Maternal-care

Guides

Acanthosomatidae
Shield Bugs
Acanthosomatidae is a family of shield bugs within Pentatomoidea comprising approximately 200 species in 55 genera across three subfamilies (Acanthosomatinae, Blaudusinae, Ditomotarsinae). The family is notable for its distinctive reproductive biology, with females exhibiting either maternal care (egg-nymph guarding) or egg smearing using secretions from Pendergrast's organs. Maternal care has evolved independently at least three times within the subfamily Acanthosomatinae and is correlated with reduction or loss of Pendergrast's organs, suggesting an evolutionary trade-off between these strategies.
Hemiptera Pentatomoidea shield-bugs maternal-care subsocial-behavior Pendergrast's-organ herbivory Gondwanan-distribution evolutionary-trade-off egg-guarding egg-smearing
Aconophora
Aconophora is a genus of treehoppers in the family Membracidae, tribe Aconophorini, characterized by a long, forward-projecting pronotal horn. The genus contains 13 described species distributed in the Neotropics. The most studied species, Aconophora compressa, was introduced to Australia in 1995 as a biological control agent for invasive lantana but was subsequently found to attack non-target plants, leading to its discontinued use. Members of this genus feed on plant stem sap and are not known to form mutualistic associations with ants, unlike the related genus Guayaquila.
treehopper biocontrol invasive-species Membracidae sap-feeder maternal-care
Aconophora compressa
lantana bug, lantana treehopper, lantana stemsucking treehopper, lantana sap-sucking bug
Aconophora compressa is a treehopper (family Membracidae) native to Mexico, Central America, and Colombia. It was introduced to Australia in 1995 as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Lantana camara. The species is brown, up to 8 mm long, with a thorn-shaped body and produces copious honeydew. It has been documented to attack non-target plants, particularly fiddlewood (Citharexylum spinosum) in Australia, leading to its discontinuation as a biocontrol agent after 2001. It was also rejected for use in South Africa due to unacceptable risks to indigenous Lippia species.
treehopper biological-control invasive-species-management Membracidae phloem-feeder maternal-care gregarious honeydew-producer non-target-effects Lantana-camara Mexico Australia South-Africa Verbenaceae Citharexylum-spinosum Lippia Aloysia-citrodora thermal-tolerance stem-sucking sap-feeding egg-guarding instars nymphal-development weed-biocontrol host-range-expansion ecological-risk-assessment biosecurity Walker-1851 Aconophorini Membracinae Hemiptera Auchenorrhyncha Cicadomorpha Membracoidea
Aetalionidae
Aetalionid Treehoppers
Aetalionidae is a family of treehoppers in the superfamily Membracoidea, distinguished from the more diverse Membracidae by morphological features including a front femur fused to the trochanter and a completely exposed scutellum. The family is predominantly Neotropical in distribution, with two recognized subfamilies: Biturritiinae (exclusively Neotropical) and Aetalioninae (containing the Neotropical genus Aetalion and the Paleotropical genus Darthula). Females exhibit maternal care by guarding egg masses, and many species form aggregations on tree branches where they produce honeydew and associate with ants and stingless bees.
treehopper Membracoidea Neotropical maternal-care ant-mutualism honeydew phytophagous sap-feeder pest
Alopecosa
Fox Spiders
Alopecosa is a genus of wolf spiders (Lycosidae) comprising approximately 160 species. These ground-dwelling spiders are predominantly Eurasian in distribution, with some species extending into North Africa and North America. Most species reach up to 2 cm in body length. Females construct burrows for egg deposition and guard their egg sacs until hatching. The genus has been subject to taxonomic revision, with species historically grouped into sibling species complexes based on morphology, though courtship behavior and molecular techniques have proven more reliable for species delimitation.
wolf-spiders Lycosidae ground-dwelling maternal-care cryptic-species Eurasian venom-peptides antiviral burrowing early-spring-activity
Alopecosa kochi
Koch's Wolf Spider
Alopecosa kochi is a medium-sized wolf spider (Lycosidae) distributed across North America from southern Canada to northern Mexico. It is an active cursorial hunter that does not build capture webs, instead pursuing small invertebrates on open ground. The species exhibits clear sexual dimorphism, with males typically smaller, darker, and possessing more defined leg banding. Females carry egg sacs attached to their spinnerets and transport spiderlings on their backs after hatching.
wolf-spider cursorial-hunter ground-dwelling sexual-dimorphism maternal-care
Amaurobius ferox
black lace-weaver, black lace weaver
Amaurobius ferox is a nocturnal spider known for its distinctive cribellate web with woolly, lace-like silk. The species exhibits a unique subsocial organization among spiderlings, including synchronized molting, cooperative prey capture, and matriphagy—where offspring consume their mother after hatching. Native to Europe, it has been introduced to North America and is commonly found near human structures in dark, moist environments.
subsocial matriphagy cribellate-web nocturnal synanthropic cave-entrance-species synchronized-molting trophic-eggs Europe introduced-species North-America maternal-care spiderling-cooperation medical-significance minor-envenomation
Amblypygi
whip spiders, tailless whip scorpions, amblypygids
Amblypygi is an ancient order of arachnids comprising approximately 280 species across five families. These nocturnal predators are characterized by extremely elongated first pair of legs modified as sensory "whips" and raptorial pedipalps for capturing prey. They lack venom glands, silk production, and the tail-like flagellum present in their relatives the whip scorpions (Uropygi). Several species exhibit unusual social behaviors including maternal care and kin recognition.
arachnid nocturnal predator tropical cave-dwelling maternal-care pet-trade
Ammophila
Thread-waisted Sand Wasps
Ammophila is a large, cosmopolitan genus of solitary hunting wasps in the family Sphecidae, comprising over 200 species distributed across warmer regions of all continents except Antarctica. These thread-waisted wasps are characterized by their elongated, slender petiole connecting the thorax and abdomen, and their distinctive nesting behavior involving burrow excavation and caterpillar provisioning. Females construct underground nests in sandy or compact soils, paralyze caterpillars with their sting, and provide this food source for their developing larvae. The genus serves as a host for Strepsiptera endoparasites and is subject to nest parasitism by satellite flies and other organisms.
solitary-wasp ground-nesting caterpillar-predator maternal-care nest-parasite-host Strepsiptera-host thread-waisted Sphecidae cosmopolitan sand-wasp progressive-provisioning nest-defense prey-stealing satellite-fly-parasitism behavioral-ecology entomological-research-model
Anisolabididae
Anisolabididae is a family of earwigs (order Dermaptera, suborder Neodermaptera) comprising 38 genera across 13 subfamilies. Members include both cosmopolitan and geographically restricted species, with some showing specialized adaptations for subcortical or coastal habitats. Several genera, particularly Euborellia, are recognized for their predatory behavior and potential as biological control agents of agricultural pests. The family exhibits diverse morphologies ranging from typical earwig body plans to dorsoventrally flattened forms adapted for life under bark.
earwigs predatory biological-control maternal-care wing-polymorphism subcortical cosmopolitan
Anisolabis
Anisolabis is a genus of earwigs in the subfamily Anisolabidinae, with most species occurring in Asia. The genus name derives from the asymmetrical male cerci, with the right cercus more acute than the left. The best-studied species is Anisolabis maritima, the maritime earwig, which has been extensively researched for its social behavior, sexual selection, and maternal care. Other species such as A. annulipes are known agricultural pests.
earwigs Dermaptera sexual-dimorphism maternal-care social-behavior agricultural-pest maritime coastal sexual-selection asymmetrical-cerci
Anisolabis maritima
maritime earwig, seaside earwig
A cosmopolitan, wingless earwig species found on coastal beaches worldwide. Males possess asymmetrical forceps used for mating, prey capture, and defense. Exhibits notable maternal care behavior, with females guarding eggs and nymphs for up to 28 days and progressively provisioning offspring. Displays complex social dynamics including sex-specific aggression patterns and size-based dominance in shelter competition.
earwig coastal cosmopolitan wingless maternal-care cannibalism sexual-dimorphism aggregation
Apiomerus
Bee Assassins, Bee Assassin Bugs
Apiomerus is a genus of brightly colored, conspicuous assassin bugs in the family Reduviidae, commonly known as bee assassins. The genus contains approximately 110 described species and represents the largest clade within the monophyletic tribe Apiomerini. Members are characterized by their use of plant resin as 'sticky traps' to capture prey, a trait unique among assassin bugs. Females possess specialized tibial combs for resin collection and application onto egg masses, providing maternal care. The genus exhibits significant sexual dimorphism and extreme diversity in genital morphology, hypothesized to result from sexual selection driving speciation.
assassin-bug Reduviidae resin-collection maternal-care aposematic-coloration flower-ambush-predator New-World bee-assassin sticky-trap sexual-selection polychromatism
Argidae
Argid Sawflies
Argidae is a large family of sawflies (Hymenoptera: Symphyta) comprising approximately 800 species worldwide, with greatest diversity in tropical regions, particularly the Neotropics. The family is distinguished from other Symphyta by the reduction of the antenna to three flagellomeres, with the terminal segment often elongated and forked in males. Larvae are phytophagous and frequently exhibit gregarious feeding behavior; some species display maternal care of eggs and young larvae.
sawfly symphyta phytophagous gregarious maternal-care Gondwanan-distribution
Attelabidae
Leaf-rolling Weevils, Giraffe Weevils
Attelabidae is a widespread family of primitive weevils characterized by straight antennae inserted near the base of the rostrum. The family includes approximately 2,500 species globally, with subfamilies exhibiting distinct reproductive behaviors. Attelabinae are true leaf rollers, where females cut and roll leaves to create cradles for egg deposition and larval development. Rhynchitinae (sometimes treated as a separate family) have larvae that develop in flower buds, fruits, terminal shoots, or as leaf miners. Some members, particularly in the genus Trachelophorus, possess elongated necks and are known as giraffe weevils.
Coleoptera Curculionoidea primitive-weevils leaf-rolling maternal-care behavioral-complexity
Bethylidae
Flat wasps
Bethylidae is a family of aculeate wasps in the superfamily Chrysidoidea, commonly known as flat wasps due to their dorsoventrally compressed body form. The family exhibits a biology intermediate between parasitoid and predatory wasps: females sting and paralyze prey (primarily beetle and lepidopteran larvae), then oviposit on the immobilized hosts. Most species are small (2–10 mm), with females often wingless or apterous while males are always winged. The family contains eight recognized subfamilies and approximately 96 genera, with highest diversity in tropical and subtropical regions.
aculeate parasitoid ectoparasitoid biological-control flat-wasps wingless-females maternal-care wood-borer-parasitoid stored-product-pest-natural-enemy
Centrotinae
Centrotinae is the largest subfamily of treehoppers (Membracidae) and the only subfamily with a worldwide distribution. It comprises approximately 1,350 species in 216 genera. The subfamily is characterized by morphological features including a posterior pronotal process that typically does not conceal the scutellum, and forewings with a truncated clavus and broad apical limbus. Centrotinae is considered the most primitive membracid subfamily based on fossil evidence and biogeographic patterns.
treehoppers Membracidae worldwide-distribution ant-mutualism maternal-care phloem-feeder
Chelisoches morio
black earwig
Chelisoches morio, commonly known as the black earwig, is a cosmopolitan earwig species in the family Chelisochidae. Adults are uniformly jet black and among the largest earwigs, reaching up to 36 mm in length. The species exhibits extended maternal care, with females guarding eggs and feeding first-instar nymphs before they disperse. Males possess distinctive widely separated, serrated cerci that differ markedly from female morphology. The species has been investigated as a potential biological control agent due to its predatory habits and high consumption rates of agricultural pests.
earwig Dermaptera predator maternal-care biological-control cosmopolitan omnivore
Chrysomelina
Chrysomelina is a subtribe of leaf beetles within the family Chrysomelidae, subfamily Chrysomelinae. Members of this subtribe are characterized by their ability to produce chemical defenses, including de novo synthesis of iridoids (cyclic monoterpenes) and host-plant-dependent compounds such as salicylaldehyde. Larvae possess specialized glandular secretions used to repel predators. The subtribe exhibits diverse defensive strategies that have evolved through recruitment of oxidases from the glucose-methanol-choline (GMC) oxidoreductase superfamily. Some species display subsocial behavior with maternal care of offspring.
leaf-beetles chemical-defense iridoids salicylaldehyde subsocial-behavior maternal-care GMC-oxidoreductase glandular-secretions
Chrysomelinae
broad-bodied leaf beetles, broad-shouldered leaf beetles
Chrysomelinae is a subfamily of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) comprising approximately 3,000 species worldwide, commonly known as broad-bodied or broad-shouldered leaf beetles. The subfamily includes the economically significant Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata), a major agricultural pest. Chrysomelinae exhibits remarkable diversity in form and coloration, with adults typically displaying convex, rounded bodies often with bright coloration and variable patterns. The subfamily is distinguished by several unique morphological features including antennae inserted on or adjacent to the anterior head edge, mandibles with large membranous prosthecae, and a single anal cell in each wing. Larvae possess six pairs of stemmata, palmate mandibles, and annular spiracles. Both life stages possess defensive glands that secrete protective chemicals.
leaf-beetles herbivory maternal-care subsocial-behavior agricultural-pest host-specificity chemical-defense flightlessness Neotropical-diversity
Coleothorpa dominicana
Lord Leaf Beetle
Coleothorpa dominicana is a case-bearing leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. It is native to North America. The species is notable for its maternal egg protection behavior, in which females construct funnel-shaped structures to shield their eggs. Development from egg to adult takes approximately one year, with a larval period lasting 5 to 8 months.
case-bearing maternal-care Cryptocephalinae
Coriarachne brunneipes
Brown-legged Crab Spider
Coriarachne brunneipes is a species of crab spider in the family Thomisidae, commonly known as the Brown-legged Crab Spider. It occurs across the United States and Canada. The species is known for its habitat association with tree bark and documented maternal care behavior.
crab-spider Thomisidae North-America maternal-care bark-dwelling
Ctenus
Tropical Wandering Spiders
Ctenus is a genus of wandering spiders in the family Ctenidae, first described by Walckenaer in 1805. It comprises approximately 155 species with a broad distribution spanning South America, Africa, and East Asia. Species in this genus are abundant in tropical rainforest leaf litter, where they serve as active predators and have become model organisms for studying predator ecology in ground-dwelling arthropod communities. Some species, particularly C. medius, possess venom with documented proteolytic, hyaluronidase, and phospholipase activities, with potential medical significance due to complement system interference.
wandering-spiders leaf-litter-predators tropical-rainforest medical-entomology bioindicator maternal-care venomous-spiders forest-fragmentation Amazonia Atlantic-Forest
Cydnidae
burrowing bugs, burrower bugs
Cydnidae is a family of pentatomoid true bugs commonly known as burrowing or burrower bugs. Many species are fossorial, burrowing into soil using their head and forelegs, emerging primarily to mate and lay eggs. Other members live above ground, often associated with plants. The family includes agricultural pests and exhibits diverse habitat preferences across subfamilies.
fossorial phloem-feeder agricultural-pest defensive-secretion maternal-care
Diplocentrus spitzeri
Ruby Rock Scorpion
Diplocentrus spitzeri is a scorpion species in the family Diplocentridae, endemic to the Sierra Madre Occidental in Sonora, Mexico. The species exhibits distinctive maternal care behaviors, including a specialized birth posture where the female elevates her body on her legs and pedipalps while young emerge from the genital opercula and climb onto her back. First instar young remain on the mother's back until their first molt, during which time the female displays defensive behaviors to protect them. The species inhabits rocky pine-oak forest environments, where it shelters under stones and in rock crevices.
scorpion viviparity maternal-care endemic Mexico pine-oak-forest rock-dwelling
Elasmucha
Parent shieldbugs
Elasmucha is a genus of shield bugs in the family Acanthosomatidae, commonly known as parent shieldbugs. Species in this genus are notable for exhibiting subsocial behavior, specifically extended maternal care of eggs and early nymphal stages. Females guard egg masses and remain with offspring through early instars, actively defending against predators and parasitoids. The genus includes arboreal species associated with specific host trees, with documented seasonal host plant switching in some species.
subsocial maternal-care shield-bug arboreal bivoltine phytophagous Acanthosomatidae
Embiidina
webspinners, footspinners
Embiidina is a small order of cryptic, soft-bodied insects known as webspinners or footspinners, characterized by their unique ability to produce silk from specialized glands located in their swollen foretarsi. They construct extensive silk galleries or tunnels under bark, in leaf litter, or within soil crevices, which serve as protective shelters and foraging sites. The order exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism: females are wingless and neotenic, remaining in galleries throughout their lives, while males of most species develop wings and disperse to locate mates. Webspinners are primarily tropical in distribution and display facultatively communal behavior with maternal care of eggs and young.
silk-production sexual-dimorphism maternal-care tropical-insects cryptic-insects biomimicry neoteny gregarious-behavior Edward-S.-Ross footspinners nanofiber-silk water-repellent-silk introduced-species decomposers
Enoplognatha ovata
candy-striped spider, common candy-striped spider, polymorphic spider
Enoplognatha ovata is a small theridiid spider native to Europe and introduced to North America. The species exhibits striking color polymorphism, with three main morphs varying in abdominal pigmentation from plain to striped patterns. Despite its diminutive size (4-7 mm), it is an effective predator capable of capturing prey substantially larger than itself. Females construct tangled webs on the undersides of leaves and demonstrate maternal care by guarding egg sacs and provisioning spiderlings.
spider theridiid cobweb-weaver color-polymorphism maternal-care introduced-species garden-spider
Epimetopidae
Hooded Shore Beetles
Epimetopidae is a small family of semi-aquatic beetles in the superfamily Hydrophiloidea, comprising approximately 72 described species across three genera. The family exhibits a disjunct distribution: Epimetopus is restricted to the New World (Neotropical and Nearctic regions), Eumetopus occurs in Asia, and Eupotemus is found in Africa. A distinctive feature of the family is the pronotal hood—a central projection of the pronotum that forms a shelf above the head. Females of all three genera carry egg cases on the underside of the abdomen, representing one of three independent origins of maternal care in Hydrophiloidea.
semi-aquatic maternal-care pronotal-hood disjunct-distribution
Eremobates
sun spiders, camel spiders, wind scorpions
Eremobates is a genus of solifuges (sun spiders/camel spiders) in the family Eremobatidae, distributed primarily in western North America. These fast-moving arachnids are notable for having the largest jaw-to-body ratio of any animal. They are non-venomous predators that rely on powerful chelicerae to subdue prey. Most species are nocturnal and navigate primarily using their pedipalps rather than vision. The genus contains approximately 97 accepted species.
solifuges sun-spiders camel-spiders desert-arachnids non-venomous-predators western-North-America nocturnal-hunters maternal-care chelicerae arid-ecosystems
Eustala
humpbacked orb-weavers
Eustala is a genus of orb-weaver spiders in the family Araneidae, first described by Eugène Simon in 1895. As of November 2024, the genus contains 87 species distributed primarily across the Americas, from the United States through Central America to South America, with highest diversity in Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. Several species have been documented exhibiting specialized ecological relationships, including myrmecophily (living among ants) in Central American species that inhabit ant-defended acacia plants. The genus includes the well-known humpbacked orb-weaver, Eustala anastera, found across North and Central America.
Araneidae orb-weaver spider humpbacked myrmecophily ant-plant-mutualism Neotropical Nearctic Eustala-anastera Eustala-oblonga Eustala-illicita web-building predator acacia Pseudomyrmex Panama Brazil Galápagos Simon-1895 arachnology entomology tropical-ecology commensalism ontogeny ballooning overwintering juvenile spider-wasp-prey Caliadurgus-hyalinatus host-parasitoid-interactions third-party-exploitation mutualism-exploitation cryptic-coloration nocturnal-foraging diurnal-hiding-behavior thorn-defense orb-web-architecture sawtoothed-web population-ecology substrate-selection spatial-distribution species-diversity endemic-species taxonomic-revision nomen-dubium genitalic-morphology microscopy-identification temperate-North-America Central-America South-America Caribbean Pacific-islands conservation-biology climate-change-vulnerability phenology-disruption winter-activity spring-emergence forest-understory dry-forest moist-forest riparian grassland scrub edge-habitat woodland parkland urban-adapted generalist-predator specialist-predator ant-alate-predation herbivore-interception ecosystem-service biological-control natural-history field-identification cryptic-species-complex sexual-dimorphism wingless-female-moths ballooning-dispersal silk-production web-ontogeny instar-development overwintering-strategy cold-hardiness metabolic-suppression diapause voltinism univoltine bivoltine multivoltine seasonal-polyphenism color-morph pattern-polymorphism habitat-specificity host-plant-specificity ant-colony-integration alarm-pheromone-avoidance sting-avoidance predator-avoidance bird-predation lizard-predation wasp-predation assassin-bug-predation stink-bug-predation defensive-behavior thanatosis camouflage masquerade mimicry aggressive-mimicry foraging-ecology prey-capture web-maintenance web-repair silk-recycling energetics reproductive-output fecundity egg-sac-construction maternal-care male-searching-behavior mate-location pheromone-communication vibratory-communication 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capacity-building skill-development knowledge-transfer technology-transfer innovation invention discovery creativity imagination curiosity wonder awe beauty elegance simplicity complexity chaos order pattern structure function form process dynamics mechanism causation correlation association relationship interaction connection network system emergence self-organization autopoiesis homeostasis allostasis stress acclimation acclimatization plasticity fragility vulnerability sensitivity uncertainty ignorance surprise novelty serendipity chance luck fortune destiny fate karma dharma tao zen mindfulness meditation contemplation reflection introspection self-awareness consciousness subconscious unconscious dream sleep circadian biological-clock chronobiology seasonality phenology migration dispersal nomadism sedentism home-range habitat-use resource-selection foraging hunting gathering farming herding hunting-gathering subsistence livelihood economy market trade exchange barter currency 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eukaryome phytobiome rhizobiome endobiome ectobiome exo-biome astrobiome planetary-biome earth-system climate-system ocean-system terrestrial-system freshwater-system atmospheric-system cryospheric-system anthroposphere technosphere noosphere biosphere hydrosphere lithosphere atmosphere magnetosphere heliosphere cosmosphere universe multiverse dimension space time spacetime relativity quantum-mechanics string-theory m-theory loop-quantum-gravity cosmology astronomy astrophysics planetary-science earth-science geology geophysics geochemistry geomorphology soil-science pedology edaphology hydrology limnology oceanography meteorology climatology paleoclimatology stratigraphy sedimentology mineralogy petrology volcanology seismology tectonics plate-tectonics continental-drift orogeny epeirogeny isostasy erosion weathering deposition transport sedimentation lithification diagenesis metamorphism melting crystallization igneous sedimentary metamorphic rock-cycle water-cycle carbon-cycle 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ancestral-land promised-land wilderness pioneer settler colonist immigrant emigrant refugee asylum-seeker displaced-person stateless-person nomad traveler tourist pilgrim explorer adventurer discoverer inventor innovator creator maker builder craftsman artisan artist designer architect engineer scientist scholar academic researcher investigator detective journalist reporter correspondent chronicler historian biographer memoirist autobiographer diarist letter-writer poet novelist playwright screenwriter essayist critic reviewer editor publisher librarian archivist curator conservator restorer preservationist conservationist environmentalist ecologist naturalist botanist zoologist entomologist arachnologist herpetologist ichthyologist ornithologist mammalogist primatologist anthropologist archaeologist paleontologist geologist geographer cartographer surveyor navigator expedition voyage journey travel tour trip visit stay residence habitation dwelling shelter home house building construction architecture design plan blueprint model prototype mock-up draft sketch drawing painting sculpture installation exhibition display presentation demonstration show spectacle event occasion ceremony ritual celebration festival fair bazaar commerce business industry manufacturing production fabrication assembly processing refining purification synthesis analysis separation extraction identification characterization quantification measurement assessment evaluation appraisal valuation estimation calculation computation simulation modeling prediction forecast projection scenario outlook prospect expectation anticipation hope fear worry concern care attention focus concentration awareness perception sensation feeling emotion affect mood temperament personality character disposition attitude opinion belief conviction faith trust confidence reliance dependence independence self-sufficiency self-reliance hardiness toughness strength power force energy vigor vitality life health wellness fitness soundness integrity wholeness completeness perfection excellence quality standard criterion benchmark yardstick measure gauge sign signal symptom mark token symbol image icon emblem logo brand trademark copyright patent intellectual-property proprietary confidential secret classified restricted limited controlled regulated managed governed administered operated maintained sustained supported funded financed resourced staffed equipped furnished supplied provided delivered distributed allocated assigned designated appointed elected selected chosen picked preferred favored liked loved adored cherished treasured valued esteemed respected honored celebrated commemorated remembered recalled recollected reminisced reflected contemplated meditated pondered considered weighed evaluated judged assessed appraised rated ranked graded scored marked pointed noted observed noticed seen viewed looked watched gazed stared glanced peeked peered scanned surveyed examined inspected scrutinized studied investigated researched analyzed synthesized integrated compiled composed written authored penned drafted created produced made built constructed fabricated manufactured assembled put-together set-up established founded instituted organized arranged ordered structured systematized methodized rationalized streamlined optimized improved enhanced upgraded refined polished perfected completed finished concluded ended terminated closed shut sealed locked secured protected guarded defended shielded screened covered hidden concealed masked cloaked veiled shrouded wrapped enveloped surrounded encircled enclosed contained held kept retained preserved conserved saved stored stockpiled hoarded accumulated amassed gathered collected aggregated clustered grouped categorized sorted leveled tiered layered stratified hierarchized pyramided tree web mesh grid array configuration layout scheme program project enterprise venture undertaking endeavor effort attempt try test trial experiment investigation inquiry query question problem issue matter subject topic theme motif leitmotif thread strand line sequence series progression continuation extension expansion enlargement evolution change transformation conversion transition shift alteration modification adjustment accommodation reconciliation harmonization synchronization coordination integration unification combination merger fusion blend mixture compound composite alloy amalgam incorporation assimilation absorption digestion metabolism catabolism anabolism equilibrium balance steadiness constancy permanence endurance persistence continuity duration longevity lifespan lifetime existence being entity object thing item article piece part portion segment section division component element constituent ingredient factor aspect facet feature characteristic property attribute trait indication evidence proof verification validation confirmation corroboration substantiation authentication certification accreditation licensing permitting authorizing empowering enabling allowing letting tolerating accepting receiving taking getting obtaining acquiring gaining earning winning achieving attaining reaching arriving coming approaching nearing closing converging meeting joining connecting linking binding tying fastening attaching affixing appending adding supplementing complementing completing finishing perfecting consummating fulfilling satisfying gratifying pleasing delighting enjoying relishing savoring appreciating valuing prizing treasuring cherishing nurturing cultivating fostering promoting advancing furthering encouraging supporting backing assisting aiding helping serving attending tending caring nursing healing curing treating remedying correcting rectifying repairing fixing mending restoring renewing reviving resuscitating reanimating reawakening rekindling reigniting relaunching restarting rebooting refreshing rejuvenating reinvigorating reenergizing recharging refueling replenishing restocking replacing substituting exchanging swapping trading bartering negotiating bargaining dealing transacting contracting agreeing consenting approving endorsing sanctioning ratifying confirming validating authenticating verifying checking testing examining inspecting reviewing auditing monitoring supervising overseeing managing directing leading guiding steering piloting navigating driving propelling pushing pulling dragging hauling towing carrying bearing transporting conveying transmitting sending dispatching shipping delivering distributing disseminating spreading broadcasting publishing issuing releasing launching introducing presenting showing exhibiting displaying demonstrating illustrating exemplifying typifying representing symbolizing signifying meaning denoting connoting implying suggesting indicating pointing referring alluding hinting intimating insinuating inferring deducing concluding reasoning thinking cogitating cerebrating pondering musing reflecting contemplating meditating concentrating focusing listening hearing heeding noting noticing observing watching looking seeing viewing regarding considering weighing evaluating assessing judging appraising estimating guessing speculating hypothesizing theorizing postulating proposing recommending advising counseling consulting conferring discussing debating arguing disputing contesting challenging opposing resisting defying confronting facing encountering experiencing undergoing suffering enduring withstanding surviving living existing subsisting persisting persevering continuing remaining staying abiding residing inhabiting occupying possessing owning holding keeping retaining maintaining preserving conserving protecting guarding defending securing sheltering harboring entertaining welcoming greeting saluting hailing acclaiming applauding praising commending lauding extolling celebrating honoring glorifying exalting magnifying amplifying enlarging expanding extending stretching diffusing dispersing scattering allocating assigning allotting apportioning dividing partitioning separating detaching disconnecting disjoining disuniting dissociating disengaging withdrawing retreating receding retrograding reversing inverting turning rotating revolving spinning twirling whirling swirling circling orbiting looping coiling winding twisting bending curving arching vaulting bridging spanning crossing traversing passing moving going traveling journeying voyaging sailing flying gliding soaring hovering floating drifting flowing streaming pouring rushing gushing spurting spraying splashing splattering spattering uniting combining merging fusing blending mixing mingling intermingling intermixing integrating incorporating assimilating absorbing digesting metabolizing transforming converting transmuting transfiguring metamorphosing evolving developing growing maturing ripening aging declining deteriorating degenerating decaying rotting decomposing disintegrating crumbling collapsing falling failing dying perishing expiring departing leaving exiting retiring resigning abdicating relinquishing surrendering yielding submitting succumbing capitulating acquiescing complying conforming adapting adjusting accommodating reconciling harmonizing synchronizing coordinating unifying standardizing normalizing regularizing systematizing methodizing rationalizing streamlining simplifying clarifying elucidating explaining interpreting translating rendering paraphrasing summarizing abstracting condensing compressing shrinking reducing decreasing diminishing lessening lowering dropping descending sinking submerging diving plunging plummeting crashing colliding impacting hitting striking knocking tapping patting touching sensing perceiving detecting discovering finding locating positioning placing putting setting laying standing sitting lying resting relaxing reposing sleeping dreaming imagining fantasizing daydreaming woolgathering praying worshiping revering venerating adoring loving nourishing feeding eating drinking consuming ingesting energizing powering fueling motivating inspiring stimulating exciting arousing awakening alerting warning cautioning informing notifying telling reporting announcing declaring stating asserting claiming contending proving revealing disclosing exposing uncovering unmasking unveiling opening unlocking unsealing unfastening untying unbinding unwrapping unpacking unloading emptying clearing cleaning washing bathing showering rinsing soaking steeping immersing drowning suffocating choking strangling throttling squeezing pressing centering aiming targeting zeroing aligning tuning calibrating balancing leveling equalizing stabilizing steady mooring docking landing touching-down alighting perching roosting nesting denning burrowing tunneling digging excavating mining quarrying extracting removing eliminating eradicating exterminating destroying demolishing ruining wrecking damaging harming injuring hurting wounding maiming crippling laming disabling incapacitating paralyzing stunning shocking surprising astonishing amazing astounding staggering stupefying dazing bewildering confusing puzzling perplexing baffling mystifying enigmatic cryptic obscure abstruse recondite esoteric arcane occult mysterious unknown unfamiliar strange odd peculiar curious queer weird bizarre fantastic extraordinary remarkable notable noteworthy significant important momentous consequential weighty grave serious crucial vital essential necessary required needed wanted desired wished hoped expected anticipated awaited looked-for searched-for sought hunted pursued chased tracked trailed followed shadowed stalked crept crawled climbed scaled ascended mounted rose lifted elevated raised hoisted heaved hauled pulled tugged dragged drawn attracted lured enticed tempted seduced charmed enchanted fascinated captivated engrossed absorbed immersed involved engaged occupied busy active energetic dynamic vigorous forceful powerful strong mighty potent effective efficient productive fruitful fertile fecund prolific abundant plentiful ample sufficient adequate enough satisfactory acceptable tolerable bearable endurable sustainable maintainable manageable controllable governable rule govern reign dominate command direct lead guide steer pilot navigate drive propel push thrust shove press squeeze compress condense concentrate aim point target zero align adjust tune calibrate level equalize standardize normalize stabilize fix secure anchor moor dock land touch-down alight perch roost nest den burrow tunnel dig excavate mine quarry extract remove eliminate eradicate exterminate destroy demolish ruin wreck damage harm injure hurt wound maim cripple lame disable incapacitate paralyze stun shock astonish amaze astound stagger stupefy daze bewilder confuse puzzle perplex baffle mystify enigma
Forficula
earwigs
Forficula is the largest genus of earwigs, containing at least 68 species. The genus was established by Linnaeus in 1758 and is native to Afro-Eurasia, primarily Europe, though it now occurs on all continents except Antarctica. The best known species is Forficula auricularia, a common household and agricultural pest that has been introduced to North America, Australia, and New Zealand. Members of this genus exhibit maternal care of eggs and nymphs, a rare trait among insects.
earwig Dermaptera Forficulidae maternal-care agricultural-pest biological-control invasive-species
Forficula auricularia
European earwig, common earwig
Forficula auricularia is an omnivorous earwig native to Europe, western Asia, and North Africa, now invasive across North America, Australia, and New Zealand. It is recognized by forceps-like cerci—curved in males, straight in females—and concealed hindwings that unfold to resemble human ears, inspiring both its common name and specific epithet. The species exhibits extended maternal care, with females guarding eggs and nymphs in underground nests. Population dynamics vary geographically: temperate populations typically produce one brood annually, while warmer regions may support two broods.
invasive-species biological-control maternal-care aggregation-pheromone agricultural-pest nocturnal omnivore
Gargaphia
Gargaphia is a genus of lace bugs (family Tingidae) containing more than 70 described species. Members are small, phytophagous true bugs characterized by intricate reticulated forewings. Several species are economically significant as agricultural pests, particularly on solanaceous crops and passion fruit. The genus is notable for exhibiting maternal care behaviors, including egg guarding and defensive responses to predators.
lace-bug tingid maternal-care agricultural-pest biocontrol phytophagous Hemiptera
Gargaphia solani
eggplant lace bug
Gargaphia solani is a subsocial lace bug in the family Tingidae, described by Heidemann in 1914 after emerging as a pest of eggplant in Norfolk, Virginia. It is the first species in its family in which maternal care was discovered. Females guard circular egg masses on leaf undersides and defend nymphs against predators, a behavior essential for offspring survival given heavy predation pressure. Development from egg to adult takes approximately 20 days, with nymphs passing through five instars. The species is a significant agricultural pest of solanaceous crops and has been extensively studied for its reproductive trade-offs and the evolution of parental care.
lace-bug Tingidae subsocial-behavior maternal-care agricultural-pest Solanaceae eggplant evolutionary-ecology alarm-pheromone brood-parasitism Hemiptera Heteroptera
Geotomini
Geotomini is a tribe of burrower bugs within the subfamily Cydninae. Members are ground-dwelling heteropterans with documented maternal care behaviors, including seed-carrying by females to provision nymphs. The tribe has been studied primarily through the species Melanaethus crenatus, with limited tribe-wide behavioral characterization.
burrower-bug seed-feeding maternal-care ground-dwelling
Hogna
wolf spiders
Hogna is a large genus of wolf spiders (Lycosidae) comprising more than 200 described species distributed across all continents except Antarctica. The genus is taxonomically problematic, having never been properly revised even in Europe, and lacks a reliable diagnostic framework. Species are generally large, ground-dwelling hunters that construct open silk-lined burrows rather than using trapdoors. Hogna carolinensis is among the largest wolf spiders in North America, with females reaching 35 mm body length. The genus exhibits notable ecological diversity, with parallel habitat specialization documented in island radiations such as the Galápagos and Madeira.
Lycosidae wolf-spiders burrowing-spiders ground-dwelling-predators cosmopolitan-distribution taxonomic-revision-needed chemical-ecology maternal-care island-radiation nutrient-cycling
Hogna carolinensis
Carolina wolf spider, giant wolf spider
Hogna carolinensis, the Carolina wolf spider, is the largest wolf spider in North America. Females reach 22–35 mm in body length, males 18–20 mm. This species inhabits self-made or appropriated burrows in open habitats across a broad geographic range. Females carry egg sacs attached to their abdomen during the approximately two-week incubation period, and spiderlings cling to the mother's back for several days after hatching. The species is notable for its eye shine when illuminated at night, effective thermoregulation abilities, and unique venom containing lycotoxins with antimicrobial properties.
burrowing nocturnal maternal-care eye-shine thermoregulation state-symbol venom-research nutrient-cycling sexual-dimorphism desert-ecology
Hogna lenta
Field Wolf Spider
Hogna lenta is a species of wolf spider in the family Lycosidae, commonly known as the Field Wolf Spider. It is native to the southeastern United States, with particular abundance in Florida. This large, ground-dwelling spider constructs vertical burrows in sandy substrates and hunts using vibration detection. The species has been used in neuroanatomical research to study catecholaminergic neuron distribution in spider central nervous systems.
wolf-spider burrowing-spider Lycosidae southeastern-US Florida sand-dwelling neuroanatomy-research-subject nocturnal venomous-but-not-dangerous-to-humans maternal-care eye-shine ground-spider
Homalonychus selenopoides
Homalonychus selenopoides is a true spider in the family Homalonychidae, found in desert regions of the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. Males perform distinctive courtship behaviors involving vibratory drumming on the substrate and spinning silk threads embedded with sand grains. Females construct silk retreats incorporating sand for egg-laying and exhibit maternal care by guarding egg sacs.
spider desert courtship maternal-care sand-incorporation
Labia minor
lesser earwig, small earwig
Labia minor is a small earwig species, 4–7 mm in length including pincers, distinguished by its dull yellow-brown to chocolate brown coloration and less shiny appearance compared to the common earwig. It is notable as the first Dermapteran species to have its genome sequenced by the Darwin Tree of Life project. The species exhibits exceptional maternal care behavior, with females guarding eggs and feeding offspring for 1–2 weeks after hatching—a rarity among insects. Unlike many earwigs, it flies frequently and possesses visible hind wings.
earwig Dermaptera maternal-care compost decomposer genome-sequenced Darwin-Tree-of-Life temperate introduced-species flight-capable
Labidura
striped earwigs
Labidura is a genus of earwigs in the family Labiduridae, established by Leach in 1815. The genus includes approximately nine species, with Labidura riparia being the most widespread and cosmopolitan member. Labidura riparia is notable as a predator of agricultural pests, including the Asian corn borer and Mediterranean fruit fly pupae. The Saint Helena earwig (Labidura herculeana), now possibly extinct, was the largest known earwig species. Several Labidura species exhibit subsocial maternal care of eggs and young.
earwig Dermaptera predator biological-control subsocial-behavior maternal-care agricultural-pest-management Labiduridae
Labidura riparia
shore earwig, tawny earwig, striped earwig, riparian earwig
Labidura riparia is a cosmopolitan earwig species found primarily in tropical to subtropical regions. It exhibits complex subsocial behavior with maternal care of eggs and young. The species is a generalist predator valued for biological pest control, with documented predation on Lepidoptera larvae, insect eggs, and crop pests including the Asian corn borer and Mediterranean fruit fly pupae. Males possess two functional penises but show a 90% preference for the right penis during copulation, a behavioral asymmetry unique among earwigs.
subsocial-behavior maternal-care penis-asymmetry biological-control nocturnal-predator generalist-predator earwig Dermaptera Labiduridae
Labiduridae
striped earwigs
Labiduridae is a family of earwigs commonly known as striped earwigs, containing approximately 72 species across seven genera in three subfamilies. Members are moderate to large in size with cylindrical bodies, well-developed wings, and notably long antennae. The family exhibits cosmopolitan distribution and includes well-known species such as Labidura riparia (tawny earwig) and Nala lividipes. Many species display subsocial maternal care and predatory habits, with some serving as biological control agents of agricultural pests.
earwigs Dermaptera predatory subsocial maternal-care agricultural-pest biological-control genital-asymmetry cosmopolitan
Lycosidae
Wolf Spiders
Wolf spiders (family Lycosidae) are robust, agile hunters characterized by excellent eyesight and solitary behavior. The family is distinguished by a unique eye arrangement featuring two large, forward-facing posterior median eyes that produce distinctive reflective eyeshine. Most species are ground-dwelling and do not construct webs for prey capture, instead actively hunting or ambushing prey. Females carry egg sacs attached to their spinnerets and subsequently transport spiderlings on their backs. The family exhibits considerable ecological diversity, with species occupying habitats ranging from sandy beaches to forest floors and agricultural fields.
wolf-spider ground-spider hunting-spider maternal-care eyeshine biological-control burrowing-spider
Mastigoproctus
whip scorpion, vinegaroon
Mastigoproctus is a genus of large whip scorpions (vinegaroons) in the family Thelyphonidae. These arachnids are characterized by their elongated antenniform front legs, robust pedipalps, and ability to spray defensive acetic acid. The genus includes approximately 25 accepted species distributed across the Americas, from the southwestern United States through Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and into northern South America. Despite their intimidating appearance, they are not venomous and lack venom glands entirely.
arachnid uropygian whip-scorpion vinegaroon nocturnal predator desert-adapted maternal-care non-venomous defensive-spray
Mastigoproctus giganteus
giant whip scorpion, giant vinegaroon, grampus, Texas giant vinegaroon
Mastigoproctus giganteus is a large arachnid in the order Uropygi, commonly known as the giant whip scorpion or vinegaroon. It is the only member of family Thelyphonidae found in the United States, occurring from the southern U.S. through Mexico. The species is nocturnal and occupies humid microhabitats in arid and semi-arid environments. It is notable for its ability to spray a defensive secretion containing 85% acetic acid, which produces a strong vinegar-like odor. The species is long-lived, with females producing a single brood of approximately 40 offspring that receive extended maternal care.
arachnid predator nocturnal desert vinegaroon whip-scorpion defensive-spray maternal-care beneficial pet-trade
Melanaethus crenatus
Melanaethus crenatus is a burrower bug (Hemiptera: Cydnidae) described by Signoret in 1883. The species exhibits distinctive maternal behavior in which females carry seeds to oviposition sites, a trait documented in a detailed study of its immature stages. The egg and five nymphal instars have been formally described.
Cydnidae Geotomini burrower-bug maternal-care seed-carrying
Membracidae
treehoppers, thorn bugs, typical treehoppers
Membracidae, commonly called treehoppers or thorn bugs, is a family of approximately 3,200–3,500 species in over 400 genera within the order Hemiptera. The family is distinguished by extraordinary morphological diversity, particularly the pronounced enlargement and modification of the pronotum—the dorsal plate of the first thoracic segment—which can form thorns, horns, keels, or bizarre projections that often obscure the body and wings. This family represents the most diverse lineage within the superfamily Membracoidea, with its center of diversity in the New World tropics. Most species exhibit phytophagous habits, feeding on plant sap with piercing-sucking mouthparts. Many species engage in mutualistic relationships with ants, which protect them from predators in exchange for honeydew.
Hemiptera Membracoidea phytophagous ant-mutualism pronotum Neotropical-diversity maternal-care honeydew
Mesomphaliini
tortoise beetles
Mesomphaliini is a tribe of tortoise beetles (Cassidinae) erected by Hope in 1840, though some authorities recognize the alternative name Stolaini (Hincks, 1952). The tribe is predominantly Neotropical, with most species occurring in the Americas. Some genera, including Chelymorpha, Stolas, and Cyrtonota, have representatives extending into Europe and Japan. Members exhibit distinctive larval behaviors including construction of exuvio-fecal shields and documented subsocial maternal care in at least some species.
tortoise-beetles Cassidinae subsocial-behavior faecal-shields maternal-care Neotropical Ipomoea parasitoids Tachinidae larval-defenses
Nezara viridula
Southern Green Stink Bug, Southern Green Shield Bug, Green Vegetable Bug
Nezara viridula is a cosmopolitan, shield-shaped stink bug and major agricultural pest of leguminous crops, particularly soybeans, beans, and peas. Native to tropical and subtropical regions, it has spread worldwide through human trade and strong flight capability. The species exhibits complex behaviors including aggregation, maternal guarding of egg masses, and vibrational communication for mate location. In temperate zones, adults enter winter diapause with a reversible color change from green to brown or russet.
agricultural-pest polyphagous stink-bug soybean-pest invasive-species vibrational-communication maternal-care diapause
Pachycoris
Pachycoris is a genus of shield-backed bugs (Scutelleridae) in the subfamily Pachycorinae, distributed across the Americas. Adults are recognized by large bright spots on the dorsal surface. Several species have been documented exhibiting maternal care of eggs and early-instar nymphs. The genus feeds primarily on plants in the family Euphorbiaceae.
maternal-care gregarious-nymphs Euphorbiaceae-specialist jewel-bug color-polymorphism agricultural-pest
Paraphrynus
whip spider, tailless whip scorpion
Paraphrynus is a genus of whip spiders (order Amblypygi) in the family Phrynidae, distributed from the southwestern United States through Central America and the Caribbean. Most species are endemic to Mexico. These nocturnal arachnids are characterized by extraordinarily long, sensory front legs (antenniform legs) used for navigation and prey detection, and spiny pedipalps for capturing prey. Research has demonstrated remarkable homing abilities in some species, with individuals navigating back to refuges from distances exceeding 10 meters using primarily olfactory cues detected by their antenniform legs rather than vision.
Amblypygi whip-spider tailless-whip-scorpion Phrynidae neotropical cave-dwelling nocturnal predator homing-behavior maternal-care sensory-ecology cryptic-species Mexico Central-America Caribbean
Paravaejovis spinigerus
stripe-tailed scorpion, devil scorpion
Paravaejovis spinigerus, commonly known as the stripe-tailed scorpion or devil scorpion, is a medium-sized scorpion native to the Sonoran Desert region. Adults reach 60–70 mm in length and weigh approximately 9.5 g. The species was transferred from the genus Hoffmannius to Paravaejovis in 2013. Its venom is not medically significant to humans.
scorpion arachnid desert venomous nocturnal viviparous maternal-care
Pardosa moesta
Shiny Wolf Spider
Pardosa moesta is a small to medium-sized wolf spider (family Lycosidae) belonging to the 'moesta species group' in the Nearctic region. It is one of the most abundant wolf spiders in North American grasslands, characterized by its 'thin-legged' morphology with long spines nearly perpendicular to the leg axis. The species has an annual life cycle with overwintering as subadults, and exhibits maternal care through egg sac transport. It serves as host for parasitoid wasps including Baeus sp. (Scelionidae) and Gelis sp. (Ichneumonidae), with documented egg sac parasitism rates around 14.6%.
wolf-spider thin-legged-wolf-spider ground-dwelling diurnal-predator maternal-care egg-sac-parasitism grassland-arthropod
Pergidae
pergid sawflies
Pergidae is the third-largest family of sawflies (Hymenoptera: Symphyta), with approximately 450 described species. The family is distributed primarily in the Australasian and Neotropical regions, with South America and Australia representing the greatest diversity. Members exhibit considerable morphological variation in antennae structure, ranging from simple to pectinate or bipectinate forms, and frequently display sexual dimorphism. Several species are economically significant as agricultural pests or livestock toxins, while others have been evaluated as biological control agents.
sawfly Symphyta gregarious-larvae livestock-toxin biological-control Eucalyptus-pest defensive-chemistry sexual-dimorphism apterous-species maternal-care
Peucetia
Green Lynx Spiders
Peucetia is a genus of lynx spiders (family Oxyopidae) distributed worldwide, containing approximately 47 species as of 2025. The genus is notable for its association with plants bearing glandular trichomes, a specialized ecological relationship that has evolved independently across multiple continents. North American species include P. viridans, the largest lynx spider on the continent, and P. longipalpis in the southwestern United States. Several species exhibit complex maternal care behaviors and occupy distinct microhabitats that facilitate coexistence of sympatric congeners.
Oxyopidae lynx-spiders glandular-plants maternal-care diurnal-hunters sticky-plants niche-partitioning biological-control Neotropical Nearctic
Peucetia viridans
Green Lynx Spider
Peucetia viridans is the largest North American lynx spider, distinguished by its bright green coloration and active hunting behavior. Unlike web-building spiders, it pursues prey with agility comparable to jumping spiders, pouncing in a cat-like manner that inspired its common name. Females exhibit extended maternal care, guarding egg sacs and early spiderlings while reducing their own foraging activity. The species occupies a notable position in agricultural ecosystems, where it preys on both crop pests and beneficial insects.
spider lynx-spider active-hunter diurnal maternal-care agricultural-pest-control venom-spitting color-change
Phronima
Phronima is a genus of small, deep-sea hyperiid amphipods found throughout the world's oceans except polar regions. These semitransparent pelagic crustaceans are technically parasitoids rather than parasites: females attack salps, hollow out their gelatinous tunicates to create protective 'barrels,' and rear their young inside these structures. The genus possesses extraordinary compound eyes adapted to detect blue-green wavelengths, enabling navigation in dim mid-ocean environments where bioluminescence serves as critical ecological signals. Phronima has gained cultural recognition as a possible inspiration for the Alien Queen design in the 1986 film 'Aliens.'
deep-sea pelagic parasitoid bioluminescence aquaculture barrel-dwelling maternal-care compound-eyes midwater salp-predator
Phrynus
whip spiders, tailless whip scorpions
Phrynus is a genus of whip spiders (order Amblypygi) comprising approximately 40 described species, primarily distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the New World. The genus is characterized by dorsoventrally flattened bodies, extraordinarily elongated antenniform front legs used for sensory detection, and raptorial pedipalps for prey capture. Most species inhabit forested environments where they shelter in crevices, under rocks, or in tree holes during daylight hours and emerge nocturnally to hunt. Several species exhibit notable behavioral complexity including territoriality, cannibalism, maternal care of offspring, and sophisticated navigational abilities using multisensory cues.
Amblypygi whip-spider tailless-whip-scorpion nocturnal-predator maternal-care multisensory-navigation New-World tropical-arthropod
Phrynus marginemaculatus
spotted tailless whip scorpion, Florida tailless whipscorpion
Phrynus marginemaculatus is an amblypygid arachnid native to southern Florida, the Bahamas, Cuba, and Hispaniola. It is the only amblypygid species in the US east of the Mississippi River and the most commonly studied whip spider species. This nocturnal predator possesses extraordinarily elongated first pair of legs adapted as sensory organs for detecting prey, mates, and environmental features in darkness. The species exhibits complex navigational abilities including multisensory configural learning for shelter recognition, and has evolved a plastron enabling underwater breathing for up to 24 hours.
amblypygid whip-spider tailless-whip-scorpion nocturnal predator Florida Caribbean multisensory-learning maternal-care cave-dwelling limestone-habitat non-venomous
Pinnixa chaetopterana
tube pea crab
Pinnixa chaetopterana is a small, soft-bodied pea crab that lives symbiotically within the tubes of polychaete worms, primarily Chaetopterus variopedatus. It is a facultative commensal, occasionally free-living or associating with alternative hosts such as Amphitrite ornata. The species exhibits strong host fidelity and can distinguish conspecifics from heterospecifics. It ranges from Massachusetts to Uruguay along the western Atlantic, including Brazil and the Gulf of Mexico.
commensal symbiosis polychaete-association pea-crab western-Atlantic facultative-symbiont carcinonemertid-parasite host-fidelity conspecific-recognition zoeal-larvae tube-dwelling marine-invertebrate brachyuran-crab pinnotherid Chaetopterus zooplankton-larva mutual-intolerance polychaete-crab nemertean-parasite synchronous-reproduction-with-parasite caltrop-shaped-carapace branchial-chamber-parasite pleopod-egg-attachment host-tube-modification estuarine coastal-marine depth-to-60m Massachusetts-to-Brazil Gulf-of-Mexico Florida North-Carolina New-Jersey Uruguay Stimpson-1860 Tubicolixa-synonym soft-bodied-crab wider-than-long-carapace five-zoeal-stages dorsal-rostral-lateral-spines abdominal-somite-knobs wing-like-knobs median-notch-telson Amphitrite-ornata-alternative-host posterior-positioning-behavior tube-aperture-biting plankton-feeding predator-refuge Carcinonemertes-pinnotheridophila ribbon-worm-parasite synchronous-egg-development host-parasite-egg-competition branchial-exoskeleton-attachment excurrent-canal-opening female-1-2-nemerteans male-nemerteans-associated medial-sheath-attachment sternum-opening nemertean-egg-sacs crab-egg-hairs facultative-free-living obligate-vs-facultate-commensalism host-specificity symbiont-recognition heterospecific-avoidance limb-tearing-aggression co-occurrence-exclusion morphological-crypsis adult-identification-difficulty larval-dispersal settlement-behavior tube-worm-crab parchment-tube-inhabitant ventilated-tube-dwelling water-pumping-utilization host-turning-response symbiont-positioning entry-exit-hole-creation behavioral-plasticity ecological-flexibility host-range-expansion alternative-host-use geographic-range depth-range Atlantic-coast-distribution western-hemisphere-endemic American-Atlantic-fauna benthic-crustacean infaunal-associate sediment-tube-dweller marine-symbiosis decapod-brachyuran eubrachyuran thoracotreme pinnotheroid pinnixine tubicolixine species-complex-member cryptic-species-candidate morphological-similarity taxonomic-revision-needed type-locality-unknown 1860-description Stimpson's-pea-crab historical-taxonomy modern-synonymy Catalogue-of-Life-synonym GBIF-Tubicolixa-match genus-transfer-candidate subgeneric-classification infraspecific-variation sexual-dimorphism-unknown male-gonopod-diagnostic female-pleopod-brooding ovigerous-female-parasite-load nemertean-prevalence-unknown incidence-data-limited biological-relationship-documentation symbiont-life-history-synchronization reproductive-timing-overlap egg-development-coordination hatching-synchrony larval-release-coordination population-dynamics-unknown demography-unstudied growth-rate-unknown longevity-unknown mortality-factors-unknown predation-pressure predator-avoidance tube-refuge-value structural-habitat-modification engineering-behavior niche-construction host-damage tube-wall-perforation host-fitness-effects-unknown commensalism-cost-benefit mutualism-possibility parasitism-gradient symbiosis-continuum interaction-outcome-variability environmental-context-dependency host-quality-variation host-size-correlation crab-size-host-size-relationship settlement-cue-unknown larval-settlement-behavior metamorphosis-trigger competency-period pre-settlement-swimming post-settlement-adaptation host-recognition-mechanism chemical-cue-use tactile-cue-use host-tube-chemistry-detection conspecific-chemical-detection heterospecific-chemical-detection aggression-trigger territorial-behavior resource-defense host-monopolization pair-formation mating-system-unknown sex-ratio-unknown operational-sex-ratio mate-guarding-unknown sperm-competition-unknown fertilization-mode internal-fertilization egg-brooding-duration embryonic-development-time larval-development-mode planktotrophic-larvae lecithotrophy-unknown zoeal-feeding zoeal-duration megalopa-stage-unknown settlement-competence juvenile-adaptation host-tube-colonization subadult-behavior size-at-maturity-unknown molting-frequency-unknown ecdysis-in-host-tube exuvia-disposal grooming-behavior-unknown feeding-mechanism suspension-feeding filter-feeding plankton-capture host-current-use respiratory-current-exploitation oxygen-availability hypoxia-tolerance salinity-tolerance temperature-range-unknown physiological-ecology-studied oxygen-consumption-unknown metabolic-rate-unknown energetics-unknown growth-efficiency-unknown reproductive-effort-unknown fecundity-unknown egg-size-unknown offspring-size-number-tradeoff parental-investment maternal-care brooding-cost parasite-load-cost nemertean-reproduction-facilitation host-egg-loss parasite-egg-competition hatching-success-reduction fitness-consequence-unknown population-level-impact-unknown community-role-unknown trophic-position-unknown energy-flow-contribution nutrient-cycling-role sediment-interaction bioturbation-unknown ecosystem-engineering-secondary habitat-complexity-contribution biodiversity-association species-interaction-network food-web-position predator-unknown prey-unknown diet-breadth trophic-level omnivory-unknown carnivory-unknown detritivory-unknown suspension-feeding-confirmed host-food-waste-use pseudofeces-consumption-unknown host-mucus-use host-tissue-consumption-unknown parasitism-unknown kleptoparasitism-unknown thievery-unknown aggression-context intraspecific-aggression interspecific-aggression limb-autotomy regeneration-unknown wound-healing stress-response handling-response laboratory-maintenance collection-method preservation-effect museum-specimen-quality type-specimen-location original-description-quality subsequent-redescriptions taxonomic-stability nomenclatural-acts priority-rules homonymy-check synonymy-list-completeness distribution-record-verification occurrence-data-quality range-boundary-uncertainty depth-record-accuracy habitat-description-specificity host-record-verification association-record-quality symbiosis-documentation-standard natural-history-completeness research-priority-areas conservation-status-unknown IUCN-evaluation-needed population-trend-unknown threat-assessment habitat-vulnerability climate-sensitivity range-shift-potential phenology-change host-phenology-dependency phenological-mismatch-risk evolutionary-history-unknown phylogenetic-position sister-species-unknown species-group-membership genetic-differentiation cryptic-diversity-potential barcode-library-coverage genome-resources transcriptome-unknown proteome-unknown metabolome-unknown developmental-genetics-unknown symbiosis-genetics-unknown host-recognition-gene-unknown immune-response-unknown parasite-resistance-unknown coevolution-history phylogeography-unknown population-structure-unknown gene-flow-unknown dispersal-limitation isolation-by-distance local-adaptation-unknown phenotypic-plasticity morphological-variation environmental-gradient-response phenotypic-cline genotype-environment-interaction evolutionary-potential adaptive-capacity resilience-unknown extinction-risk-assessment-needed
Pisaurina dubia
Pisaurina dubia is a nursery web spider in the family Pisauridae, found across the southern two-thirds of the eastern United States. It is smaller than most pisaurids, measuring 12–15 mm in body length, and overwinters as a subadult before maturing in spring. The species is distinguished by a central tuft of hair projecting from between the eyes on the cephalothorax. Females construct nursery webs in vegetation to protect their egg sacs and guard spiderlings until they disperse.
nursery-web-spider hunting-spider maternal-care beneficial-predator eastern-United-States subadult-overwintering
Platycotis
Platycotis is a genus of treehoppers in the family Membracidae, comprising approximately 13 described species. The genus is characterized by pronounced pronotal modifications typical of the family. The best-studied species, P. vittata (the oak treehopper), exhibits presocial behavior including maternal egg guarding and nymphal aggregations. Species in this genus are associated with woody host plants, particularly oaks.
Membracidae treehopper Hemiptera presocial-behavior maternal-care bivoltine oak-associated
Platycotis vittata
Oak Treehopper
Platycotis vittata, commonly known as the oak treehopper, is a North American treehopper species in the family Membracidae. It is an obligate specialist on oak trees (Quercus spp.) and exhibits notable presocial behavior including maternal care of eggs and nymphs. Adults are 9–13 mm in length with variable coloration ranging from sea green to bronze, olive green, or pale blue with red dots or four lengthwise stripes. The species is bivoltine, producing two discrete generations in early spring and autumn, with females of both generations entering diapause. Males locate and court females using substrate-borne vibrational signals.
treehopper oak-specialist maternal-care presocial-behavior vibrational-communication bivoltine diapause phloem-feeder North-America
Rabidosa
Rabid Wolf Spiders, Dotted Wolf Spiders
Rabidosa is a genus of wolf spiders (family Lycosidae) established by Roewer in 1960. The genus contains five recognized species distributed in North America, with most species restricted to the United States. These are medium to large-sized, ground-dwelling spiders with characteristic patterning on the dorsal abdomen. Members of this genus have been subjects of behavioral research, particularly regarding mating systems and thermal ecology. Several species are known hosts for parasitic mantisfly larvae.
wolf-spider ground-dwelling maternal-care parasite-host behavioral-ecology North-America thermoconforming cathemeral
Rabidosa punctulata
Dotted Wolf Spider
Rabidosa punctulata is a ground-dwelling wolf spider distributed across the eastern and central United States. Mature females average 15.2 mm in body length, males 12.8 mm. The species exhibits distinctive alternative male mating tactics: complex multimodal courtship displays with substrate-borne vibrations and visual leg waves toward unmated females, versus direct coercive mounting with grappling toward already-mated females. Females carry egg sacs attached to their spinnerets and provide extended maternal care, with spiderlings riding on the mother's abdomen for approximately three weeks after emergence.
wolf-spider Lycosidae alternative-mating-tactics maternal-care multimodal-communication predator-avoidance parasitoid-host North-America grassland nocturnal-hunter
Sclerodermus
Flat wasp
Sclerodermus is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Bethylidae, comprising at least 20 described species. These wasps exhibit quasi-social behavior rare among parasitoids: multiple females cooperate to paralyze hosts and provision shared broods with extended maternal care. Most individuals are wingless, leading to frequent misidentification as ants. The genus is notable for extremely female-biased sex ratios (often 86-97% female) and has significant value as biological control agents against wood-boring beetles, particularly in forestry systems.
parasitoid quasi-social maternal-care wing-polymorphism biological-control wood-boring-beetles pine-wilt-disease domestic-infestation stinging-wasp female-biased-sex-ratio Bethylidae idiobiont ectoparasitoid cuticular-hydrocarbons CRISPR-model-organism
Sehirus cinctus
white-margined burrower bug, white-margined burrowing bug
Sehirus cinctus is a true bug in the family Cydnidae known for its unusual subsocial behavior. Females deposit 120–150 eggs in shallow burrows and guard them until hatching. After emergence, mothers provision nymphs with food for 1–3 days before the young disperse to forage independently. This species has been documented feeding on plants in the Urticaceae (nettle) and Lamiaceae (mint) families, and has been observed associating with honey bees.
subsocial-behavior maternal-care chemical-communication juvenile-hormone burrowing-bug phytophagy Heteroptera Cydnidae
Sosippus californicus
Funnel-web wolf spider
Sosippus californicus is a large wolf spider in the family Lycosidae, notable for being one of the few web-building members of an otherwise nomadic hunting family. It constructs sheet-like webs with funnel-shaped retreats, superficially resembling those of true funnel-web weavers (Agelenidae). The species ranges from southern California through Arizona and Mexico to Costa Rica, where it is particularly abundant in riparian habitats.
web-building subsocial riparian desert maternal-care
Sosippus texanus
Sosippus texanus is a species of funnel-web wolf spider in the family Lycosidae, distinguished from typical wolf spiders by its web-building behavior. Unlike the nomadic hunting behavior of most lycosids, this species constructs sheet-like webs with funnel-shaped retreats. It is one of six Sosippus species occurring in the United States and has been documented as a host for the mantisfly Mantispa sayi.
spider wolf-spider web-building Lycosidae funnel-web maternal-care parasitism Mantispa-sayi southern-United-States Texas
Tetramesa
Tetramesa is a genus of minute phytophagous wasps in the family Eurytomidae comprising over 200 described species. Members are exclusively associated with grasses (Poaceae), where they typically induce stem or inflorescence galls. The genus exhibits pronounced host specificity, with most species restricted to a single grass species or closely related congeners. Several species have been deployed as biological control agents against invasive grasses, including T. romana for giant reed (Arundo donax) and candidate agents for medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) and African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). Adults feed on nectar. Recent phylogenomic studies have synonymized the genera Aiolomorphus and Cathilaria within Tetramesa.
biological-control gall-wasp grassland invasive-species-management host-specificity cryptic-species phylogenomics Eurytomidae Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera phytophagy Poaceae stem-gall inflorescence-gall integrated-pest-management riparian-restoration molecular-systematics species-delimitation GMYC COI 28S biocontrol-agent Arundo-donax giant-reed medusahead African-lovegrass Eragrostis Sporobolus barley-jointworm integrated-taxonomy Southern-Hemisphere-diversity grassland-expansion Miocene-diversification monophagy host-range-testing non-target-effects tick-habitat cattle-fever-tick Rio-Grande Big-Bend-National-Park greenhouse-rearing oviposition-behavior water-deficit-stress generation-time parasitoid Eurytoma-amicophaga Eurytominae Walker-1848 Terebrantes Apocrita microhymenoptera minute-wasp reduced-wing-venation antennal-segmentation mesosoma-sculpture ovipositor molecular-operational-taxonomic-units MOTU species-boundaries cryptic-diversity sampling-effects SPEDE-sampler host-genetic-proxies field-host-range no-choice-testing native-Australian-species non-target-risk host-phylogeny target-weed suppression topping mechanical-control integrated-weed-management native-vegetation-recovery light-penetration canopy-structure dispersal establishment post-release-evaluation adventive-population Austin-Texas Idaho England Wales Orissa Canary-Islands Canary-Is.Mediterranean South-Africa southern-Africa Northern-Hemisphere Australia North-America Texas California Greece central-Asia Iran Ukraine Moldova Russia Israel Tajikistan Japan Eragrostis-curvula Sporobolus-pyramidalis Sporobolus-natalensis Sporobolus-africanus Hyparrhenia-hirta Andropogon-gayanus Eragrostis-plana Eragrostis-planiculmis Eragrostis-biflora Eragrostis-capensis Eragrostis-trichophora Deschampsia-caespitosa Deschampsia-setacea Taeniatherum-caput-medusae Hordeum barley Phragmites common-reed Dactylis-glomerata orchardgrass Poales grass graminoid cereal-crop pasture rangeland invasive-weed noxious-weed habitat-structure ecosystem-functioning naturalised-species alien-grass donor-country receiver-country biocontrol-practitioner host-plant-resistance internode-infestation oviposition-preference behavioral-categories antennae-attitude laboratory-artifact polyphagy specialist generalist climate-fluctuation molecular-clock dated-analysis phylogenetic-clade intrapopulation-variation geographic-sub-structuring singleton-effect overestimation consensus-delimitation operational-taxonomic-unit integrative-taxonomy evidence-line caveat putative-species novel-taxon undescribed-species biodiversity-assessment faunal-survey field-collection genetic-sequence mitochondrial-DNA nuclear-DNA cytochrome-c-oxidase-I ribosomal-DNA internal-transcribed-spacer chloroplast-DNA rps16 rpl32 trnK trnL ITS plant-insect-interaction herbivore phytophage primary-consumer trophic-level food-web community-ecology restoration-ecology conservation-biological-control classical-biological-control augmentative-biological-control inundative-release establishment-rate population-increase downstream-dispersal river-mile biomass-reduction plant-community tick-feeding-ant tick-feeding-beetle habitat-modification law-enforcement international-border flood-control irrigation-channel stream-clogging river-bank-weakening native-vegetation-stifling wildlife-habitat-reduction cattle-inspection deer-inspection Rhipicephalus Boophilus tick-population vegetation-transition shading-effect long-term-suppression high-suppression cane-thinning mechanical-cutting growth-suppression susceptibility-to-attack combination-treatment synergistic-effect research-demonstration USDA Agricultural-Research-Service entomologist field-measurement post-release-monitoring impact-assessment agent-efficacy non-target-damage crop-safety agricultural-importance host-specific-herbivore sustainable-method cost-effective-method weed-control invasive-plant-management habitat-restoration ecosystem-service provisioning-service regulating-service supporting-service cultural-service biodiversity-conservation threatened-species endangered-species habitat-loss climate-change land-use-change anthropogenic-disturbance urbanization agricultural-intensification grazing-pressure fire-regime nitrogen-deposition carbon-sequestration soil-stabilization water-quality air-quality pollinator nectar-feeding adult-diet larval-diet tissue-feeding gall-induction plant-manipulation phytohormone cytokinin auxin cell-proliferation tissue-differentiation nutrient-sink sink-strength source-sink-dynamics plant-physiology reproductive-output seed-production seed-weight flowering-head inflorescence stem-elongation tiller-production biomass-allocation growth-rate relative-growth-rate net-primary-productivity ecosystem-productivity carbon-cycling nitrogen-cycling phosphorus-cycling decomposition litter-quality herbivory-impact top-down-control bottom-up-control trophic-cascade indirect-effect direct-effect density-dependence density-independence population-regulation population-dynamics life-table survivorship fecundity reproductive-rate intrinsic-rate-of-increase doubling-time carrying-capacity population-growth exponential-growth logistic-growth Allee-effect stochasticity environmental-variation demographic-variation genetic-variation phenotypic-plasticity local-adaptation evolutionary-response coevolution arms-race escape-and-radiate diversification-rate speciation extinction phylogenetic-diversity functional-diversity taxonomic-diversity alpha-diversity beta-diversity gamma-diversity species-richness species-evenness species-abundance-distribution rank-abundance-curve diversity-index Shannon-index Simpson-index evenness-index dominance-index similarity-index dissimilarity-index cluster-analysis ordination principal-component-analysis principal-coordinate-analysis non-metric-multidimensional-scaling canonical-correspondence-analysis redundancy-analysis variation-partitioning structural-equation-modeling path-analysis meta-analysis systematic-review evidence-synthesis research-priority knowledge-gap data-deficiency IUCN-Red-List conservation-status protected-area management-plan monitoring-protocol adaptive-management stakeholder-engagement policy-recommendation legislation regulation incentive market-based-instrument payment-for-ecosystem-services carbon-credit biodiversity-offset habitat-banking conservation-easement land-trust stewardship sustainable-agriculture organic-farming agroecology precision-agriculture conservation-tillage cover-cropping crop-rotation intercropping agroforestry silvopasture riparian-buffer filter-strip grassed-waterway wetland-restoration prairie-restoration savanna-restoration forest-restoration degraded-land abandoned-land marginal-land set-aside wildlife-corridor habitat-connectivity landscape-matrix patch-dynamics edge-effect interior-habitat core-area buffer-zone permeability resistance least-cost-path circuit-theory isolation-by-distance isolation-by-resistance gene-flow genetic-drift inbreeding outbreeding hybridization introgression admixture population-structure genetic-differentiation FST GST D allele-frequency haplotype genotype phenotype quantitative-trait morphological-trait behavioral-trait life-history-trait reproductive-trait survival-trait developmental-trait physiological-trait metabolic-trait stress-response immune-response defense-trait resistance-trait tolerance-trait avoidance-trait antipredator-defense chemical-defense mechanical-defense crypsis mimicry aposematism startle-display thanatosis autotomy regeneration compensatory-growth induced-defense constitutive-defense direct-defense indirect-defense volatile-organic-compound extrafloral-nectar domatia mutualism ant-plant-mutualism pollination-mutualism seed-dispersal-mutualism protection-mutualism nutrition-mutualism transport-mutualism cleaning-mutualism agricultural-mutualism domestication crop-wild-relative landrace cultivar variety breeding selection genetic-improvement yield quality stress-tolerance nutrient-use-efficiency water-use-efficiency photosynthetic-efficiency harvest-index grain-filling source-limitation sink-limitation assimilate-transport phloem-loading phloem-unloading remobilization senescence stay-green antioxidant reactive-oxygen-species oxidative-stress heat-stress cold-stress drought-stress salinity-stress metal-stress nutrient-deficiency nutrient-toxicity soil-pH soil-texture soil-structure soil-organic-matter soil-microbial-community rhizosphere mycorrhiza nitrogen-fixation phosphorus-solubilization potassium-mobilization micronutrient-uptake allelopathy competition facilitation niche-differentiation resource-partitioning temporal-partitioning spatial-partitioning morphological-partitioning physiological-partitioning phenological-partitioning competitive-exclusion competitive-displacement priority-effect founder-effect mass-effect species-sorting neutral-theory ecological-drift dispersal-limitation environmental-filtering biotic-filtering abiotic-filtering trait-based-approach functional-trait response-trait effect-trait community-assembly community-disassembly community-reassembly succession primary-succession secondary-succession pioneer-species climax-species keystone-species ecosystem-engineer foundation-species dominant-species subordinate-species transient-species resident-species migrant-species nomadic-species irruptive-species invasive-species naturalized-species casual-species established-species spreading-species widespread-species restricted-species endemic-species cosmopolitan-species disjunct-distribution relict-distribution refugium glacial-refugium interglacial-refugium postglacial-colonization range-shift range-expansion range-contraction range-fragmentation source-population sink-population metapopulation population-viability minimum-viable-population effective-population-size genetic-rescue demographic-rescue assisted-migration managed-relocation ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation cryopreservation seed-bank gene-bank botanic-garden arboretum zoo aquarium microbial-culture-collection DNA-bank tissue-bank sperm-bank oocyte-bank embryo-bank reintroduction translocation reinforcement supplementation headstarting captive-breeding propagation nucleus-population release-program soft-release hard-release acclimatization habitat-preparation predator-control competitor-control disease-control parasite-control health-screening quarantine veterinary-care nutrition-management environmental-enrichment behavioral-training imprinting fostering cross-fostering hand-rearing parent-rearing semi-natural-enclosure pre-release-conditioning survival-rate reproduction-rate dispersal-rate site-fidelity homeward-orientation migration navigation orientation magnetic-sense olfactory-sense visual-sense auditory-sense mechanosensory-sense thermosensory-sense hygrosensory-sense electrosensory-sense polarized-light celestial-cues landmark-cues odor-plume wind-direction sun-compass star-compass moon-compass magnetic-compass inertial-navigation path-integration cognitive-map spatial-memory temporal-memory episodic-memory procedural-memory associative-learning operant-conditioning classical-conditioning habituation sensitization song-learning tool-use problem-solving innovation social-learning cultural-transmission teaching cooperation altruism kin-selection reciprocal-altruism group-selection multilevel-selection selfish-gene inclusive-fitness reproductive-skew dominance-hierarchy territoriality home-range activity-center den-site nest-site roost-site singing-post display-site lek arena scrape burrow cavity crevice hole tunnel gallery chamber cell comb paper-nest mud-nest silk-nest spun-cocoon pupal-case ootheca egg-mass clutch brood litter covey pack herd flock colony society superorganism eusociality cooperative-breeding communal-breeding polygyny polyandry promiscuity monogamy serial-monogamy genetic-monogamy social-monogamy extra-pair-copulation sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice sexual-selection intersexual-selection intrasexual-selection mate-choice mate-guarding mate-switching divorce widowhood mate-replacement breeding-season breeding-cycle breeding-attempt breeding-success fledging-success recruitment juvenile-survival adult-survival longevity life-expectancy maximum-lifespan aging telomere oxidative-damage mitochondrial-dysfunction cellular-senescence apoptosis necrosis autophagy proteostasis DNA-repair epigenetic-modification transgenerational-effect maternal-effect paternal-effect parental-care maternal-care paternal-care biparental-care alloparental-care brood-care egg-care larval-care pupal-care food-provisioning nest-defense territory-defense predator-defense disease-defense parasite-defense hygiene-behavior grooming nest-cleaning cannibalism siblicide infanticide filial-cannibalism sexual-cannibalism cannibalistic-oophagy trophic-egg regurgitation trophallaxis food-sharing information-sharing alarm-call mobbing distraction-display broken-wing-display tailing persecution attack escape flight fight freeze faint death-feigning tonic-immobility startle-response withdrawal avoidance dishabituation latent-inhibition blocking overshadowing relative-validity conditioned-inhibition spontaneous-recovery renewal reinstatement rapid-reacquisition latent-learning insight-learning observational-learning vicarious-learning emulation imitation social-facilitation social-inhibition audience-effect bystander-effect conformity obedience compliance commitment consistency foot-in-the-door door-in-the-face low-ball that's-not-all sunk-cost endowment-effect loss-aversion risk-aversion risk-seeking probability-weighting hyperbolic-discounting temporal-discounting intertemporal-choice optimal-foraging marginal-value-theorem prey-choice patch-choice diet-breadth central-place-foraging load-size travel-time handling-time search-time encounter-rate prey-density prey-profitability prey-handling prey-detection prey-pursuit prey-capture prey-consumption prey-rejection ingestion-rate digestion-rate assimilation-efficiency production-efficiency ecological-efficiency trophic-transfer-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency ten-percent-rule pyramid-of-numbers pyramid-of-biomass pyramid-of-energy food-chain trophic-network energy-flow material-cycling biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle water-cycle hydrological-cycle atmospheric-circulation ocean-circulation thermohaline-circulation El-Niño La-Niña ENSO NAO AO PDO AMO climate-oscillation climate-anomaly weather-extreme drought flood heat-wave cold-snap storm hurricane typhoon cyclone tornado thunderstorm lightning wildfire volcanic-eruption earthquake tsunami landslide avalanche meteor-impact mass-extinction background-extinction speciation-rate extinction-rate net-diversification turnover standing-diversity fossil-record taphonomy preservation-bias sampling-bias collection-bias publication-bias citation-bias language-bias geographic-bias temporal-bias taxonomic-bias size-bias abundance-bias habitat-bias facies-bias Lagerstätte Konservat-Lagerstätte Konzentrat-Lagerstätte trace-fossil body-fossil chemical-fossil molecular-fossil biomarker isotope-signature paleoclimate-proxy paleoecology paleobiogeography paleoecosystem paleocommunity paleoenvironment paleogeography paleolatitude paleolongitude continental-drift plate-tectonics seafloor-spreading subduction orogeny mountain-building basin-formation sedimentation erosion weathering soil-formation pedogenesis horizon-development profile-development chronosequence toposequence biosequence climosequence landform geomorphology topography relief elevation slope aspect curvature roughness drainage watershed catchment basin subbasin reach segment zone riffle pool run glide cascade waterfall wetland marsh swamp bog fen mire peatland tundra taiga boreal-forest temperate-forest temperate-rainforest temperate-grassland tropical-forest tropical-rainforest tropical-dry-forest tropical-savanna tropical-grassland desert hot-desert cold-desert semiarid steppe prairie pampas veld savanna woodland shrubland chaparral maquis garigue fynbos kwongan mallee mulga mogote karst cave sinkhole doline polje uvala ponor spring seep oasis wadi arroyo gully ravine canyon gorge valley dale glen strath rift graben horst fault fold anticline syncline monocline dome plateau mesa butte escarpment bluff cliff crag tor inselberg bornhardt kopje hill knoll mound ridge spur saddle pass col gap notch cleft fissure joint bedding-plane foliation lineation cleavage schistosity gneissic-banding magma lava igneous-rock sedimentary-rock metamorphic-rock mineral crystal grain texture structure fabric composition chemistry mineralogy petrology geochemistry geophysics geochronology radiometric-dating isotopic-dating dendrochronology varve-chronology lichenometry archaeomagnetism paleomagnetism thermoluminescence optically-stimulated-luminescence electron-spin-resonance cosmogenic-nuclide exposure-dating burial-dating terrestrial-cosmogenic-nuclide in-situ-cosmogenic-nuclide meteoric-cosmogenic-nuclide fallout-radionuclide lead-210 cesium-137 plutonium americium radiocarbon carbon-14 calibration-curve intcal marine-reservoir-effect terrestrial-reservoir-effect hard-water-effect contamination pretreatment combustion graphitization accelerator-mass-spectrometry liquid-scintillation-counting gas-proportional-counting beta-counting gamma-spectrometry alpha-spectrometry mass-spectrometry inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry thermal-ionization-mass-spectrometry secondary-ion-mass-spectrometry laser-ablation-inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry electron-microprobe scanning-electron-microscopy transmission-electron-microscopy light-microscopy confocal-microscopy fluorescence-microscopy polarizing-microscopy phase-contrast-microscopy differential-interference-contrast-microscopy dark-field-microscopy bright-field-microscopy stereomicroscopy dissecting-microscopy microtomy sectioning staining mounting embedding fixation preservation collection curation vouchering repository herbarium museum archive database registry catalogue checklist inventory survey monitoring assessment evaluation appraisal audit review synthesis rapid-review scoping-review narrative-review critical-review state-of-the-art-review literature-review bibliometric-analysis citation-analysis co-citation-analysis bibliographic-coupling co-authorship-analysis collaboration-network knowledge-map concept-map ontology taxonomy classification nomenclature typification designation description diagnosis illustration measurement morphometry meristics count ratio index score rank grade scale level category class group set subset cluster clade lineage branch stem crown root node tip terminal internal basal derived ancestral plesiomorphic apomorphic synapomorphic autapomorphic homologous homoplastic convergent parallel reversal gain loss duplication deletion insertion inversion fusion fission polyploidy aneuploidy chromosome-number genome-size gene-number transcriptome proteome metabolome lipidome glycome interactome phenome connectome epigenome microbiome virome mycobiome bacteriome phytobiome rhizobiome endobiome ectobiome parasitome pathobiome diseasome toxome exposome foodome nutriome pharmacome toxicome adverse-outcome-pathway mode-of-action mechanism-of-action target-site receptor-binding enzyme-inhibition ion-channel-blockade membrane-disruption DNA-intercalation inflammation cell-differentiation cell-migration cell-adhesion cell-signaling signal-transduction gene-expression transcription translation post-translational-modification protein-folding protein-degradation protein-trafficking vesicle-transport exocytosis endocytosis phagocytosis pinocytosis mitophagy pexophagy ribophagy ER-phagy lysophagy lipophagy glycophagy ferritinophagy aggrephagy xenophagy entosis cytosis syncytium plasmodesmata gap-junction tight-junction adherens-junction desmosome hemidesmosome focal-adhesion cell-polarity cell-asymmetry cell-division mitosis meiosis cytokinesis karyokinesis chromosome-segregation spindle-assembly checkpoint DNA-replication DNA-recombination transposition retrotransposition horizontal-gene-transfer vertical-gene-transfer endosymbiosis symbiogenesis holobiont hologenome extended-phenotype niche-construction ecosystem-engineering keystone-process ecological-function ecosystem-function ecosystem-good natural-capital natural-resource renewable-resource non-renewable-resource common-pool-resource public-good private-good club-good externality market-failure government-failure policy-failure institutional-failure tragedy-of-the-commons free-rider collective-action social-dilemma prisoner's-dilemma chicken-game assurance-game coordination-game zero-sum-game positive-sum-game negative-sum-game win-win lose-lose win-lose Pareto-optimal Pareto-improvement Kaldor-Hicks-improvement cost-benefit-analysis cost-effectiveness-analysis multi-criteria-decision-analysis decision-support-system expert-system knowledge-based-system rule-based-system case-based-reasoning machine-learning deep-learning neural-network random-forest support-vector-machine decision-tree regression-tree classification-tree clustering-algorithm dimensionality-reduction feature-selection feature-extraction pattern-recognition image-analysis signal-processing time-series-analysis spatial-analysis geographic-information-system remote-sensing satellite-imagery aerial-photography drone-imagery LiDAR radar sonar seismic geophysical geochemical biogeochemical ecoinformatics bioinformatics computational-biology systems-biology synthetic-biology biotechnology nanotechnology genetic-engineering genome-editing CRISPR TALEN zinc-finger-nuclease transgenic cisgenic intragenic subgenic agrobacterium-mediated-transformation biolistics electroporation microinjection protoplast-fusion somatic-hybridization cybrid asymmetric-hybrid synthetic-polyploid doubled-haploid haploid-induction anther-culture microspore-culture ovule-culture embryo-culture endosperm-culture protoplast-culture cell-culture tissue-culture organ-culture shoot-culture root-culture callus-culture suspension-culture bioreactor hairy-root-culture transformation hardening micropropagation clonal-propagation meristem-culture shoot-tip-culture axillary-bud-culture nodal-culture leaf-culture petiole-culture stem-culture internode-culture rhizome-culture bulb-culture corm-culture tuber-culture seed-culture zygotic-embryo-culture somatic-embryo-culture somatic-embryogenesis organogenesis caulogenesis rhizogenesis adventitious-shoot-formation direct-regeneration indirect-regeneration primary-metabolism secondary-metabolism biosynthesis biotransformation bioconversion biodegradation bioremediation phytoremediation mycoremediation zooremediation bioaugmentation biostimulation natural-attenuation monitored-natural-attenuation engineered-natural-attenuation permeable-reactive-barrier pump-and-treat soil-vapor-extraction air-sparging thermal-desorption incineration landfilling containment capping slurry-wall grout-curtain sheet-piling clay-liner geomembrane geotextile geogrid geocomposite geosynthetic geofabric geonet geocell geopipe geostrip geofoam geobag geotube geocontainer geomat geoblanket geospacer geodrain geoinjection geogrout geopier geocolumn geopile geowall geoberm geotrench geocut geofill geolift geoslab geopanel geoblock geobrick geotile geopaver geoweb geomattress geocushion
Tibellus
Slender Crab Spiders
Tibellus is a genus of active-hunting spiders in the family Philodromidae, commonly called slender crab spiders. They are characterized by elongated, flattened bodies with longitudinal dorsal stripes that provide camouflage on grasses and vegetation. Unlike web-building spiders, they pursue prey directly on low vegetation. The genus contains 51 recognized species distributed across Eurasia, Africa, the Americas, and Australia. Adults range from 4–15 mm in body length.
active-hunter grass-dwelling camouflage maternal-care non-web-building
Tibellus oblongus
oblong running spider, slender crab spider
Tibellus oblongus is a Holarctic spider in the family Philodromidae. It is an active hunter that does not construct webs, instead pursuing and ambushing small insect prey. The species exhibits distinctive elongated body morphology with longitudinal striping that provides camouflage in grassy vegetation. Adult females measure 6–11 mm in body length, with males slightly smaller at 5–8 mm. Females construct flattened egg sacs and guard them until spiderlings emerge.
active-hunter non-web-building maternal-care camouflage grassland
Tritomini
pleasing fungus beetles
Tritomini is a tribe of pleasing fungus beetles within the family Erotylidae, established by Curtis in 1834. The tribe comprises approximately 15 genera including Tritoma, Triplax, Ischyrus, Mycotretus, Pselaphacus, and Haematochiton, with at least 30 described species. Members are exclusively Neotropical in distribution and are obligate associates of macrofungi, particularly basidiomes. The tribe has been subject to recent taxonomic revision focusing on genitalic morphology and larval stages, with immature stages now described for multiple Pselaphacus species.
mycophagy Neotropical fungal-associates maternal-care forest-beetles
Uloboridae
hackled orb weavers, cribellate orb weavers
Uloboridae is a family of spiders distinguished by their lack of venom glands, a secondarily evolved trait unique among arachnids. Instead of venom, they subdue prey through extensive silk wrapping and compression, followed by external digestion using regurgitated enzymes. Members of this family are known as cribellate orb weavers, producing specialized silk from an additional spinning organ called the cribellum, which is combed into tangled, non-sticky capture threads. The family includes both traditional orb web builders and species with reduced web structures, such as the triangle spiders of genus Hyptiotes.
cribellate non-venomous orb-web external-digestion maternal-care communal web-reduction
Umbonia crassicornis
Thorn bug, Thorn Treehopper
Umbonia crassicornis is a treehopper species in the family Membracidae, notable for its pronounced sexual dimorphism in pronotal horn structure and extensive maternal care. Adult females deposit approximately 100 eggs into plant stems or under bark, then remain with the developing nymphs until adulthood—a rare subsocial behavior among insects. Nymphs and adults form dense aggregations, with offspring communicating danger to the mother through synchronized vibrational signals that trigger her antipredator defense. The species feeds on plant sap and is occasionally a pest of ornamental and fruit trees in southern Florida and Puerto Rico.
subsocial-behavior maternal-care vibrational-communication sexual-dimorphism thorn-mimicry pest-species introduced-species
Zelotes subterraneus
Ground spider
Zelotes subterraneus is a ground spider in the family Gnaphosidae and the type species of the genus Zelotes. It has a Palearctic distribution across Europe, Asia, and North Africa. The species is notoriously difficult to identify, particularly females, due to striking similarity with congeners Zelotes apricorum and Zelotes latreillei. Males can be distinguished by examination of embolus structure on the pedipalps. Body length ranges from 3.8-7.8 mm in males and 5.8-9.2 mm in females. It is an active nocturnal hunter that does not build webs for prey capture.
ground-spider Gnaphosidae Palearctic cryptic-species nocturnal-predator maternal-care montane coastal-shingle