Ant-mutualism

Guides

Aetalionidae
Aetalionid Treehoppers
Aetalionidae is a family of treehoppers in the superfamily Membracoidea, distinguished from the more diverse Membracidae by morphological features including a front femur fused to the trochanter and a completely exposed scutellum. The family is predominantly Neotropical in distribution, with two recognized subfamilies: Biturritiinae (exclusively Neotropical) and Aetalioninae (containing the Neotropical genus Aetalion and the Paleotropical genus Darthula). Females exhibit maternal care by guarding egg masses, and many species form aggregations on tree branches where they produce honeydew and associate with ants and stingless bees.
treehopper Membracoidea Neotropical maternal-care ant-mutualism honeydew phytophagous sap-feeder pest
Aphididae
Aphids
Aphididae is a very large family of sap-sucking insects in the order Hemiptera, containing several thousand described species. Members are soft-bodied, pear-shaped insects commonly known as aphids. The family includes the majority of plant virus vectors among insects, with approximately 200 known vector species. Many species are significant agricultural pests, causing direct damage through feeding and indirect damage through virus transmission.
sap-sucking phloem-feeder parthenogenesis agricultural-pest virus-vector honeydew-producer ant-mutualism
Aphidoidea
aphids, plant lice, greenflies, blackflies, whiteflies
Aphidoidea is a superfamily of small sap-sucking insects within Hemiptera, commonly known as aphids. Members possess piercing-sucking mouthparts adapted for feeding on plant phloem. The superfamily includes approximately 5,000 described species across multiple families, with Aphididae being the largest and most economically significant. Many species exhibit complex life cycles involving both sexual and parthenogenetic reproduction, often with seasonal alternation between host plants.
Hemiptera Sternorrhyncha phloem-feeding parthenogenesis agricultural-pest cornicles honeydew ant-mutualism vector biological-control
Aphis pomi
apple aphid, green apple aphid
Aphis pomi, the green apple aphid, is a small sap-sucking insect specialized on pomoideous host plants in the Rosaceae family, particularly apple (Malus domestica). It is autoecious, completing its entire life cycle on a single host species. The species reproduces primarily through parthenogenesis during the growing season, with sexual forms appearing only in autumn to produce overwintering eggs. It is morphologically similar to Aphis spiraecola but can be reliably distinguished by the length of the ultimate rostral segment.
agricultural-pest parthenogenesis autoecious ant-mutualism apple-pest Rosaceae-feeder holocentric-chromosomes molecular-identification-target
Bolbonota
seed-mimic treehopper
Bolbonota is a genus of treehoppers in the family Membracidae, tribe Membracini, distributed in the New World tropics and subtropics. Adults are characterized by their dark, globular body form with a corrugated pronotal surface and distinctive red eyes. The genus contains at least a dozen described species in Brazil alone, with many more likely awaiting description. Bolbonota species exhibit complex ontogenetic color changes: early instar nymphs are dark, late instars become mottled or streaked white, and adults revert to dark coloration.
Membracidae treehopper ant-mutualism mimicry ontogenetic-color-change Neotropical sap-feeding Camponotus honeydew aggregation-behavior
Bolbonota tuberculata
Bolbonota tuberculata is a treehopper species in the family Membracidae, characterized by its globular, tuberculate body form and dark coloration. The species belongs to the New World tribe Membracini and exhibits the pronotal modifications typical of this group—an enlarged, helmet-like structure that extends over the body. Like other members of the genus Bolbonota, adults have been observed with distinctive red eyes. The species occurs in the Neotropical region, with records from French Guiana and Brazil.
treehopper Membracidae Membracini ant-mutualism Neotropical ontogenetic-color-change sap-feeding
Brachycaudus cardui
thistle aphid, plum-thistle aphid
Brachycaudus cardui is a heteroecious aphid species with a complex life cycle alternating between primary woody hosts (Prunus spp.) and secondary herbaceous hosts, primarily thistles and other Asteraceae. Wingless viviparous females are small (1.8–2.5 mm), oval to pear-shaped, and variable in color. The species is notable for causing leaf roll on Prunus and for transmitting plum pox virus, a serious agricultural pathogen. Colony establishment depends heavily on ant attendance.
aphid agricultural-pest vector host-alternating ant-mutualism plum-pox-virus
Celastrina
Holarctic Azures
Celastrina is a genus of small butterflies in the family Lycaenidae, commonly known as the Holarctic Azures. The genus is distributed across the Palearctic, Nearctic, Indomalayan, and Australasian realms. Species within this genus are typically associated with specific host plants, with larvae showing varying degrees of dietary specialization. Several species have been studied in detail for their ecological relationships, including facultative mutualisms with ants.
butterfly Lycaenidae azure spring ant-mutualism host-plant-specialization
Celastrina echo
Echo Azure, Western Azure
Celastrina echo is a small blue butterfly in the family Lycaenidae, native to western North America. Its taxonomic status was elevated from subspecies of C. ladon to full species in 2001. The species exhibits complex associations with ants throughout its larval development and displays considerable variation in brood number depending on local climate conditions.
azure blue-butterfly western-North-America ant-mutualism Ceanothus-feeder
Centrotinae
Centrotinae is the largest subfamily of treehoppers (Membracidae) and the only subfamily with a worldwide distribution. It comprises approximately 1,350 species in 216 genera. The subfamily is characterized by morphological features including a posterior pronotal process that typically does not conceal the scutellum, and forewings with a truncated clavus and broad apical limbus. Centrotinae is considered the most primitive membracid subfamily based on fossil evidence and biogeographic patterns.
treehoppers Membracidae worldwide-distribution ant-mutualism maternal-care phloem-feeder
Cerataphis
witch hazel aphid, palm aphid
Cerataphis is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, tribe Cerataphidini. The genus comprises approximately 10–12 described species distributed across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Species in this genus are associated with host plants in the families Styracaceae (witch hazels), Arecaceae (palms), and Orchidaceae. Several species exhibit host alternation between primary hosts (Styrax species) and secondary hosts (palms or orchids). Some species are economically significant as pests of coconut, oil palm, and ornamental palms.
aphid palm-pest host-alternation gall-aphid tropical-agriculture Hormaphidinae ant-mutualism coconut-pest orchid-pest Styracaceae Arecaceae Orchidaceae
Chaitophorus
Poplar aphids, Willow aphids
Chaitophorus is a genus of aphids comprising approximately 90–110 species distributed across North America, Europe, and Asia. Members are primarily associated with Salicaceae hosts, particularly Populus (poplars) and Salix (willows), though some species occur on Vitaceae, Apiaceae, and Asteraceae. The genus exhibits host-specificity, with species-level identification often requiring knowledge of the host plant due to subtle morphological differences. Multiple independent origins of ant mutualism have been documented within the genus.
aphid phloem-feeder ant-mutualism poplar-pest host-specific Salicaceae viviparous parthenogenesis camouflage dimorphism
Coccus viridis
green scale, green coffee scale, coffee green scale
Coccus viridis is a soft scale insect (Hemiptera: Coccidae) and major agricultural pest with a wide tropical and subtropical distribution. It reproduces parthenogenetically via thelytoky, with females producing 50-600 eggs that hatch within minutes to hours beneath the mother's body. The species completes its life cycle in 47-51 days at 25°C, with three nymphal instars before adulthood; first-instar nymphs actively disperse as 'crawlers' while older instars and adults become sessile. It is polyphagous, feeding on phloem sap of over 200 plant genera in 72 families, with primary economic damage to coffee, guava, and cacao crops.
agricultural-pest coffee-pest soft-scale parthenogenesis thelytoky polyphagy ant-mutualism honeydew sooty-mold biological-control invasive-species tropical-pest phloem-feeder Hemiptera Coccidae Coccus green-scale green-coffee-scale
Disholcaspis
Disholcaspis is a genus of gall wasps in the family Cynipidae containing more than 40 described species. Species in this genus induce characteristic galls on oak trees (Quercus spp.), with gall morphology varying by species and generation. Some species produce galls that secrete honeydew, establishing facultative mutualisms with ants that defend the galls from parasitoids. The genus exhibits heterogony, with alternating sexual and parthenogenetic asexual generations that typically produce different gall forms.
gall-wasp oak-gall Cynipidae heterogony ant-mutualism honeydew-secretion venom-gland plant-manipulation parasitoid-defense Quercus parthenogenesis alternation-of-generations
Disholcaspis eldoradensis
Honeydew Gall Wasp
Disholcaspis eldoradensis is a gall wasp in the family Cynipidae that induces distinctive galls on valley oak (Quercus lobata). The species is notable for producing sucrose-secreting galls that attract ant mutualists, particularly invasive Argentine ants, which defend the galls against parasitoids. This mutualism creates a complex trophic community involving multiple ant species, parasitoids, and other associated insects. The species exhibits variable ecological outcomes depending on local conditions, with ant defense benefits varying across years and gall characteristics influencing parasitism rates.
gall-wasp Cynipidae oak-gall ant-mutualism sucrose-secretion multitrophic-interactions Quercus-lobata invasive-ants parasitoid-community facultative-mutualism
Disholcaspis prehensa
clasping twig gall wasp
Disholcaspis prehensa is a gall-inducing cynipid wasp native to California that induces distinctive galls on scrub oak and leather oak. The species exhibits heterogony, alternating between sexual and asexual generations that produce two morphologically different gall types. The asexual generation forms conspicuous mushroom-shaped twig galls with clasping bases, while the sexual generation produces small, hidden bud galls.
gall-wasp cynipid heterogony parthenogenesis oak-gall California-endemic ant-mutualism Disholcaspis Cynipidae Hymenoptera Quercus induced-plant-structure phloem-sap-exudation biological-mutualism seasonal-dimorphism sexual-dimorphism gall-dimorphism agamic-generation sexual-generation clasping-twig-gall bud-gall twig-gall native-California-species scrub-oak leather-oak parasitoid-defense ant-plant-interaction insect-plant-interaction plant-manipulation evolution-of-asexuality Weld-1957 Zootaxa-4859 molecular-systematics host-plant-specificity Cynipini oak-woodland chaparral insect-gall gall-morphology gall-coloration sun-exposure-effects larval-chamber emergence-timing spring-emergence late-winter-emergence gall-development oviposition-behavior egg-laying-in-buds egg-laying-in-twigs female-only-generation wingless-female winged-sexual-generation gall-size-dimorphism gall-shape-dimorphism hidden-gall exposed-gall gall-wasp-life-cycle cynipid-biology gall-wasp-taxonomy gall-wasp-identification gall-wasp-ecology insect-plant-coevolution plant-growth-manipulation hormone-mediated-gall-induction venom-gland accessory-gland secretory-structures gall-induction-mechanism gall-chemistry phloem-sap honeydew ant-attraction ant-protection parasitoid-wasp natural-enemy-defense indirect-defense mutualistic-interaction trophic-cascade community-ecology species-interaction ecosystem-engineer habitat-modification food-web insect-diversity California-biodiversity endemic-insect regional-endemism oak-specialist plant-specialist monophagous oligophagous host-range host-plant-evolution gall-wasp-radiation adaptive-radiation evolutionary-innovation reproductive-strategy asexual-reproduction thelytoky arrhenotoky sex-determination developmental-biology insect-morphology insect-anatomy female-morphology ovipositor stinger egg-injection plant-tissue-manipulation cell-proliferation plant-hormone auxin cytokinin gene-expression transcriptomics proteomics venom-composition 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recovery-management-management-management rehabilitation-management-management-management reconstruction-management-management-management resilience-building-management-management-management adaptive-capacity-building-management-management-management transformative-capacity-building-management-management-management
Enchenopa
Enchenopa is a genus of treehoppers (family Membracidae) containing more than 50 described species. The genus underwent major revision in 2014, resulting in 51 recognized species. Members are characterized by their enlarged, often ornate pronotum typical of treehoppers. The Enchenopa binotata species complex has been extensively studied as a model system for sympatric speciation through host plant shifts, with different species or populations specialized on distinct host plants and exhibiting assortative mating based on plant-associated vibrational signals.
treehoppers Membracidae vibrational-communication sympatric-speciation host-plant-specialization phloem-feeders ant-mutualism Enchenopa-binotata-complex
Entylia
keel-shaped treehopper
Entylia is a genus of treehoppers in the family Membracidae, first described by Germar in 1833. The genus contains at least three described species, including Entylia carinata, which is known for its distinctive keel-shaped pronotum that resembles plant debris. These insects are notable for their mutualistic relationships with ants, which protect them from predators in exchange for honeydew. The genus is distributed in North America, with observations recorded from regions including the northeastern United States.
treehopper Membracidae ant-mutualism honeydew camouflage Asteraceae phloem-feeder keel-shaped trophobiont myrmecophily North-America
Entylia carinata
keeled treehopper
Entylia carinata is a small treehopper in the family Membracidae, notable for its pronounced saddle-shaped pronotal keel. The species exhibits sexual dimorphism, with females larger and more prominently keeled than males. It engages in mutualistic relationships with several ant species and demonstrates parental care behavior. Adults overwinter in leaf litter and emerge in spring to reproduce on host plants.
treehopper Membracidae Smiliinae ant-mutualism myrmecophile sexual-dimorphism parental-care Asteraceae phloem-feeder bacterial-symbiont
Entylia carinata concisa
Entylia carinata concisa is a subspecies of treehopper in the family Membracidae. Treehoppers in this genus are small insects characterized by an enlarged, often hatchet-shaped pronotum that extends over the thorax. The species Entylia carinata has been documented in association with odorous house ants (Tapinoma sessile), which tend the treehoppers for their honeydew secretions. The subspecies concisa represents a geographic variant within this ant-associated treehopper complex.
treehopper membracidae ant-mutualism myrmecophily trophobiosis phloem-feeder smiliinae north-america
Flatidae
Flatid Planthoppers
Flatidae are a family of planthoppers in the superfamily Fulgoroidea, distributed worldwide. Adults of some species display brightly colored forewings (tegmina), while others are camouflaged with waxy secretions. They feed on phloem sap and some species communicate using substrate-borne vibrations through plant stems. The family contains two subfamilies distinguished by body shape and wing posture: Flatinae with laterally flattened bodies and tent-like tegmina, and Flatoidinae with uncompressed bodies and more horizontal wing positioning.
planthopper fulgoroid phloem-feeder waxy-secretions vibrational-communication ant-mutualism agricultural-pest
Hemiargus
blues, blue butterflies
Hemiargus is a genus of small butterflies in the family Lycaenidae, commonly known as blues, found in North and South America. The genus contains approximately five recognized species, including the widespread Ceraunus blue (Hemiargus ceraunus) and Reakirt's blue (Hemiargus isola). These butterflies inhabit open, sunny environments and are characterized by their blue or grayish upper wing surfaces with variable spotting patterns. Some species engage in facultative mutualistic associations with ants during their larval stage, where caterpillars produce secretions that attract ant attendants who provide protection against predators.
Lycaenidae blues myrmecophily ant-mutualism grassland-butterflies Neotropical Nearctic
Longistigma
giant bark aphid
Longistigma is a genus of giant aphids in the family Aphididae, containing at least three described species. These are the largest aphids in North America, with Longistigma caryae (giant bark aphid) being particularly notable for its size. The genus was established by Wilson in 1909 based on the extremely long, slender stigma that extends around the end of the wing. Members of this genus feed on bark and are associated with trees including oak, hickory, walnut, and beech.
aphid giant-aphid bark-feeder parthenogenesis ant-mutualism viviparity overwintering-eggs hardwood-forest phloem-feeder Sternorrhyncha
Membracidae
treehoppers, thorn bugs, typical treehoppers
Membracidae, commonly called treehoppers or thorn bugs, is a family of approximately 3,200–3,500 species in over 400 genera within the order Hemiptera. The family is distinguished by extraordinary morphological diversity, particularly the pronounced enlargement and modification of the pronotum—the dorsal plate of the first thoracic segment—which can form thorns, horns, keels, or bizarre projections that often obscure the body and wings. This family represents the most diverse lineage within the superfamily Membracoidea, with its center of diversity in the New World tropics. Most species exhibit phytophagous habits, feeding on plant sap with piercing-sucking mouthparts. Many species engage in mutualistic relationships with ants, which protect them from predators in exchange for honeydew.
Hemiptera Membracoidea phytophagous ant-mutualism pronotum Neotropical-diversity maternal-care honeydew
Membracoidea
Leafhoppers and Treehoppers
Membracoidea is a superfamily of sap-sucking true bugs (Hemiptera) comprising approximately 25,000 described species across several families. The group is dominated by two large families: Cicadellidae (leafhoppers) and Membracidae (treehoppers), with additional smaller families including Aetalionidae, Melizoderidae, and the relictual Myerslopiidae. Members share distinctive anatomical features including an incomplete tentorium, enlarged midcoxae, and rows of setae on the mid and hind tibiae. The superfamily exhibits its greatest diversity in the Neotropics, suggesting a New World origin.
phloem-feeding jumping ant-mutualism plant-pathogen-vector adaptive-radiation Neotropical-diversity-center
Panaphis
Panaphis is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, subfamily Calaphidinae. The best-known species, Panaphis juglandis, is a destructive pest of walnut trees (Juglans spp.) and forms mutualistic associations with tending ants. Ants protect these aphids from predators such as lady beetles in exchange for honeydew. The genus has been documented in parts of Europe including Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
aphid walnut-pest ant-mutualism biological-control Hemiptera
Plebejus
Blues
Plebejus is a genus of small butterflies in the family Lycaenidae, commonly known as "blues." Species occur in the Palearctic and Nearctic realms. Several species have been observed engaging in mutualistic relationships with ants, where caterpillars produce sugar secretions in exchange for protection. The genus has been subject to taxonomic revision, with several formerly independent genera now tentatively included.
butterfly Lycaenidae blue-butterfly ant-mutualism alfalfa-colonist endangered-species
Plebejus icarioides
Melissa blue, Fender's blue
Plebejus icarioides is a species of lycaenid butterfly commonly known as the Melissa blue. The species has been observed colonizing alfalfa in the Great Basin region, representing a notable host range expansion. One subspecies, P. icarioides fenderi (Fender's blue), is federally endangered in the United States and has been the focus of intensive conservation research. The species exhibits ant tending behavior, with caterpillars producing sugar secretions that ants collect in exchange for protection from natural enemies.
butterfly lycaenid conservation ant-mutualism endangered-subspecies habitat-restoration prescribed-fire alfalfa-colonization Great-Basin western-North-America
Plebejus icarioides icarioides
Melissa Blue, Icaricia Blue
Plebejus icarioides icarioides is a subspecies of blue butterfly in the family Lycaenidae, commonly known as the Melissa Blue or Icaricia Blue. The species complex has been subject to taxonomic revision, with this subspecies sometimes placed in the genus Icaricia. It occurs in western North America and is associated with open habitats. The subspecies is part of a broader species group that includes the endangered Fender's blue butterfly (P. i. fenderi), which has been extensively studied for conservation purposes.
Lycaenidae blue-butterfly western-North-America ant-mutualism puddling grassland prairie host-plant-colonization
Plebejus idas aster
Idas Blue, Northern Blue
Plebejus idas aster is a subspecies of the Idas Blue butterfly, a small lycaenid found in North America. It belongs to a complex of closely related blue butterflies that have been subject to taxonomic revision, with this subspecies sometimes treated under the genus Lycaena. The species is associated with open habitats and has documented relationships with host plants and ants.
butterfly lycaenid blue-butterfly ant-mutualism Fabaceae-feeder North-America prairie montane
Plebejus saepiolus
Greenish Blue, Icaricia saepiolus
Plebejus saepiolus, commonly known as the Greenish Blue, is a small lycaenid butterfly native to North America. It is closely related to other Plebejus species such as P. acmon (Acmon Blue) and P. melissa (Melissa Blue), with which it shares similar habitat preferences and morphological features. The species has been documented across western and northern regions of North America including Canada and the northern United States. Like other members of its genus, it exhibits the characteristic blue coloration on the upper wing surfaces of males.
Lycaenidae blue-butterfly North-America ant-mutualism legume-feeder Plebejus Polyommatinae
Prociphilus
Woolly Aphids
Prociphilus is a genus of woolly aphids in the family Aphididae, subfamily Eriosomatinae, comprising approximately 50 species. These aphids are notable for inducing gall formation on host plants, within which they reside and feed. The genus exhibits complex life cycles including host alternation and polyphenism, with multiple distinct morphs adapted to different hosts and conditions. Several species have documented mutualistic relationships with ants, and some display remarkable seasonal phenomena such as the mass emergence of Prociphilus oriens in Japan, which is culturally associated with the first snowfall.
aphid gall-former woolly-aphid ant-mutualism polyphenism pest Japan snow-bug
Pterocomma
Willow Bark Aphids
Pterocomma is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, commonly known as willow bark aphids. Species in this genus are phloem-feeding insects primarily associated with woody host plants in the genus Salix (willows) and Populus (poplars). The genus exhibits a specialized ecological relationship with ants, which frequently tend colonies and mediate dispersal between host plants. Pterocomma species harbor the obligate bacterial endosymbiont Buchnera aphidicola, which provides essential amino acids necessary for survival on their nutrient-poor phloem sap diet.
aphid phloem-feeder ant-mutualism endosymbiosis Buchnera Salix Populus forest-pest Sternorrhyncha Macrosiphini
Pterocomma salicis
Black willow bark aphid
A bark-feeding aphid specialized on willow trees, commonly known as the black willow bark aphid. Forms mutualistic relationships with ants, particularly Lasius niger, which actively transport and tend colonies. The species has been documented in ant-mediated dispersal studies, suggesting ants may evaluate host quality when relocating aphid colonies.
aphid willow ant-mutualism bark-feeder Hemiptera
Publilia
Publilia is a genus of treehoppers (Membracidae) native to North America, with species occurring primarily in the eastern and central United States. The genus is notable for forming dense aggregations on host plants, particularly goldenrods (Solidago spp.), where nymphs and adults are tended by ants in exchange for honeydew. This mutualistic relationship has made Publilia a model system for studying ant-hemipteran interactions and their ecological consequences for host plants. The genus is distinguished from related treehoppers by its relatively unadorned pronotum compared to the elaborate projections seen in many Neotropical membracids.
treehopper membracidae ant-mutualism myrmecophily hemiptera solidago goldenrod aggregation-behavior honeydew nearctic
Publilia erecta
Publilia erecta is a treehopper species in the family Membracidae, tribe Polyglyptini. Like other members of its genus, it is known for forming aggregations on host plants and engaging in mutualistic relationships with ants. The species has been documented in the southwestern United States and Mexico. Treehoppers in this genus are notable for their complex social behaviors and ant-tended aggregations, though specific details for P. erecta itself are limited in published literature.
treehopper Membracidae ant-mutualism Polyglyptini Publilia Auchenorrhyncha phloem-feeder aggregation-forming
Publilia modesta
Publilia modesta is a Nearctic treehopper species in the family Membracidae, tribe Polyglyptini. It is strongly associated with sunflowers (Helianthus spp.) and engages in well-documented mutualistic relationships with ants, which tend aggregations of nymphs and adults for honeydew. The species has been recorded from multiple ant species, with some evidence suggesting ant diversity rivaling that of Neotropical treehopper systems. It is one of the most frequently studied treehoppers in North America due to its accessibility and pronounced ant associations.
treehopper membracidae ant-mutualism helianthus sunflower polyglyptini nearctic homoptera auchenorrhyncha
Publilia porrecta
Publilia porrecta is a Nearctic treehopper species in the family Membracidae, tribe Polyglyptini. The genus Publilia is known for ant-tended mutualistic associations, with multiple ant species frequently visiting aggregations. Like other members of its tribe, this species exhibits subsocial behaviors and is associated with herbaceous host plants. The species has been documented in western North America, including Utah and Mexico.
treehopper ant-mutualism Nearctic Membracidae Polyglyptini honeydew
Pulvinariella
Pulvinariella is a genus of soft scale insects (Coccidae) established by Borchsenius in 1953. The genus includes species that are specialist phloem-feeders on succulent plants, particularly ice-plants in the genera Carpobrotus and Mesembryanthemum. Pulvinariella mesembryanthemi has been extensively studied as a potential biocontrol agent for invasive Carpobrotus species in coastal ecosystems. These scales exhibit density-dependent population dynamics and are influenced by host plant nitrogen and water conditions.
scale-insect biocontrol Coccidae ice-plant invasive-species-management phloem-feeder ant-mutualism coastal-ecology
Saissetia coffeae
hemispherical scale, helmet scale, coffee brown scale
Saissetia coffeae is a polyphagous soft scale insect (Coccidae) with a cosmopolitan tropical and subtropical distribution. Adults are sessile, hemispherical, and helmet-shaped, ranging 2–4.5 mm in diameter depending on host plant. The species reproduces parthenogenetically; all individuals are female. It is a significant agricultural pest of coffee, citrus, avocado, fig, guava, and numerous ornamental plants, causing damage through phloem sap feeding and honeydew secretion that promotes sooty mold growth. Multiple parasitoid wasps and predatory insects are associated with natural population regulation.
scale-insect soft-scale agricultural-pest polyphagous parthenogenetic biological-control honeydew-producer sooty-mold ant-mutualism coffee-pest citrus-pest tropical-pest
Smiliinae
Smiliinae is a large subfamily of treehoppers (Membracidae) comprising approximately 100 genera organized into 10 tribes, with the majority of diversity concentrated in the Americas. The subfamily includes approximately 140 described species, though this likely underrepresents true diversity. Members are characterized by elaborate pronotal modifications that produce bizarre shapes including thorn-like projections, ant-mimicking forms, and other structures whose functions remain incompletely understood. The nominotypical tribe Smiliini contains 169 species in 23 genera and is predominantly Nearctic in distribution, with evolutionary origins traced to Central America and Mexico followed by multiple dispersals to temperate North America.
treehoppers Membracidae pronotal-modifications ant-mimicry ant-mutualism oak-specialists Nearctic Neotropical phloem-feeders New-World-radiation
Tuberculatus
Tuberculatus is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, established by Aleksandr Mordvilko in 1894. Species in this genus feed exclusively on trees in the family Fagaceae, including oaks, beeches, and chestnuts. The genus exhibits a cosmopolitan distribution and contains species with two contrasting ecological strategies: ant-attended and non-attended populations. Research on Tuberculatus has focused extensively on its symbiotic relationships with ants and bacteria.
aphid Fagaceae ant-mutualism Wolbachia endosymbiont
Tuberolachnus
giant willow aphid, giant bark aphid
Tuberolachnus is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, established by Mordvilko in 1909. The genus contains three described species, with Tuberolachnus salignus (the giant willow aphid) being the most well-known and widely studied. Members of this genus are among the largest aphids in the world, with body lengths reaching up to 5.8 mm. They are notable for their obligate parthenogenetic reproduction, extremely low genetic diversity, and status as invasive pests in multiple regions including New Zealand, India, and Patagonia.
aphid invasive-species parthenogenesis phloem-feeder honeydew-producer agricultural-pest willow-pest ant-mutualism soil-ecology apiculture-problem
Tylopelta gibbera
Tylopelta gibbera is a treehopper species in the family Membracidae, characterized by its use of vibrational communication during mating displays. Males produce substrate-borne signals transmitted through host plant stems to locate receptive females, with documented cases of vibrational masking when multiple males compete. The species maintains mutualistic relationships with ants, which defend nymphs in exchange for honeydew.
treehopper vibrational-communication ant-mutualism sap-feeder Membracidae substrate-borne-signal vibrational-masking
Vanduzea arquata
black locust treehopper
Vanduzea arquata, commonly known as the black locust treehopper, is a North American treehopper species in the family Membracidae. It is strongly associated with black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) and related Robinia species, with females laying eggs in tree buds. Nymphs have been documented using abandoned cavities of the locust twig borer. The species is attended by ants, including Formica subsericea, which tend the treehoppers for honeydew.
treehopper Membracidae black-locust Robinia ant-mutualism egg-laying-in-buds locust-twig-borer-cavity-use
Vanduzea nolina
Vanduzea nolina is a treehopper species in the family Membracidae, described by Ball in 1932. The genus Vanduzea is characterized by species that are obligately associated with specific host plants, with adults and nymphs typically found on stems and in leaf axils. This species is named after its host plant genus Nolina (beargrass), indicating a specialized plant-insect relationship. Like other members of the tribe Amastrini, V. nolina likely exhibits ant-tended behavior, where honeydew-producing nymphs are protected by ants in exchange for nutritional rewards.
Membracidae treehopper specialist-herbivore Nolina ant-mutualism southwestern-US Arizona xeric-habitat