-the-Hawaiian-Entomological-Society Transactions-of-the-American-Entomological-Society Journal-of-Natural-History Zoological-Journal-of-the-Linnean-Society BioControl Journal-of-Economic-Entomology Entomologia-Experimentalis-et-Applicata Environmental-Entomology Oecologia Cladistics Molecular-Phylogenetics-and-Evolution Heredity Canadian-Entomologist Proceedings-of-the-Entomological-Society-of-Washington Annals-of-the-Entomological-Society-of-America Bulletin-of-Entomological-Research Neotropical-Entomology Journal-of-Asia-Pacific-Entomology Turkish-Journal-of-Zoology Polish-Journal-of-Entomology North-Western-Journal-of-Zoology Entomologica-Americana Entomologische-Berichten Sahlbergia Dugesiana Acta-Zoologica-Lilloana Folia-Entomologica-Mexicana Revista-de-la-Sociedad-Entomologica-Argentina Boletin-de-la-Asociacion-Espanola-de-Entomologia Entomologicheskoe-Obozrenie Entomological-Review Zoological-Institute-RAS Proceedings-of-the-Zoological-Institute-of-the-Russian-Academy-of-Sciences Taiwan-Agricultural-Research-Institute Council-of-Agriculture University-of-California Riverside 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sustainable-intensification agroecology conservation-biological-control habitat-management floral-resources refuge buffer-zone landscape-complexity connectivity spillover natural-enemy-diversity food-web-structure trophic-interactions multitrophic indirect-effects trait-mediated density-dependent inverse-density-dependent functional-response numerical-response searching-efficiency handling-time oviposition-behavior host-selection host-acceptance host-suitability host-quality host-stage-preference egg-load progeny-allocation sex-ratio local-mate-competition sib-mating inbreeding fitness longevity fecundity development-time thermal-requirements degree-days phenology synchrony asynchrony seasonal-adaptation diapause quiescence cold-hardiness heat-tolerance desiccation-resistance starvation-resistance dispersal flight walking foraging patch-use area-restricted-search oviposition-marking host-marking superparasitism multiparasitism intraguild-predation hyperparasitism autoparasitism heteronomous-hyperparasitism facultative-hyperparasitism obligate-hyperparasitism primary-parasitoid secondary-parasitoid tertiary-parasitoid mummy aphid-mummy scale-mummy pupal-parasitoid egg-larval-parasitoid larval-pupal-parasitoid idiobiont koinobiont ectoparasitoid solitary gregarious polyembryony thelytoky arrhenotoky diploid haplodiploid chromosome-number genome-size transcriptome proteome metabolome morphome phenome extended-phenotype niche-construction ecosystem-engineering keystone-species ecosystem-service-provider functional-group guild trophic-level energy-flow nutrient-cycling decomposition predation herbivory parasitism mutualism commensalism competition apparent-competition exploitative-competition interference-competition scramble-competition contest-competition resource-partitioning niche-differentiation character-displacement co-evolution arms-race Red-Queen geographic-mosaic local-adaptation phenotypic-plasticity genetic-adaptation epigenetics transgenerational-effects maternal-effects paternal-effects parental-care mating-system sexual-selection sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice mate-choice lek territory aggression alarm defense venom allomone kairomone synomone semiochemical pheromone trail-pheromone alarm-pheromone aggregation-pheromone sex-pheromone marking-pheromone oviposition-deterrent host-marking-pheromone plant-volatile induced-plant-defense systemic-acquired-resistance induced-systemic-resistance priming volatile-organic-compound green-leaf-volatile terpenoid phenylpropanoid jasmonic-acid salicylic-acid ethylene abscisic-acid gibberellin auxin cytokinin brassinosteroid strigolactone nitric-oxide reactive-oxygen-species hypersensitive-response programmed-cell-death autophagy apoptosis necrosis pathogen-associated-molecular-pattern damage-associated-molecular-pattern pattern-recognition-receptor effector-triggered-immunity gene-for-gene avirulence virulence effector toxin phytotoxin mycotoxin bacterial-toxin viral-toxin insecticidal-protein cry-protein vip-protein cyt-protein spore conidium appressorium haustorium mycelium sclerotium fruiting-body basidiocarp ascocarp perithecium cleistothecium pycnidium acervulus sporodochium symptom sign disease-triangle disease-cycle epidemic endemic pandemic outbreak eradication containment management control prevention forecasting warning-system decision-support-system expert-system model simulation economic-threshold economic-injury-level action-threshold treatment-threshold damage-threshold aesthetic-injury-level cultural-control physical-control mechanical-control chemical-control genetic-control sterile-insect-technique incompatible-insect-technique precision-agriculture site-specific-management variable-rate-application remote-sensing geographic-information-system global-positioning-system unmanned-aerial-vehicle drone sensor imaging spectroscopy machine-learning artificial-intelligence deep-learning neural-network computer-vision image-analysis pattern-recognition classification segmentation detection tracking counting sampling sampling-plan sequential-sampling binomial-sampling presence-absence-sampling fixed-precision-sampling variable-precision-sampling spatial-sampling temporal-sampling stratified-sampling cluster-sampling systematic-sampling random-sampling convenience-sampling judgment-sampling expert-sampling quota-sampling snowball-sampling respondent-driven-sampling capture-recapture mark-recapture mark-resight distance-sampling line-transect point-transect strip-transect plot quadrat pitfall-trap Malaise-trap pan-trap water-pan yellow-pan blue-pan white-pan flight-interception-trap window-trap canopy-fogging beating-tray sweep-net aerial-net ground-net aquatic-net D-vac vacuum-sampler aspirator mouth-aspirator mechanical-aspirator berlese-funnel Tullgren-funnel Winkler-extractor pitfall barber-trap pitfall-array drift-fence funnel-trap light-trap UV-light black-light mercury-vapor sodium-vapor LED actinic color-trap sticky-trap pheromone-trap synthetic-pheromone natural-pheromone kairomone-trap food-bait protein-bait sugar-bait fermentation-bait alcohol-bait vinegar-bait molasses-bait fruit-bait meat-bait fish-bait dung-bait carrion-bait decoy lure attractant repellent deterrent antifeedant oviposition-stimulant arrestant suppressant toxicant stomach-poison contact-poison fumigant systemic translaminar residual persistent non-persistent broad-spectrum narrow-spectrum selective non-selective target-specific host-specific mode-of-action nerve-poison acetylcholinesterase-inhibitor GABA-antagonist sodium-channel-modulator nicotinic-acetylcholine-receptor-agonist ryanodine-receptor-modulator chitin-synthesis-inhibitor juvenile-hormone-mimic ecdysone-agonist microbial-pesticide entomopathogenic-nematode entomopathogenic-fungus entomopathogenic-bacterium entomopathogenic-virus entomopathogenic-protozoa Bacillus-thuringiensis Bt Bacillus-sphaericus Paenibacillus-popilliae Serratia-entomophila Metarhizium-anisopliae Beauveria-bassiana Lecanicillium-lecanii Isaria-fumosorosea Nomuraea-rileyi Hirsutella-thompsonii Entomophthora Neozygites Nosema Vairimorpha Thelohania Anticarsia-gemmatalis-nucleopolyhedrovirus AgMNPV Cydia-pomonella-granulovirus CpGV Spodoptera-exigua-multiple-nucleopolyhedrovirus SeMNPV Autographa-californica-multiple-nucleopolyhedrovirus AcMNPV nucleopolyhedrovirus granulovirus cypovirus entomopoxvirus iridovirus parvovirus tetravirus nodavirus reovirus picornavirus iflavirus densovirus birnavirus totivirus partitivirus hypovirulence mycovirus bacteriophage phage transduction conjugation transformation horizontal-gene-transfer vertical-gene-transfer mobile-genetic-element transposon plasmid integron genomic-island pathogenicity-island symbiosis-island metabolic-island resistance-island virulence-factor antibiotic-resistance insecticide-resistance acaricide-resistance herbicide-resistance fungicide-resistance bactericide-resistance nematicide-resistance 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Eustala
humpbacked orb-weavers
Eustala is a genus of orb-weaver spiders in the family Araneidae, first described by Eugène Simon in 1895. As of November 2024, the genus contains 87 species distributed primarily across the Americas, from the United States through Central America to South America, with highest diversity in Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. Several species have been documented exhibiting specialized ecological relationships, including myrmecophily (living among ants) in Central American species that inhabit ant-defended acacia plants. The genus includes the well-known humpbacked orb-weaver, Eustala anastera, found across North and Central America.
Araneidae orb-weaver spider humpbacked myrmecophily ant-plant-mutualism Neotropical Nearctic Eustala-anastera Eustala-oblonga Eustala-illicita web-building predator acacia Pseudomyrmex Panama Brazil Galápagos Simon-1895 arachnology entomology tropical-ecology commensalism ontogeny ballooning overwintering juvenile spider-wasp-prey Caliadurgus-hyalinatus host-parasitoid-interactions third-party-exploitation mutualism-exploitation cryptic-coloration nocturnal-foraging diurnal-hiding-behavior thorn-defense orb-web-architecture sawtoothed-web population-ecology substrate-selection spatial-distribution species-diversity endemic-species taxonomic-revision nomen-dubium genitalic-morphology microscopy-identification temperate-North-America Central-America South-America Caribbean Pacific-islands conservation-biology climate-change-vulnerability phenology-disruption winter-activity spring-emergence forest-understory dry-forest moist-forest riparian grassland scrub edge-habitat woodland parkland urban-adapted generalist-predator specialist-predator ant-alate-predation herbivore-interception ecosystem-service biological-control natural-history field-identification cryptic-species-complex sexual-dimorphism wingless-female-moths ballooning-dispersal silk-production web-ontogeny instar-development overwintering-strategy cold-hardiness metabolic-suppression diapause voltinism univoltine bivoltine multivoltine seasonal-polyphenism color-morph pattern-polymorphism habitat-specificity host-plant-specificity ant-colony-integration alarm-pheromone-avoidance sting-avoidance predator-avoidance bird-predation lizard-predation wasp-predation assassin-bug-predation stink-bug-predation defensive-behavior thanatosis camouflage masquerade mimicry aggressive-mimicry foraging-ecology prey-capture web-maintenance web-repair silk-recycling energetics reproductive-output fecundity egg-sac-construction maternal-care male-searching-behavior mate-location pheromone-communication vibratory-communication visual-signaling territoriality web-site-fidelity web-site-tenacity dispersal-behavior colonization-ability range-expansion invasive-potential non-native-species introduced-species synanthropic agricultural-landscape orchard vineyard forest-plantation conservation-status data-deficient IUCN CITES protected-area national-park soberania chiribiquete galapagos floreana ecuador peru bolivia chile argentina uruguay paraguay venezuela colombia costa-rica nicaragua honduras guatemala belize mexico usa canada cuba hispaniola jamaica puerto-rico trinidad tobago barbados lesser-antilles greater-antilles west-indies caribbean-basin amazon-basin orinoco parana pantanal cerrado caatinga atlantic-forest pampas chaco yungas valdivian magellanic fynbos none research-model educational-resource citizen-science inaturalist gbif catalogue-of-life ncbi wikipedia zootaxa journal-of-natural-history psyche entomology-today bug-eric araneology chelicerate-biology arthropod-ecology tropical-biology neotropical-fauna nearctic-fauna holartic pantropical gondwanan biogeography phylogeography molecular-systematics morphological-taxonomy integrative-taxonomy species-concept cryptic-diversity undescribed-species new-species-description redescription neotype-designation lectotype-designation type-locality type-specimen museum-collection voucher-specimen dna-barcoding coi its phylogenomics transcriptomics proteomics metabolomics ecological-genomics adaptation local-adaptation phenotypic-plasticity canalization evolutionary-developmental-biology evo-devo behavioral-ecology sensory-ecology visual-ecology chemical-ecology mechanoreception proprioception neuroethology hunting-behavior web-building-behavior construction-behavior tool-use extended-phenotype niche-construction ecosystem-engineering trophic-cascade food-web energy-flow nutrient-cycling decomposition predator-prey-dynamics population-dynamics metapopulation source-sink-dynamics habitat-fragmentation edge-effects corridors connectivity landscape-ecology macroecology biogeochemistry climate-envelope species-distribution-modeling maxent bioclim worldclim remote-sensing gis spatial-analysis geostatistics abundance density biomass productivity diversity-index richness evenness dominance rarity endemism beta-diversity gamma-diversity alpha-diversity turnover nestedness community-assembly neutral-theory niche-theory competition facilitation apparent-competition indirect-effects interaction-networks mutualism parasitism predation herbivory detritivory scavenging cannibalism intraspecific-competition interspecific-competition character-displacement resource-partitioning niche-differentiation coexistence stability resilience resistance recovery succession disturbance perturbation extinction colonization invasion establishment spread impact risk-assessment management control eradication restoration reintroduction rewilding conservation-breeding ex-situ in-situ protected-area-network gap-analysis systematic-conservation-planning prioritization hotspot coldspot majority minority flagship umbrella keystone foundation ecosystem-engineer indicator sentinel bioindicator biomonitor ecosystem-health environmental-quality pollution pesticide heavy-metal contaminant bioaccumulation biomagnification toxicology risk hazard exposure dose-response no-observed-effect-concentration lowest-observed-effect-concentration median-lethal-concentration median-effective-concentration safety-factor uncertainty-factor probabilistic-risk-assessment life-cycle-assessment carbon-footprint water-footprint ecological-footprint sustainability sustainable-development green-economy circular-economy ecosystem-services natural-capital green-infrastructure nature-based-solutions ecological-restoration habitat-restoration species-recovery population-recovery genetic-rescue outbreeding-depression inbreeding-depression genetic-diversity heterozygosity effective-population-size bottleneck founder-effect genetic-drift 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emerging-infectious-disease pandemic epidemic endemic sporadic outbreak cluster index-case contact-tracing quarantine isolation social-distancing masking vaccination herd-immunity reproduction-number basic-reproduction-number effective-reproduction-number doubling-time generation-time serial-interval incubation-period latent-period infectious-period clinical-period pre-symptomatic asymptomatic pauci-symptomatic mild moderate severe critical fatal case-fatality-rate infection-fatality-rate attack-rate secondary-attack-rate excess-mortality years-of-life-lost disability-adjusted-life-year quality-adjusted-life-year burden-of-disease global-burden-of-disease one-health planetary-health ecohealth conservation-medicine veterinary-medicine human-medicine comparative-medicine translational-medicine precision-medicine personalized-medicine genomic-medicine regenerative-medicine stem-cell tissue-engineering organoid organ-on-chip microphysiological-system in-silico in-vitro ex-vivo in-vivo animal-model non-human-primate rodent mouse rat guinea-pig rabbit dog cat livestock poultry aquaculture fishery wild-capture mariculture algaculture seaweed-farming integrated-multi-trophic-aquaculture recirculating-aquaculture-system aquaponics hydroponics aeroponics vertical-farming controlled-environment-agriculture precision-agriculture smart-farming digital-agriculture agriculture-4.0 internet-of-things artificial-intelligence machine-learning deep-learning neural-network computer-vision drone unmanned-aerial-vehicle satellite gps gnss geographic-information-system decision-support-system expert-system knowledge-based-system ontology semantic-web linked-data open-data big-data data-mining data-science data-analytics predictive-analytics prescriptive-analytics descriptive-analytics diagnostic-analytics business-intelligence artificial-intelligence-ethics algorithmic-bias fairness accountability transparency explainability interpretability privacy security safety reliability robustness adaptability flexibility scalability efficiency effectiveness efficacy performance profitability cost-benefit cost-effectiveness economic-analysis financial-analysis investment return-on-investment net-present-value internal-rate-of-return payback-period break-even sensitivity-analysis scenario-analysis monte-carlo-simulation decision-tree real-options game-theory behavioral-economics nudge choice-architecture default framing anchoring availability-heuristic representativeness-heuristic affect-heuristic confirmation-bias availability-bias anchoring-bias framing-bias loss-aversion endowment-effect status-quo-bias sunk-cost-fallacy planning-fallacy optimism-bias pessimism-bias overconfidence underconfidence dunning-kruger-effect imposter-syndrome stereotyping prejudice discrimination implicit-bias explicit-bias structural-bias systemic-bias institutional-bias interpersonal-bias intrapersonal-bias unconscious-bias conscious-bias affinity-bias similarity-bias in-group-bias out-group-bias halo-effect horns-effect contrast-effect recency-effect primacy-effect serial-position-effect mere-exposure-effect familiarity-principle propinquity-effect social-proof authority scarcity reciprocity commitment consistency liking unity influence persuasion compliance conformity obedience empowerment agency autonomy self-determination motivation intrinsic-motivation extrinsic-motivation self-efficacy self-esteem self-concept self-identity social-identity collective-identity cultural-identity national-identity gender-identity sexual-orientation religion spirituality values beliefs attitudes norms customs traditions rituals ceremonies celebrations festivals holidays commemorations memorials monuments heritage legacy history historiography archaeology paleontology anthropology sociology psychology cognitive-science neuroscience linguistics philosophy ethics morality justice equity equality inclusion diversity belonging representation participation engagement 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eukaryome phytobiome rhizobiome endobiome ectobiome exo-biome astrobiome planetary-biome earth-system climate-system ocean-system terrestrial-system freshwater-system atmospheric-system cryospheric-system anthroposphere technosphere noosphere biosphere hydrosphere lithosphere atmosphere magnetosphere heliosphere cosmosphere universe multiverse dimension space time spacetime relativity quantum-mechanics string-theory m-theory loop-quantum-gravity cosmology astronomy astrophysics planetary-science earth-science geology geophysics geochemistry geomorphology soil-science pedology edaphology hydrology limnology oceanography meteorology climatology paleoclimatology stratigraphy sedimentology mineralogy petrology volcanology seismology tectonics plate-tectonics continental-drift orogeny epeirogeny isostasy erosion weathering deposition transport sedimentation lithification diagenesis metamorphism melting crystallization igneous sedimentary metamorphic rock-cycle water-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle oxygen-cycle hydrogen-cycle biogeochemical-cycle nutrient-cycle trophic-pyramid food-chain ecological-network interaction-web mutualistic-network antagonistic-network competition-network facilitation-network ecosystem-function ecosystem-process provisioning-service regulating-service cultural-service supporting-service habitat-service refuge nursery corridor stepping-stone buffer-zone core-area periphery matrix patch landscape seascape riverscape skyscape soundscape smellscape tastescape touchscape mindscape dreamscape memoryscape heritagescape futurescape possibility-space scenario-space decision-space policy-space governance-space institutional-space social-space cultural-space economic-space political-space legal-space ethical-space moral-space spiritual-space sacred-space profane-space liminal-space transitional-space threshold boundary edge frontier margin center core hinterland heartland homeland motherland fatherland native-land ancestral-land promised-land wilderness pioneer settler colonist immigrant emigrant refugee asylum-seeker displaced-person stateless-person nomad traveler tourist pilgrim explorer adventurer discoverer inventor innovator creator maker builder craftsman artisan artist designer architect engineer scientist scholar academic researcher investigator detective journalist reporter correspondent chronicler historian biographer memoirist autobiographer diarist letter-writer poet novelist playwright screenwriter essayist critic reviewer editor publisher librarian archivist curator conservator restorer preservationist conservationist environmentalist ecologist naturalist botanist zoologist entomologist arachnologist herpetologist ichthyologist ornithologist mammalogist primatologist anthropologist archaeologist paleontologist geologist geographer cartographer surveyor navigator expedition voyage journey travel tour trip visit stay residence habitation dwelling shelter home house building 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wellness fitness soundness integrity wholeness completeness perfection excellence quality standard criterion benchmark yardstick measure gauge sign signal symptom mark token symbol image icon emblem logo brand trademark copyright patent intellectual-property proprietary confidential secret classified restricted limited controlled regulated managed governed administered operated maintained sustained supported funded financed resourced staffed equipped furnished supplied provided delivered distributed allocated assigned designated appointed elected selected chosen picked preferred favored liked loved adored cherished treasured valued esteemed respected honored celebrated commemorated remembered recalled recollected reminisced reflected contemplated meditated pondered considered weighed evaluated judged assessed appraised rated ranked graded scored marked pointed noted observed noticed seen viewed looked watched gazed stared glanced peeked peered scanned surveyed examined inspected 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experiment investigation inquiry query question problem issue matter subject topic theme motif leitmotif thread strand line sequence series progression continuation extension expansion enlargement evolution change transformation conversion transition shift alteration modification adjustment accommodation reconciliation harmonization synchronization coordination integration unification combination merger fusion blend mixture compound composite alloy amalgam incorporation assimilation absorption digestion metabolism catabolism anabolism equilibrium balance steadiness constancy permanence endurance persistence continuity duration longevity lifespan lifetime existence being entity object thing item article piece part portion segment section division component element constituent ingredient factor aspect facet feature characteristic property attribute trait indication evidence proof verification validation confirmation corroboration substantiation authentication certification accreditation licensing permitting authorizing empowering enabling allowing letting tolerating accepting receiving taking getting obtaining acquiring gaining earning winning achieving attaining reaching arriving coming approaching nearing closing converging meeting joining connecting linking binding tying fastening attaching affixing appending adding supplementing complementing completing finishing perfecting consummating fulfilling satisfying gratifying pleasing delighting enjoying relishing savoring appreciating valuing prizing treasuring cherishing nurturing cultivating fostering promoting advancing furthering encouraging supporting backing assisting aiding helping serving attending tending caring nursing healing curing treating remedying correcting rectifying repairing fixing mending restoring renewing reviving resuscitating reanimating reawakening rekindling reigniting relaunching restarting rebooting refreshing rejuvenating reinvigorating reenergizing recharging refueling replenishing 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Lygus hesperus
Western Tarnished Plant Bug
Lygus hesperus is a significant agricultural pest in western North America, causing extensive damage to cotton, strawberries, alfalfa seed, and other crops. In California alone, annual losses exceed $30 million in cotton and $40 million in strawberries. Adults overwinter in reproductive diapause triggered by short day lengths, resuming activity when conditions improve. The species has been the subject of extensive research on sampling methods, biological control, and insecticide resistance.
agricultural-pest plant-bug Miridae cotton-pest strawberry-pest alfalfa-pest western-North-America diapause biological-control integrated-pest-management insecticide-resistance mark-release-recapture salivary-enzymes extraoral-digestion Peristenus-relictus Hippodamia-convergens drone-sampling fluorescent-marking SmartWater vector Pantoea-ananatis Serratia potassium-chloride deterrent artificial-diet lentil seed-crops California Texas Arizona Nevada Washington Mexico polyphagous phytophagous stylet-probing scutellum nymph-spots economic-entomology organic-agriculture ecosystem-services bird-predation molecular-gut-analysis ELISA immunomarking parasitoid population-suppression crop-protection sampling-protocols sweep-net drop-cloth Y-tube-olfactometer gustatory-deterrent visual-cues volatile-cues reproductive-diapause postdiapause oogenesis oviposition longevity body-mass life-history mass-spectrometry salivary-proteins polygalacturonase α-amylase protease laccase glucose-dehydrogenase xanthine-dehydrogenase plant-defense host-pathogen-interaction iDrone-Bee UAV unmanned-aerial-vehicle open-source field-scouting IPM economic-threshold Bt-cotton natural-enemy conservation-biological-control landscape-ecology habitat-management weed-management border-sprays spot-treatment selective-insecticide neonicotinoid pyrethroid resistance-management sustainable-agriculture food-security economic-impact simulation-model population-dynamics immigration parasitism averted-loss value-loss cost-benefit research-methodology insect-marking dispersal fluorophore autofluorescence survivorship mortality mark-transfer crowding olfactometer feeding-behavior no-choice-assay choice-assay gustation host-selection plant-quality succulent-growth fruiting-structures square boll bloom terminal defoliation stand-loss dirty-bloom puckered-petals lesion carpel-wall lint-damage seed-damage yield-loss fiber-quality management-threshold scouting-interval action-threshold treatment-timing insecticide-efficacy labeled-rate difficult-to-control species-complex identification-key morphology color-variation wing-development antennae thorax abdomen instar developmental-stage laboratory-rearing oligidic-diet semisolid-slurry chicken-egg soybean wheat-germ lima-bean cost-reduction biomass-production survival fecundity egg-production generation-time population-growth log-phase colony-maintenance genetic-diversity field-collection adaptation stress-tolerance oxidative-stress temperature-extreme food-deficit resource-allocation reproductive-senescence endogenous-reserves environmental-stressor climate-adaptation phenology migration dispersal-pattern habitat-patch source-sink population-source population-sink crop-border field-edge non-crop-habitat refuge overwintering-site spring-emergence summer-population fall-population density-dependence aggregation spatial-distribution sampling-accuracy pest-detection monitoring-technology precision-agriculture digital-agriculture automation robotics machine-learning computer-vision sensor-technology data-collection decision-support grower-education extension stakeholder-engagement multidisciplinary-research academia-industry-collaboration sustainable-intensification agroecosystem food-system plant-insect-interaction insect-plant-coevolution salivary-secretion digestive-enzyme lytic-enzyme tissue-maceration feeding-injury physiological-damage mechanical-damage wound-response plant-defense-response induced-resistance systemic-acquired-resistance jasmonic-acid ethylene salicylic-acid secondary-metabolite phenolic-compound oxidative-enzyme redox-enzyme bacterial-transmission phytopathogen opportunistic-pathogen infection-court inoculum disease-vector epidemiology crop-hygiene sanitation crop-rotation cover-crop trap-crop push-pull habitat-manipulation conservation-biocontrol augmentative-biocontrol classical-biocontrol importation establishment non-target-effect host-specificity parasitoid-biology reproductive-parasitoid idiobiont koinobiont mummy-formation emergence-rate parasitoid-impact population-regulation top-down-control bottom-up-control trophic-cascade food-web ecosystem-function ecosystem-service disservice net-effect risk-assessment management-strategy policy regulation pesticide-registration resistance-monitoring stewardship integrated-resistance-management IRM refuge-strategy pyramid-strategy multiple-toxins transgenic-crop GMO biosafety environmental-impact non-target-organism pollinator-protection beneficial-insect natural-enemy-conservation floral-resource nectar pollen alternative-prey habitat-diversification agri-environment-scheme green-infrastructure ecological-compensation landscape-complexity connectivity matrix-quality spillover source-habitat ecological-trap population-viability extinction-risk invasion-biology range-expansion climate-change warming drought irrigation water-stress nitrogen-fertilization crop-vigor plant-nutrition host-plant-quality tritrophic-interaction plant-microbe-insect endosymbiont gut-microbiome salivary-microbiome vector-competence transmission-efficiency acquisition inoculation retention multiplication circulative non-circulative persistent non-persistent propagative stylet-borne foregut-borne hemolymph-borne salivary-gland-borne replication barrier midgut salivary-gland escape infection incubation latent-period inoculation-threshold transmission-threshold epidemic epiphytotic disease-triangle susceptible-host virulent-pathogen favorable-environment disease-cycle primary-inoculum secondary-inoculum overwintering-pathogen survival-structure disease-reservoir alternative-host volunteer-crop weed-reservoir crop-residue soilborne seedborne insect-borne management-tactic preventive curative eradicative suppressive protectant systemic contact translaminar fumigant biological-pesticide microbial-pesticide entomopathogenic-fungus entomopathogenic-nematode entomopathogenic-virus baculovirus granulovirus nucleopolyhedrovirus bacteria Bacillus-thuringiensis Bt-toxin crystal-protein cytolytic-protein vegetative-insecticidal-protein mode-of-action gut-paralysis septicemia toxemia antibiotic symbiont antibiotic-resistance fitness-cost resistance-allele resistance-mechanism metabolic-resistance target-site-resistance penetration-resistance behavioral-resistance cross-resistance multiple-resistance resistance-evolution selection-pressure dose-response lethal-concentration lethal-dose median-lethal-concentration median-lethal-dose confidence-interval probit-analysis logit-analysis dose-mortality time-mortality resistance-ratio resistance-factor diagnostic-dose discriminating-dose baseline-susceptibility susceptible-strain reference-strain field-population resistant-population homozygous-resistant heterozygous dominance recessive incomplete-dominance gene-frequency allele-frequency selection-coefficient fitness relative-fitness population-genetics quantitative-genetics heritability genetic-correlation breeding-value 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phytoalexin lignin suberin callose papilla cell-wall-reinforcement hypersensitive-cell-death induced-systemic-resistance priming defense-elicitor plant-activator biostimulant plant-strengthener organic-amendment compost manure biochar vermicompost compost-tea microbial-inoculant plant-growth-promoting-rhizobacteria mycorrhizal-fungus endophyte epiphyte phytosphere rhizosphere phyllosphere spermosphere anthroposphere ecosystem-process nutrient-cycling carbon-sequestration nitrogen-fixation phosphorus-solubilization potassium-mobilization micronutrient-availability soil-structure water-infiltration water-holding-capacity erosion-control pollination pest-suppression disease-suppression weed-suppression decomposition detritivory predation herbivory mutualism commensalism competition facilitation inhibition amensalism neutralism symbiosis antagonism trophic-interaction food-chain energy-flow material-cycling biomass-pyramid trophic-pyramid ecological-efficiency production-efficiency assimilation-efficiency ecological-footprint sustainability resilience resistance adaptability transformability socio-ecological-system adaptive-management participatory-research citizen-science knowledge-co-production transdisciplinary-research interdisciplinary-research disciplinary-research basic-research applied-research development-research action-research participatory-action-research farmer-participatory-research on-farm-research station-research controlled-experiment field-experiment observational-study correlational-study manipulative-experiment natural-experiment quasi-experiment longitudinal-study cross-sectional-study case-study comparative-study meta-analysis systematic-review scoping-review rapid-review living-review evidence-synthesis knowledge-synthesis research-synthesis systematic-map bibliometric-analysis citation-analysis co-citation-analysis bibliographic-coupling keyword-analysis topic-modeling science-mapping research-front emerging-topic hot-topic research-gap future-direction research-priority research-agenda strategic-research mission-oriented-research societal-challenge sustainable-development-goal nutrition-security climate-smart-agriculture climate-resilient-agriculture low-input-agriculture regenerative-agriculture agroecology integrated-farming mixed-farming diversified-farming specialized-farming intensive-farming extensive-farming conventional-farming alternative-farming urban-agriculture peri-urban-agriculture rural-agriculture smallholder-agriculture large-scale-agriculture family-farming corporate-farming contract-farming tenant-farming subsistence-farming commercial-farming export-oriented-farming import-substituting-farming local-food-system global-food-system food-value-chain supply-chain value-chain commodity-chain agribusiness agrifood-system food-processing food-distribution food-retail food-service food-consumption food-waste food-loss post-harvest-loss storage-loss processing-loss distribution-loss retail-loss consumer-waste plate-waste kitchen-waste food-rescue food-recovery food-redistribution food-banking composting anaerobic-digestion bioenergy biofuel bioproduct biomaterial biorefinery circular-economy circular-bioeconomy green-economy blue-economy bioeconomy nature-based-solution ecosystem-based-adaptation ecosystem-based-mitigation climate-mitigation disaster-risk-reduction extreme-event flood heat-wave cold-snap frost hail windstorm tornado hurricane typhoon cyclone storm-surge sea-level-rise salinization desertification land-degradation soil-degradation soil-erosion soil-compaction soil-sealing soil-contamination soil-pollution heavy-metal persistent-organic-pollutant pesticide-residue antibiotic-residue hormone-residue plastic-pollution microplastic nanoplastic particulate-matter air-pollution water-pollution groundwater-pollution surface-water-pollution eutrophication hypoxia dead-zone biodiversity-loss habitat-loss habitat-fragmentation habitat-degradation habitat-destruction 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nitrogen-footprint phosphorus-footprint biodiversity-footprint material-footprint land-footprint energy-footprint emission-factor intensity-factor decoupling absolute-decoupling relative-decoupling resource-decoupling impact-decoupling dematerialization rematerialization transmaterialization substitution complementarity trade-off synergy co-benefit win-win lose-lose win-lose zero-sum positive-sum negative-sum game-theory prisoner's-dilemma tragedy-of-the-commons collective-action common-pool-resource public-good private-good club-good common-good global-common global-public-good tipping-point critical-transition regime-shift hysteresis irreversibility path-dependence lock-in technological-lock-in institutional-lock-in behavioral-lock-in social-ecological-trap poverty-trap degradation-trap development-trap complex-adaptive-system social-ecological-system coupled-human-natural-system human-environment-system adaptive-capacity transformative-capacity learning-capacity innovation-capacity 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