Thelytoky

Guides

Aprostocetus
Aprostocetus is a large genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae, established by Westwood in 1833. With approximately 800 described species, it has a global distribution across all major zoogeographic regions. Species are primarily ectoparasitoids or endoparasitoids of insects inhabiting plant galls, including gall midges (Cecidomyiidae), gall wasps (Cynipoidea), and other hosts spanning Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Blattodea, Orthoptera, and Neuroptera. Some species are phytophagous, inducing galls directly on plants. The genus is economically significant as a source of biological control agents for invasive pests.
parasitoid biological-control gall-associated Eulophidae Tetrastichinae hyperparasitoid phytophagous thelytoky invasive-species-management forest-pest-management agricultural-pest-management Hymenoptera Chalcidoidea
Aridelus
Aridelus is a genus of braconid wasps in the subfamily Euphorinae, comprising approximately 40 described species with cosmopolitan distribution but greatest diversity in tropical regions. These wasps are solitary koinobiont endoparasitoids of heteropteran bugs, primarily targeting nymphs and adults of stink bugs (Pentatomidae) and related families. Several species have been investigated for biological control potential against agricultural pests, particularly Nezara viridula.
parasitoid biological-control stink-bug Heteroptera thelytoky koinobiont Braconidae Euphorinae agricultural-pest-management
Balcha indica
Balcha indica is a solitary ectoparasitoid wasp in the family Eupelmidae, native to Asia and accidentally introduced to North America. It attacks larvae, prepupae, and pupae of the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), an invasive wood-boring beetle threatening ash trees. Under laboratory conditions, the species exhibits extended adult longevity (mean 59 days, maximum 117 days) and reproduces via thelytokous parthenogenesis. Development from egg to adult takes approximately 83 days at 25°C, suggesting one to two generations per year in temperate North American regions. The species has been recovered from field surveys in Michigan, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Ontario, Virginia, and West Virginia, where it functions as an adventitious biological control agent of this invasive pest.
parasitoid biological-control emerald-ash-borer invasive-species wood-boring-beetle thelytoky adventitious-parasitoid Asia-native North-America-introduced Eupelmidae Calosotinae
Ceratina dallatorreana
Dalla Torre's ceratina
Ceratina dallatorreana is a small carpenter bee in the family Apidae, first described by Friese in 1896. The species exhibits a rare reproductive strategy among bees: it reproduces exclusively by parthenogenesis and never produces males. This bee has been documented across three continents—Africa, Europe and Northern Asia (excluding China), and North America—making it one of the more broadly distributed Ceratina species. Its wide geographic range and unique reproductive biology distinguish it from most other small carpenter bees.
parthenogenesis thelytoky carpenter-bee small-carpenter-bee apidae pollinator widespread-distribution
Ceroplastes sinensis
Chinese Wax Scale
Ceroplastes sinensis is a cosmopolitan scale insect pest of commercial citrus and other woody plants. Native to Central or South America based on cladistic analysis, it has established populations across temperate regions including Australia, New Zealand, Mediterranean Europe, North America, and parts of Asia. The species produces a distinctive waxy covering and completes a single annual generation in temperate climates. It has become a significant agricultural pest, particularly in citrus groves, prompting development of integrated pest management sampling protocols and biological control efforts.
scale-insect citrus-pest biological-control invasive-species integrated-pest-management wax-scale Hemiptera Coccidae parthenogenesis thelytoky cladistic-biogeography
Coccus viridis
green scale, green coffee scale, coffee green scale
Coccus viridis is a soft scale insect (Hemiptera: Coccidae) and major agricultural pest with a wide tropical and subtropical distribution. It reproduces parthenogenetically via thelytoky, with females producing 50-600 eggs that hatch within minutes to hours beneath the mother's body. The species completes its life cycle in 47-51 days at 25°C, with three nymphal instars before adulthood; first-instar nymphs actively disperse as 'crawlers' while older instars and adults become sessile. It is polyphagous, feeding on phloem sap of over 200 plant genera in 72 families, with primary economic damage to coffee, guava, and cacao crops.
agricultural-pest coffee-pest soft-scale parthenogenesis thelytoky polyphagy ant-mutualism honeydew sooty-mold biological-control invasive-species tropical-pest phloem-feeder Hemiptera Coccidae Coccus green-scale green-coffee-scale
Cyphomyrmex
fungus-growing ants
Cyphomyrmex is a genus of small, drab-colored fungus-growing ants in the tribe Attini, found primarily in the Neotropics. These ants cultivate fungi in the tribe Leucocoprineae as their primary food source, with most species growing fungal nodules rather than full mycelial gardens. Colonies are typically monogynous and small, rarely exceeding 500 workers. The genus is divided into two species complexes: the strigatus complex (South America only) and the rimosus complex (southern North America to South America). Cyphomyrmex represents a basal lineage among attine ants and serves as sister group to Mycetophylax.
fungus-growing-ants attine-ants Myrmicinae Neotropical mutualism fungiculture Leucocoprineae monogyny parasitoid-wasps social-parasitism chemical-ecology alkaloid-venom nest-architecture behavioral-plasticity cytogenetics chromosome-evolution Guiana-Shield Brazil Panama Puerto-Rico Mesoamerica Argentina United-States Texas California Florida yeast-gardens mycelial-gardens rimosus-complex strigatus-complex age-polyethism trophallaxis thanatosis feigning-death Diapriidae Acanthopria Mimopriella Megalomyrmex social-parasite C.-longiscapus C.-transversus C.-laevigatus C.-rimosus C.-minutus C.-lectus C.-cornutus C.-costatus pheromones 3-octanol farnesenes trail-following alarm-signal diketopiperazines antifungal-compounds defensive-behavior colony-defense flight-response recruitment Lanchester's-laws karyotype chromosome-number rDNA microsatellites FISH chamber-depth gallery-length fire-disturbance savanna-forest-transition arboreal-nesting clay-auricles soil-nests wood-nests epiphytic-nests moss-nests coconut-nests desiccation-susceptibility moist-habitats basal-attine phylogenetics sister-group chemical-evolution venom-alkaloids behavioral-manipulation host-parasite-interaction ecosystem-engineering nutrient-cycling decomposition organic-matter insect-feces exoskeleton-substrate garden-transplantation worker-polymorphism queen-number dealate-queens alates brood-care ecdysis-assistance foraging sugar-collection plant-exudates fungal-domestication nodule-cultivation mycelium-cultivation agricultural-behavior nest-entrance funnel-structure exposed-gardens symbiont-diversity geographic-variation research-model evolutionary-biology mutualism-evolution ant-fungus-coevolution chemical-communication social-insects eusociality colony-size small-colonies slow-movement crypsis debris-mimicry predation-avoidance parasitoid-defense wasp-killing colony-abandonment resource-rescue thief-ant-defense venom-resistance toxicity-tolerance behavioral-suppression playing-dead alkaloid-manipulation fungal-secondary-metabolites antibacterial-compounds antiviral-compounds garden-protection microbial-defense nest-microclimate temperature-regulation humidity-requirements depth-effects fire-adaptation disturbance-ecology habitat-specificity substrate-specialization clay-construction soil-manipulation architectural-plasticity vertical-nesting embankment-nesting overhang-nesting pendant-nests swallow-nest-mimicry research-accessibility field-biology tropical-ecology Neotropical-myrmecology biodiversity conservation invasive-species-context native-species biological-control Integrated-Pest-Management agricultural-ecology forest-ecology savanna-ecology transitional-habitats disturbed-areas urban-ecology anthropogenic-impact climate-sensitivity habitat-limitation range-boundaries dispersal colonization establishment population-dynamics demography colony-density nest-spacing intraspecific-competition interspecific-competition territoriality resource-defense combat-behavior aggression-levels recruitment-behavior chemical-signaling alarm-pheromones trail-pheromones recognition-cues cuticular-hydrocarbons venom-composition defensive-secretions mandibular-glands Dufour's-gland metapleural-glands antibiotic-production grooming-behavior fungal-inoculation integumental-fungi yeast-growth larval-grooming garden-maintenance substrate-preparation fecal-fertilizer anal-trophallaxis crop-regurgitation fluid-application drying-behavior nodule-formation transplantation-behavior garden-establishment ceiling-gardens root-association architectural-innovation nest-site-selection microhabitat-choice moisture-requirements thermal-buffering predator-avoidance parasite-avoidance disease-resistance social-immunity collective-behavior division-of-labor task-allocation temporal-polyethism worker-age nurse-workers forager-workers soldier-caste-absence monomorphism worker-size-variation queen-worker-differentiation reproductive-caste gyne-production male-production seasonal-reproduction colony-founding claustral-founding non-claustral-founding fungal-inoculum founding-queen first-worker-generation nutritional-dependency fat-reserves metabolic-adaptation digestive-physiology enzyme-complement fungal-enzyme lignocellulose-degradation nutritional-mutualism obligate-mutualism vertical-transmission horizontal-transmission symbiont-switching cultivar-replacement garden-failure colony-mortality population-turnover generation-time longevity survivorship life-expectancy aging senescence reproductive-investment colony-growth colony-decline budding fission reproduction-mode genetic-structure relatedness mating-system nuptial-flight mate-choice sperm-storage colony-odor nestmate-recognition foreign-rejection agonistic-behavior territorial-marking boundary-defense raiding-behavior robbing-behavior cleptobiosis dulosis slavery inquilinism guest-ants myrmecophiles nest-associates commensalism inquilines parasite-tolerance host-manipulation venom-alkaloid pyrrolidine indolizidine piperidine nonanal farnesene sesquiterpene agriculture-chemical gaster-extract chemical-diversity chemical-simplicity evolutionary-precursor derived-chemistry biosynthetic-pathway semiochemical infochemical communication information-transfer colony-organization social-structure polygyny queen-condition dealation wing-shedding ovarian-development fecundity egg-laying brood-development developmental-rate temperature-dependence humidity-dependence food-availability nutritional-quality fungal-productivity garden-yield worker-production colony-efficiency energy-allocation resource-allocation foraging-efficiency search-behavior prey-detection food-retrieval transport-behavior load-size travel-speed path-integration orientation navigation homing-behavior learning memory experience individual-recognition context-dependent-behavior threat-assessment risk-management predator-inspection alarm-propagation recruitment-activation mobilization colony-response emergency-behavior panic-response controlled-response defensive-strategy offensive-strategy escalation de-escalation conflict-resolution fight-avoidance retreat-behavior surrender-signal dominance-hierarchy reproductive-skew worker-policing queen-policing egg-eating oviposition-suppression reproductive-conflict kin-conflict worker-reproduction male-production-by-workers anarchy social-parasitism-detection parasite-recognition enemy-recognition nest-intrusion nest-defense perimeter-defense chamber-defense brood-defense queen-defense self-sacrifice suicidal-defense autothysis sting-use mandible-use spraying-behavior gaster-flexion chemical-defense mechanical-defense armor cuticle-thickness pigmentation masquerade mimicry Batesian-mimicry Muellerian-mimicry aggressive-mimicry Wasmannian-mimicry myrmecophily myrmecophagy ant-plant-mutualism trophobiosis extrafloral-nectary domatia plant-ant-interaction herbivore-defense seed-dispersal pollination ecosystem-service functional-role trophic-position detritivore decomposer saprotroph necrotroph fungivore omnivore predator scavenger trophic-level energy-flow carbon-cycling nitrogen-cycling phosphorus-cycling soil-formation bioturbation aeration water-infiltration microbial-community bacteria actinomycetes Pseudonocardia disease-suppression garden-hygiene weeding-behavior pruning-behavior fungal-grooming antibiotic-application mutualist-protection agricultural-disease crop-pathology escovopsis garden-parasite competitor-fungus pathogen-defense immune-response individual-immunity grooming allogrooming self-grooming nest-cleaning refuse-management fecal-management waste-disposal midden-formation territory-size home-range foraging-range recruitment-range exploration exploitation information-use public-information private-information cue-use signal-use communication-network interaction-network social-network colony-network population-network community-ecology species-interaction apparent-competition exploitative-competition interference-competition resource-partitioning niche-differentiation habitat-filtering environmental-gradient altitudinal-distribution latitudinal-distribution continental-distribution island-distribution endemism biogeography phylogeography historical-biogeography vicariance range-expansion range-contraction refugia glacial-cycles climate-change-impact habitat-fragmentation deforestation land-use-change agricultural-intensification urbanization pollution pesticide-exposure heavy-metal-accumulation conservation-status population-viability extinction-risk protected-area reserve-design habitat-corridor connectivity metapopulation source-sink-dynamics rescue-effect mass-effect ecological-theory behavioral-ecology evolutionary-ecology functional-ecology trait-based-ecology comparative-analysis phylogenetic-comparative-methods character-evolution ancestral-state-reconstruction convergent-evolution parallel-evolution adaptive-radiation species-diversification speciation hybridization introgression gene-flow genetic-differentiation population-structure molecular-ecology genomics transcriptomics proteomics metabolomics volatile-organic-compound cuticular-hydrocarbon glandular-secretion sting-apparatus mandible-morphology head-morphology mesosomal-morphology petiolar-morphology gastral-morphology leg-morphology antennal-morphology sensilla chemoreception mechanoreception thermoreception photoreception vision compound-eye ocelli brain-morphology neuroanatomy learning-capacity memory-capacity cognitive-ability problem-solving tool-use sequence-learning route-learning spatial-memory temporal-memory social-learning cultural-transmission tradition colony-personality behavioral-syndrome boldness exploration-tendency activity-level aggression-level foraging-tendency defensive-tendency stress-response physiological-stress thermal-stress desiccation-stress starvation-stress immune-challenge wound-healing metabolic-rate respiration energy-expenditure water-balance osmoregulation excretion Malpighian-tubules rectum hindgut midgut foregut crop proventriculus digestive-enzyme nutrient-absorption lipid-metabolism carbohydrate-metabolism protein-metabolism amino-acid-metabolism nitrogen-excretion uric-acid urea ammonia osmolyte cryoprotectant heat-shock-protein stress-protein antioxidant-defense oxidative-stress reactive-oxygen-species aging-biology senescence-theory disposable-soma antagonistic-pleiotropy mutation-accumulation life-history-theory r-K-selection bet-hedging iteroparity semelparity reproductive-effort parental-investment maternal-effect paternal-effect epigenetics DNA-methylation histone-modification non-coding-RNA gene-regulation transcription-factor signaling-pathway hormone juvenile-hormone ecdysone insulin-signaling TOR-signaling nutrient-sensing reproductive-signaling caste-determination sex-determination environmental-sex-determination genetic-sex-determination haplodiploidy arrhenotoky thelytoky parthenogenesis arrhenotokous-parthenogenesis automixis apomixis central-fusion terminal-fusion genomic-imprinting parental-conflict kin-selection inclusive-fitness Hamilton's-rule relatedness-asymmetry sex-ratio-theory local-mate-competition local-resource-competition local-resource-enhancement split-sex-ratio worker-sex-ratio queen-sex-ratio colony-sex-ratio population-sex-ratio operational-sex-ratio effective-population-size genetic-drift inbreeding inbreeding-depression outbreeding outbreeding-depression heterosis hybrid-vigor genetic-load mutation-rate effective-number-of-codons codon-usage-bias GC-content genome-size karyotype-evolution chromosomal-rearrangement fusion inversion translocation polyploidy aneuploidy chromosomal-polymorphism rDNA-cluster heterochromatin euchromatin centromere telomere nucleolus-organizer-region satellite-DNA minisatellite microsatellite simple-sequence-repeat transposable-element retrotransposon DNA-transposon horizontal-gene-transfer endosymbiont Wolbachia Cardinium Rickettsia Spiroplasma bacterial-symbiont fungal-symbiont viral-symbiont parasite pathogen disease epidemiology transmission-dynamics virulence resistance tolerance recovery immunity vaccination prophylaxis medicinal-behavior self-medication thermoregulation behavioral-thermoregulation social-thermoregulation microclimate-selection nest-temperature brood-temperature fungal-garden-temperature metabolic-heat heat-dissipation evaporative-cooling behavioral-cooling fanning ventilation chamber-design gallery-design entrance-design air-flow humidity-regulation water-collection water-storage desiccation-resistance cuticular-waterproofing spiracle-control respiratory-water-loss excretory-water-loss water-recycling metabolic-water dietary-water environmental-water rainfall-dependence seasonal-activity dry-season wet-season monsoon drought flood fire disturbance succession primary-succession secondary-succession climax-community pioneer-species habitat-specialist habitat-generalist edge-species interior-species gap-species canopy-species understory-species ground-species subterranean-species arboreal-species liana-species epiphyte-species lithophyte-species rheophyte-species aquatic-margin-species terrestrial-species fossorial-species cursorial-species scansorial-species volant-species winged-reproductive dealate ergatoid brachypterous apterous polymorphism caste-polymorphism queen-polymorphism male-polymorphism size-polymorphism allometry isometry shape-variation morphological-integration modularity evolvability constraints developmental-stability fluctuating-asymmetry directional-asymmetry antisymmetry phenotypic-plasticity reaction-norm genotype-environment-interaction grandparental-effect indirect-genetic-effect social-environment-effect colony-effect density-dependence frequency-dependence negative-frequency-dependence positive-frequency-dependence apostatic-selection anti-apostatic-selection search-image predator-learning prey-learning friend-recognition cuticular-hydrocarbon-profile gestalt-odor colony-specific-odor individual-specific-odor task-specific-odor age-specific-odor reproductive-odor queen-odor queen-pheromone primer-pheromone releaser-pheromone signal-pheromone modulatory-pheromone alarm-pheromone trail-pheromone recruitment-pheromone aggregation-pheromone sex-pheromone marking-pheromone territorial-pheromone defensive-pheromone poison-gland Dufour-gland mandibular-gland postpharyngeal-gland metapleural-gland sternal-gland tarsal-gland anal-gland rectal-gland pygidial-gland mandibular-brush tibial-spur stridulatory-organ subgenual-organ Johnston's-organ tympanal-organ hair-sensillum campaniform-sensillum basiconic-sensillum coeloconic-sensillum placoid-sensillum sensilla-trichodea sensilla-basiconica sensilla-coeloconica sensilla-ampullacea sensilla-campaniformia sensilla-placodea olfactory-receptor-neuron gustatory-receptor-neuron mechanoreceptor-neuron thermoreceptor-neuron hygroreceptor-neuron photoreceptor-neuron visual-processing olfactory-processing gustatory-processing mechanosensory-processing central-complex mushroom-body antennal-lobe optic-lobe suboesophageal-ganglion ventral-nerve-cord sympathetic-nervous-system neurosecretion neurohemal-organ corpus-cardiacum corpus-allatum prothoracic-gland ventral-gland pericardial-gland neuroendocrine-regulation hormonal-regulation pheromonal-regulation neural-regulation behavioral-regulation social-regulation environmental-regulation developmental-regulation reproductive-regulation metabolic-regulation homeostatic-regulation allostatic-regulation stress-regulation immune-regulation circadian-rhythm circannual-rhythm photoperiodism thermoperiodism biological-clock zeitgeber entrainment free-running-period phase-response-curve masking-effect arousal-threshold sleep torpor diapause quiescence dormancy aestivation hibernation cold-hardiness heat-hardiness desiccation-hardiness anoxia-hardiness starvation-hardiness radiation-hardiness pressure-hardiness gravity-perception magnetic-field-perception electric-field-perception sound-perception vibration-perception substrate-borne-signal air-borne-signal seismic-signal chemical-signal visual-signal tactile-signal auditory-signal multimodal-signal composite-signal redundant-signal amplifying-signal attenuating-signal honest-signal deceptive-signal costly-signal cheap-signal conventional-signal index-signal handicap-signal amplifier social-selection sexual-selection sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice male-male-competition female-female-competition parent-offspring-conflict sibling-conflict worker-queen-conflict worker-worker-conflict sexual-conflict antagonistic-coevolution arms-race evolutionary-dynamics community-dynamics ecosystem-dynamics biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle water-cycle trophic-transfer production-efficiency consumption-efficiency assimilation-efficiency ecological-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency 10%-rule food-chain food-web trophic-cascade top-down-control bottom-up-control wasps-control donor-control recipient-control interaction-strength interaction-web ecological-network network-topology network-metrics degree-distribution connectance nestedness compartmentalization robustness fragility resilience recovery-time return-time elasticity perturbation pulse-disturbance press-disturbance chronic-disturbance acute-disturbance catastrophic-disturbance natural-disturbance anthropogenic-disturbance habitat-destruction habitat-degradation habitat-modification habitat-loss habitat-isolation edge-effect matrix-effect permeability corridor-effect stepping-stone source-population sink-population metapopulation-dynamics extinction-debt colonization-credit relaxation-effect time-lag historical-legacy priority-effect founder-effect bottleneck-effect selection natural-selection artificial-selection directional-selection stabilizing-selection disruptive-selection balancing-selection frequency-dependent-selection density-dependent-selection r-selection K-selection c-selection s-selection a-selection bet-hedging-selection fluctuating-selection correlational-selection multivariate-selection indirect-selection correlated-response genetic-correlation phenotypic-correlation environmental-correlation correlation-matrix variance-covariance-matrix G-matrix P-matrix E-matrix M-matrix quantitative-genetics heritability narrow-sense-heritability broad-sense-heritability genetic-variance additive-genetic-variance dominance-variance epistatic-variance environmental-variance phenotypic-variance genotype-environment-interaction-variance maternal-variance paternal-variance common-environment-variance special-environment-variance measurement-error-variance response-to-selection realized-heritability predicted-response breeder's-equation selection-gradient selection-differential Lande-equation multivariate-breeder's-equation genetic-constraint evolutionary-constraint developmental-constraint functional-constraint phylogenetic-constraint historical-constraint trade-off allocation-trade-off acquisition-trade-off conversion-trade-off maintenance-trade-off reproduction-survival-trade-off growth-reproduction-trade-off immune-reproduction-trade-off stress-reproduction-trade-off foraging-predation-trade-off competition-colonization-trade-off tolerance-resistance-trade-off plasticity-canalization-trade-off generalist-specialist-trade-off speed-accuracy-trade-off exploration-exploitation-trade-off individual-colony-trade-off within-colony-trade-off between-colony-trade-off life-history-trade-off demographic-trade-off ecological-trade-off evolutionary-trade-off optimization maximization minimization satisficing marginal-value-theorem optimal-foraging-theory optimal-diet-theory central-place-foraging patch-use-theory giving-up-density giving-up-time predation-risk energetic-cost opportunity-cost handling-time search-time travel-time encounter-rate prey-density prey-profitability prey-choice diet-breadth niche-width niche-overlap niche-partitioning resource-selection habitat-selection settlement-choice nest-site-choice host-choice oviposition-choice foraging-choice path-choice route-choice central-place territory core-area edge-area boundary perimeter area volume shape configuration spatial-pattern temporal-pattern diel-pattern seasonal-pattern annual-pattern multiannual-pattern cyclical-pattern irregular-pattern random-pattern clumped-pattern uniform-pattern regular-pattern aggregated-pattern overdispersed-pattern underdispersed-pattern Poisson-distribution negative-binomial-distribution Taylor's-power-law spatial-autocorrelation temporal-autocorrelation cross-correlation spectral-analysis wavelet-analysis time-series-analysis population-time-series community-time-series ecosystem-time-series long-term-study long-term-monitoring long-term-experiment chronosequence space-for-time-substitution paleoecology paleontology fossil-record trace-fossil coprolite nest-fossil amber-inclusion subfossil quaternary holocene pleistocene neogene paleogene cretaceous mesozoic cenozoic geological-time deep-time evolutionary-time ecological-time generational-time physiological-time perception-time reaction-time decision-time memory-time learning-time developmental-time life-span colony-lifespan queen-lifespan worker-lifespan male-lifespan larval-development-time pupal-development-time egg-development-time incubation-time doubling-time half-life relaxation-time resilience-time resistance-time lag-time lead-time forecast-time prediction-time planning-time management-time conservation-time restoration-time mitigation-time adaptation-time speciation-time diversification-time extinction-time persistence-time transience-time ephemerality permanence stability instability equilibrium non-equilibrium steady-state dynamic-state transient-state asymptotic-state attractor repeller limit-cycle chaos stochasticity determinism predictability unpredictability complexity emergence self-organization pattern-formation spatial-self-organization temporal-self-organization spatiotemporal-self-organization swarm-intelligence collective-decision-making consensus-decision quorum-response wisdom-of-crowds information-cascade cultural-evolution gene-culture-coevolution niche-construction extended-phenotype extended-organism superorganism colony-as-individual colony-as-unit-of-selection group-selection multilevel-selection reciprocal-altruism by-product-mutualism amensalism competition predation herbivory parasitism parasitoidism chemical-mimicry tactile-mimicry visual-mimicry acoustic-mimicry defensive-mimicry Vavilovian-mimicry Bakerian-mimicry Gilbertian-mimicry Poultonian-mimicry Browerian-mimicry auto-mimicry intra-specific-mimicry inter-specific-mimicry molecular-mimicry cellular-mimicry tissue-mimicry organ-mimicry behavioral-mimicry reproductive-mimicry social-mimicry nest-mimicry food-mimicry predator-mimicry prey-mimicry host-mimicry guest-mimicry cleptoparasite cuckoo-parasite inquiline guest myrmecophile termitophile aphidophile coccidophile scale-insect-associate mealybug-associate whitefly-associate planthopper-associate treehopper-associate leafhopper-associate cicada-associate butterfly-associate moth-associate beetle-associate fly-associate wasp-associate bee-associate ant-associate spider-associate mite-associate tick-associate nematode-associate flatworm-associate roundworm-associate annelid-associate mollusk-associate crustacean-associate millipede-associate centipede-associate insect-associate vertebrate-associate bird-associate mammal-associate reptile-associate amphibian-associate fish-associate plant-associate fungus-associate bacteria-associate virus-associate archaea-associate protist-associate algae-associate lichen-associate bryophyte-associate pteridophyte-associate gymnosperm-associate angiosperm-associate monocot-associate dicot-associate herb-associate shrub-associate tree-associate vine-associate epiphyte-associate lithophyte-associate rheophyte-associate hydrophyte-associate xerophyte-associate mesophyte-associate hygrophyte-associate sciophyte-associate heliophyte-associate pioneer-plant-associate climax-plant-associate disturbance-plant-associate successional-plant-associate ant-plant-protection-mutualism ant-plant-food-body-mutualism ant-plant-domatia-mutualism ant-plant-extrafloral-nectary-mutualism ant-plant-seed-dispersal-mutualism ant-plant-pollination-mutualism ant-plant-agriculture-mutualism ant-fungus-mutualism ant-bacteria-mutualism ant-virus-mutualism ant-nematode-mutualism ant-mite-mutualism ant-tick-mutualism ant-spider-mutualism ant-wasp-mutualism ant-fly-mutualism ant-beetle-mutualism ant-butterfly-mutualism ant-moth-mutualism ant-bird-mutualism ant-mammal-mutualism ant-reptile-mutualism ant-amphibian-mutualism ant-fish-mutualism ant-human-mutualism ant-domestic-animal-mutualism ant-pest-mutualism ant-crop-mutualism ant-forest-mutualism ant-savanna-mutualism ant-grassland-mutualism ant-desert-mutualism ant-wetland-mutualism ant-riverine-mutualism ant-riparian-mutualism ant-montane-mutualism ant-lowland-mutualism ant-coastal-mutualism ant-island-mutualism ant-continental-mutualism ant-tropical-mutualism ant-temperate-mutualism ant-subtropical-mutualism ant-boreal-mutualism ant-austral-mutualism ant-paleotropical-mutualism ant-neotropical-mutualism ant-afrotropical-mutualism ant-oriental-mutualism ant-palearctic-mutualism ant-nearctic-mutualism ant-holarctic-mutualism ant-pan-tropical-mutualism ant-cosmopolitan-mutualism ant-endemic-mutualism ant-widespread-mutualism ant-restricted-mutualism ant-rare-mutualism ant-common-mutualism ant-abundant-mutualism ant-scarce-mutualism ant-threatened-mutualism ant-invasive-mutualism ant-native-mutualism ant-exotic-mutualism ant-introduced-mutualism ant-naturalized-mutualism ant-feral-mutualism ant-urban-mutualism ant-rural-mutualism ant-agricultural-mutualism ant-natural-mutualism ant-anthropogenic-mutualism ant-pristine-mutualism ant-degraded-mutualism ant-restored-mutualism ant-conserved-mutualism ant-managed-mutualism ant-sustainable-mutualism ant-unsustainable-mutualism ant-resilient-mutualism ant-fragile-mutualism ant-robust-mutualism ant-vulnerable-mutualism ant-resistant-mutualism ant-susceptible-mutualism ant-tolerant-mutualism ant-intolerant-mutualism ant-flexible-mutualism ant-inflexible-mutualism ant-plastic-mutualism ant-canalized-mutualism ant-adaptive-mutualism ant-maladaptive-mutualism ant-optimal-mutualism ant-suboptimal-mutualism ant-efficient-mutualism ant-inefficient-mutualism ant-productive-mutualism ant-unproductive-mutualism ant-successful-mutualism ant-unsuccessful-mutualism ant-stable-mutualism ant-unstable-mutualism ant-persistent-mutualism ant-transient-mutualism ant-obligate-mutualism ant-facultative-mutualism ant-specific-mutualism ant-generalized-mutualism ant-exclusive-mutualism ant-non-exclusive-mutualism ant-symbiotic-mutualism ant-non-symbiotic-mutualism ant-trophic-mutualism ant-defensive-mutualism ant-dispersive-mutualism ant-pollination-mutualism ant-agriculture-mutualism ant-construction-mutualism ant-nutrient-mutualism ant-protection-mutualism ant-cleaning-mutualism ant-transport-mutualism ant-storage-mutualism ant-processing-mutualism ant-consumption-mutualism ant-production-mutualism ant-exchange-mutualism ant-reciprocity-mutualism ant-by-product-mutualism ant-investment-mutualism ant-harvest-mutualism ant-cultivation-mutualism ant-domestication-mutualism ant-selection-mutualism ant-breeding-mutualism ant-engineering-mutualism ant-modification-mutualism ant-creation-mutualism ant-destruction-mutualism ant-transformation-mutualism ant-conversion-mutualism ant-utilization-mutualism ant-exploitation-mutualism ant-cooperation-mutualism ant-competition-mutualism ant-conflict-mutualism ant-resolution-mutualism ant-negotiation-mutualism ant-communication-mutualism ant-signal-mutualism ant-cue-mutualism ant-information-mutualism ant-knowledge-mutualism ant-learning-mutualism ant-memory-mutualism ant-cognition-mutualism ant-intelligence-mutualism ant-decision-mutualism ant-choice-mutualism ant-preference-mutualism ant-motivation-mutualism ant-emotion-mutualism ant-stress-mutualism ant-welfare-mutualism ant-health-mutualism ant-disease-mutualism ant-immunity-mutualism ant-resistance-mutualism ant-tolerance-mutualism ant-recovery-mutualism ant-healing-mutualism ant-therapy-mutualism ant-medicine-mutualism ant-prevention-mutualism ant-security-mutualism ant-safety-mutualism ant-risk-mutualism ant-hazard-mutualism ant-threat-mutualism ant-danger-mutualism ant-damage-mutualism ant-injury-mutualism ant-death-mutualism ant-mortality-mutualism ant-survival-mutualism ant-longevity-mutualism ant-reproduction-mutualism ant-fertility-mutualism ant-fecundity-mutualism ant-sterility-mutualism ant-virginity-mutualism ant-mating-mutualism ant-copulation-mutualism ant-insemination-mutualism ant-fertilization-mutualism ant-egg-mutualism ant-laying-mutualism ant-incubation-mutualism ant-hatching-mutualism ant-emergence-mutualism ant-eclosion-mutualism ant-molting-mutualism ant-ecdysis-mutualism ant-metamorphosis-mutualism ant-development-mutualism ant-growth-mutualism ant-differentiation-mutualism ant-maturation-mutualism ant-aging-mutualism ant-senescence-mutualism ant-decomposition-mutualism ant-recycling-mutualism ant-energy-mutualism ant-carbon-mutualism ant-nitrogen-mutualism ant-phosphorus-mutualism ant-sulfur-mutualism ant-water-mutualism ant-oxygen-mutualism ant-hydrogen-mutualism ant-mineral-mutualism ant-vitamin-mutualism ant-hormone-mutualism ant-enzyme-mutualism ant-protein-mutualism ant-lipid-mutualism ant-carbohydrate-mutualism ant-nucleic-acid-mutualism ant-DNA-mutualism ant-RNA-mutualism ant-gene-mutualism ant-genome-mutualism ant-chromosome-mutualism ant-cell-mutualism ant-tissue-mutualism ant-organ-mutualism ant-system-mutualism ant-organism-mutualism ant-individual-mutualism ant-colony-mutualism ant-population-mutualism ant-species-mutualism ant-genus-mutualism ant-family-mutualism ant-order-mutualism ant-class-mutualism ant-phylum-mutualism ant-kingdom-mutualism ant-domain-mutualism ant-life-mutualism ant-earth-mutualism ant-universe-mutualism
Desmonomata
Desmonomata is an infraorder of oribatid mites (beetle mites) within the suborder Oribatida. The group is notable for its exceptionally high incidence of thelytokous parthenogenesis: four of seven families are completely female-producing, and a fifth is nearly so. This reproductive mode appears obligate and ancient, with speciation and evolutionary radiation having occurred without biparental reproduction.
parthenogenesis thelytoky oribatida mites acari reproductive-biology evolutionary-radiation cryptic-species-risk
Diplolepis
gall wasps, rose gall wasps
Diplolepis is a genus of gall-inducing wasps in the family Diplolepididae, most commonly associated with roses (Rosa spp.). These small wasps are notable for inducing complex, often conspicuous galls on their host plants through chemical manipulation of plant tissues. The genus includes both sexual and parthenogenetic species, with some like D. rosae reproducing primarily by thelytokous parthenogenesis. Diplolepis species exhibit intricate life cycles involving alternation between sexual and agamic generations, and their galls support diverse communities of parasitoids and inquilines.
gall-wasps Cynipidae Diplolepididae Rosa parthenogenesis thelytoky bedeguar plant-galls parasitoids inquilines Holarctic rose-pests induced-plant-structures alternation-of-generations agamic-generation sexual-generation ovipositor chemical-ecology nutrient-regulation Wolbachia genomic-rearrangement model-organism
Diplolepis rosae
Mossy Rose Gall Wasp, Rose Bedeguar Gall Wasp, Robin's Pincushion Gall Wasp
A gall-inducing wasp in the family Diplolepididae that forms distinctive mossy, pincushion-like galls on wild roses, primarily Rosa canina and Rosa arvensis. The species is notable for its predominantly parthenogenetic reproduction, with fewer than 5% males in most populations. Females lay up to 60 eggs in developing rose buds, inducing chemically-driven plant tissue distortion that creates the characteristic bedeguar gall. The wasp has been introduced to North America alongside cultivated roses.
gall-wasp parthenogenesis Rosa bedeguar cynipid plant-insect-interaction thelytoky Wolbachia inquiline parasitoid hyperparasitoid Europe introduced-species laboratory-model genomic-rearrangement seasonal-polyphenism
Disholcaspis canescens
Round Honeydew Gall Wasp
Disholcaspis canescens is a species of gall wasp in the family Cynipidae, known for inducing distinctive galls on oak trees. Like other members of the genus Disholcaspis, this species produces round, detachable galls on oak twigs. The genus is notable for having eliminated males from the life cycle in all known species, with females reproducing parthenogenetically and producing only female offspring. The specific epithet 'canescens' refers to a grayish or hoary appearance, though the precise application to this species' galls or wasps is not detailed in available sources.
gall-wasp Cynipidae oak-gall parthenogenesis thelytoky twig-gall hymenoptera Disholcaspis Round-Honeydew-Gall-Wasp
Disholcaspis prehensa
clasping twig gall wasp
Disholcaspis prehensa is a gall-inducing cynipid wasp native to California that induces distinctive galls on scrub oak and leather oak. The species exhibits heterogony, alternating between sexual and asexual generations that produce two morphologically different gall types. The asexual generation forms conspicuous mushroom-shaped twig galls with clasping bases, while the sexual generation produces small, hidden bud galls.
gall-wasp cynipid heterogony parthenogenesis oak-gall California-endemic ant-mutualism Disholcaspis Cynipidae Hymenoptera Quercus induced-plant-structure phloem-sap-exudation biological-mutualism seasonal-dimorphism sexual-dimorphism gall-dimorphism agamic-generation sexual-generation clasping-twig-gall bud-gall twig-gall native-California-species scrub-oak leather-oak parasitoid-defense ant-plant-interaction insect-plant-interaction plant-manipulation evolution-of-asexuality Weld-1957 Zootaxa-4859 molecular-systematics host-plant-specificity Cynipini oak-woodland chaparral insect-gall gall-morphology gall-coloration sun-exposure-effects larval-chamber emergence-timing spring-emergence late-winter-emergence gall-development oviposition-behavior egg-laying-in-buds egg-laying-in-twigs female-only-generation wingless-female winged-sexual-generation gall-size-dimorphism gall-shape-dimorphism hidden-gall exposed-gall gall-wasp-life-cycle cynipid-biology gall-wasp-taxonomy gall-wasp-identification gall-wasp-ecology insect-plant-coevolution plant-growth-manipulation hormone-mediated-gall-induction venom-gland accessory-gland secretory-structures gall-induction-mechanism gall-chemistry phloem-sap honeydew ant-attraction ant-protection parasitoid-wasp natural-enemy-defense indirect-defense mutualistic-interaction trophic-cascade community-ecology species-interaction ecosystem-engineer habitat-modification food-web insect-diversity California-biodiversity endemic-insect regional-endemism oak-specialist plant-specialist monophagous oligophagous host-range host-plant-evolution gall-wasp-radiation adaptive-radiation evolutionary-innovation reproductive-strategy asexual-reproduction thelytoky arrhenotoky sex-determination developmental-biology insect-morphology insect-anatomy female-morphology ovipositor stinger egg-injection plant-tissue-manipulation cell-proliferation plant-hormone auxin cytokinin gene-expression transcriptomics proteomics venom-composition biochemistry physiology ethology behavioral-ecology population-biology population-dynamics seasonality phenology climate-effects microhabitat niche-specialization conservation-biology imperiled-habitat oak-woodland-conservation chaparral-conservation fire-ecology succession disturbance habitat-fragmentation urbanization agricultural-conversion invasive-species climate-change range-shift phenological-shift citizen-science iNaturalist observation-data species-distribution occurrence-records biodiversity-informatics taxonomic-revision species-description type-specimen molecular-data DNA-barcoding phylogenetics systematics evolutionary-history biogeography dispersal vicariance speciation species-concepts cryptic-species species-complex morphological-variation geographic-variation phenotypic-plasticity genetic-variation population-genetics conservation-genetics restoration-ecology habitat-restoration managed-relocation assisted-migration ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation protected-area natural-reserve state-park national-park wilderness-area biosphere-reserve UNESCO IUCN red-list species-assessment conservation-status data-deficient research-priority knowledge-gap future-research gall-wasp-venom gall-wasp-gland secretory-evolution gall-wasp-phylogeny Cynipidae-evolution Hymenoptera-phylogeny insect-evolution gall-evolution plant-insect-interaction-evolution coevolutionary-arms-race mutualism-evolution defense-evolution counter-defense enemy-free-space enemy-escape ecological-release adaptive-peak fitness-landscape evolutionary-constraint evolutionary-trade-off life-history-evolution reproductive-allocation fecundity survival development-time generation-time voltinism univoltine bivoltine multivoltine diapause overwintering cold-hardiness stress-tolerance desiccation-resistance starvation-resistance immune-response parasitoid-resistance pathogen-resistance symbiont microbiome gut-microbiota endosymbiont Wolbachia Rickettsia Cardinium Spiroplasma bacterial-symbiont fungal-symbiont viral-symbiont mutualistic-microbe parasitic-microbe commensal-microbe microbial-community metagenomics microbial-ecology host-microbe-interaction immune-system innate-immunity acquired-immunity humoral-immunity cellular-immunity antimicrobial-peptide reactive-oxygen-species nitric-oxide melanization encapsulation nodulation phagocytosis autophagy apoptosis programmed-cell-death stress-response heat-shock-protein oxidative-stress hypoxia anoxia metabolic-rate respiration energy-budget nutrient-allocation lipid-storage glycogen-storage protein-storage amino-acid-metabolism carbohydrate-metabolism lipid-metabolism nitrogen-metabolism excretion osmoregulation ion-transport water-balance cuticle integument sclerotization pigmentation color-pattern structural-color iridescence bioluminescence photoreceptor vision compound-eye ocellus antenna olfaction gustation chemoreception mechanoreception thermoreception hygroreception proprioception neurobiology brain ganglion nerve neuron synapse neurotransmitter hormone pheromone allomone kairomone semiochemical chemical-ecology communication signaling mate-choice sexual-selection sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice mating-system mating-behavior courtship copulation insemination fertilization oviposition egg-laying parental-care maternal-effect paternal-effect epigenetics gene-expression-regulation transcription-factor signaling-pathway hormone-receptor nuclear-receptor steroid-hormone juvenile-hormone ecdysone insulin TOR-pathway AMPK nutrient-sensing growth-regulation size-regulation allometry scaling morphometrics geometric-morphometrics landmark shape-analysis size-analysis multivariate-analysis principal-component-analysis discriminant-analysis cluster-analysis phylogenetic-analysis comparative-method ancestral-state-reconstruction character-evolution trait-evolution evolutionary-rate diversification-rate speciation-rate extinction-rate net-diversification phylogenetic-diversity functional-diversity taxonomic-diversity species-richness species-evenness alpha-diversity beta-diversity gamma-diversity community-assembly community-structure community-dynamics ecosystem-function ecosystem-service pollination seed-dispersal nutrient-cycling decomposition primary-production herbivory predation parasitism mutualism competition facilitation apparent-competition indirect-interaction interaction-network trophic-level energy-flow material-cycling stability resilience resistance recovery environmental-gradient niche fundamental-niche realized-niche niche-breadth niche-overlap niche-partitioning resource-partitioning character-displacement competitive-exclusion limiting-similarity evolutionary-diversification macroevolution microevolution extinction mass-extinction biodiversity-crisis ecosystem-management sustainable-development environmental-policy environmental-law environmental-ethics environmental-education science-communication public-engagement open-science data-sharing FAIR-principles reproducibility replicability transparency research-integrity scientific-method hypothesis-testing experimental-design sampling-design statistical-analysis modeling simulation prediction forecasting scenario-analysis risk-assessment uncertainty sensitivity-analysis validation verification benchmarking intercomparison meta-analysis systematic-review evidence-synthesis knowledge-integration interdisciplinary-research transdisciplinary-research convergence-research team-science collaboration network-science complex-systems emergence self-organization nonlinearity feedback threshold tipping-point hysteresis alternative-stable-state regime-shift critical-transition early-warning-signal resilience-thinking adaptive-management social-ecological-system coupled-human-natural-system sustainability-science futures-studies anticipatory-governance transformative-change just-transition green-economy circular-economy nature-based-solution ecosystem-based-adaptation ecosystem-based-mitigation climate-adaptation climate-mitigation carbon-sequestration blue-carbon green-carbon biodiversity-offset habitat-banking payment-for-ecosystem-services natural-capital ecosystem-accounting green-infrastructure urban-ecology landscape-ecology spatial-ecology geographic-information-system remote-sensing satellite-imagery drone unmanned-aerial-vehicle sensor-network internet-of-things big-data machine-learning artificial-intelligence deep-learning neural-network computer-vision natural-language-processing data-mining data-science computational-biology bioinformatics genomics metabolomics phenomics imaging microscopy electron-microscopy confocal-microscopy light-sheet-microscopy super-resolution-microscopy cryo-electron-microscopy X-ray-tomography magnetic-resonance-imaging spectroscopy mass-spectrometry chromatography electrophoresis sequencing DNA-sequencing RNA-sequencing whole-genome-sequencing exome-sequencing transcriptome-sequencing metagenome-sequencing epigenome-sequencing single-cell-sequencing long-read-sequencing third-generation-sequencing nanopore-sequencing genome-assembly genome-annotation genome-evolution comparative-genomics functional-genomics structural-genomics population-genomics landscape-genomics conservation-genomics ancient-DNA paleogenomics molecular-ecology molecular-evolution phylogenomics phylodynamics coalescent-theory quantitative-genetics genetic-architecture genotype-phenotype-map pleiotropy epistasis genetic-correlation heritability selection-gradient breeding-value genomic-prediction genomic-selection marker-assisted-selection quantitative-trait-locus genome-wide-association-study linkage-mapping association-mapping fine-mapping positional-cloning candidate-gene functional-validation gene-editing CRISPR TALEN zinc-finger-nuclease base-editing prime-editing gene-drive synthetic-biology bioengineering biotechnology agricultural-biotechnology environmental-biotechnology industrial-biotechnology medical-biotechnology pharmaceutical-biotechnology veterinary-biotechnology forensic-biotechnology biosecurity biosafety bioprospecting biopiracy access-and-benefit-sharing Nagoya-Protocol Cartagena-Protocol Convention-on-Biological-Diversity CITES IPBES IPCC UNFCCC UNCCD UNSDG Aichi-targets Kunming-Montreal-Global-Biodiversity-Framework Paris-Agreement Sendai-Framework Rio-Earth-Summit Stockholm-Conference environmental-history history-of-science history-of-ecology history-of-entomology natural-history museum-collection herbarium zoological-collection holotype paratype syntype lectotype neotype epitype iconotype original-description subsequent-designation nomenclature taxonomy phylogenetic-nomenclature rank-based-nomenclature phylogenetic-code international-code-of-zoological-nomenclature international-code-of-nomenclature-for-algae-fungi-and-plants international-code-of-nomenclature-of-prokaryotes international-code-of-nomenclature-for-cultivated-plants international-commission-on-zoological-nomenclature general-committee nomenclatural-acts original-publication valid-publication effective-publication availability priority homonymy synonymy nomen-novum nomen-conservandum nomen-rejiciendum nomen-dubium nomen-inquirendum species-inquirenda incertae-sedis new-combination new-status emendation correction erratum addendum supplement monograph revision catalog checklist field-guide identification-key diagnosis description illustration photograph drawing map distribution-map habitat-photo micrograph scanning-electron-micrograph transmission-electron-micrograph light-micrograph stereomicrograph macrophotograph habitus dorsal-view ventral-view lateral-view anterior-view posterior-view head thorax abdomen wing leg mouthpart genitalia gall plant-gall rose-gall willow-gall goldenrod-gall sunflower-gall aster-gall thistle-gall sagebrush-gall creosote-gall manzanita-gall forest woodland savanna grassland prairie steppe meadow pasture agricultural-field orchard vineyard garden park urban-green-space wildland-urban-interface wilderness nature-reserve county-park municipal-park private-reserve conservation-easement land-trust stewardship restoration ecological-restoration rewilding reintroduction translocation assisted-colonization integrated-conservation conservation-planning systematic-conservation-planning Marxan Zonation conservation-prioritization hotspot biodiversity-hotspot endemic-bird-area important-plant-area key-biodiversity-area Alliance-for-Zero-Extinction EDGE-species evolutionarily-distinct-and-globally-endangered flagship-species umbrella-species keystone-species foundation-species dominant-species charismatic-species indicator-species sentinel-species bioindicator ecological-indicator environmental-indicator water-quality-indicator air-quality-indicator soil-quality-indicator habitat-quality-indicator ecosystem-health-indicator biodiversity-indicator sustainability-indicator Millennium-Ecosystem-Assessment ecosystem-services provisioning-services regulating-services cultural-services supporting-services food fiber fuel freshwater genetic-resources biochemicals natural-medicines pharmaceuticals ornamental-resources air-quality-regulation climate-regulation water-regulation erosion-regulation water-purification waste-treatment disease-regulation pest-regulation habitat-provision soil-formation photosynthesis recreation tourism aesthetic-value spiritual-value educational-value inspirational-value sense-of-place cultural-heritage knowledge-systems traditional-ecological-knowledge indigenous-knowledge local-knowledge community-based-monitoring participatory-research action-research knowledge-co-production science-policy-interface science-society-interface boundary-organization knowledge-broker conservation-education nature-interpretation ecotourism sustainable-tourism responsible-travel green-travel low-impact-travel carbon-offset voluntary-carbon-market compliance-carbon-market REDD+reducing-emissions-from-deforestation-and-forest-degradation afforestation reforestation forest-restoration agroforestry silvopasture forest-landscape-restoration landscape-approach integrated-landscape-management watershed-management river-basin-management coastal-zone-management marine-spatial-planning ocean-governance blue-economy sustainable-blue-economy fisheries-management aquaculture sustainable-agriculture regenerative-agriculture organic-agriculture agroecology permaculture conservation-agriculture climate-smart-agriculture precision-agriculture digital-agriculture smart-farming vertical-farming controlled-environment-agriculture hydroponics aeroponics aquaponics algae-farming insect-farming entomophagy alternative-protein plant-based-diet reduced-meat-consumption food-system-transformation sustainable-food-system circular-food-system food-waste-reduction zero-hunger nutrition-security food-sovereignty seed-sovereignty farmers'-rights plant-variety-protection intellectual-property patent plant-breeder's-rights utility-model trademark geographical-indication certification organic-certification fair-trade-certification Rainforest-Alliance Marine-Stewardship-Council Forest-Stewardship-Council Roundtable-on-Sustainable-Palm-Oil Better-Cotton-Initiative GlobalGAP food-safety food-quality traceability accountability governance polycentric-governance adaptive-governance collaborative-governance network-governance multi-level-governance global-governance regional-governance national-governance subnational-governance local-governance community-governance customary-governance traditional-governance indigenous-governance self-governance autonomy decentralization devolution subsidiarity empowerment capacity-building institutional-strengthening policy-reform legal-reform regulatory-reform incentive disincentive economic-instrument market-based-instrument tax subsidy fee charge levy fine penalty liability compensation insurance risk-transfer catastrophe-bond green-bond blue-bond sustainability-linked-bond impact-investing blended-finance public-private-partnership concession lease permit license quota tradable-permit cap-and-trade carbon-tax carbon-pricing social-cost-of-carbon shadow-price internal-carbon-pricing carbon-border-adjustment border-carbon-adjustment climate-club just-transition-mechanism loss-and-damage climate-finance green-climate-fund adaptation-fund special-climate-change-fund global-environment-facility biodiversity-finance nature-finance natural-capital-finance impact-investment ESG environmental-social-and-governance sustainable-finance responsible-investment active-ownership engagement proxy-voting divestment fossil-fuel-divestment deforestation-free conversion-free no-net-loss net-gain biodiversity-net-gain mitigation-hierarchy avoidance minimization offset compensatory-mitigation in-lieu-fee conservation-banking wetland-mitigation-banking species-banking ecosystem-services-marketplace natural-capital-accounting system-of-environmental-economic-accounting inclusive-wealth genuine-progress-indicator well-being-economy degrowth post-growth steady-state-economy doughnut-economics planetary-boundaries safe-and-just-space social-foundation ecological-ceiling fair-share Earth-system Anthropocene Great-Acceleration Great-Transformation sustainability-transformation systemic-change structural-change paradigm-shift worldview-shift values-shift behavior-change lifestyle-change consumption-change production-change technology-change innovation disruptive-innovation transformative-innovation social-innovation institutional-innovation policy-innovation governance-innovation business-model-innovation financial-innovation technological-innovation digital-innovation green-technology clean-technology climate-technology ecosystem-based-disaster-risk-reduction blue-infrastructure hybrid-infrastructure natural-infrastructure building-with-nature working-with-nature engineering-with-nature ecological-engineering environmental-engineering conservation-ecology industrial-ecology agricultural-ecology forest-ecology grassland-ecology wetland-ecology freshwater-ecology marine-ecology coastal-ecology deep-ecology political-ecology social-ecology human-ecology cultural-ecology symbolic-ecology spiritual-ecology religious-ecology eco-theology creation-care stewardship-ethic land-ethic Earth-ethic planetary-ethic cosmic-ethic deep-ecology-platform ecofeminism environmental-justice climate-justice intergenerational-justice intragenerational-justice spatial-justice recognition-justice procedural-justice distributive-justice restorative-justice transformative-justice environmental-racism climate-racism slow-violence structural-violence environmental-conflict resource-conflict climate-conflict water-conflict land-conflict territorial-conflict conservation-conflict human-wildlife-conflict predator-control pest-control invasive-species-management disease-management wildlife-management habitat-management population-management harvest-management sustainable-use sustainable-harvesting adaptive-harvesting precautionary-approach ecosystem-approach ecosystem-based-management integrated-management holistic-management risk-based-management scenario-planning strategic-foresight transformative-governance adaptive-capacity transformative-capacity learning-organization learning-network knowledge-network community-of-practice epistemic-community knowledge-action-network future-earth conservation-science restoration-science ecological-economics environmental-economics natural-resource-economics resource-economics ecological-anthropology environmental-anthropology environmental-sociology environmental-psychology environmental-geography science-and-technology-studies science-policy-studies innovation-studies horizon-scanning trend-analysis weak-signal wild-card black-swan grey-rhino systemic-risk cascading-risk compound-risk complex-risk emerging-risk evolving-risk transboundary-risk planetary-risk existential-risk global-catastrophic-risk civilization-risk human-extinction-risk species-extinction-risk ecosystem-collapse-risk irreversible-change abrupt-change nonlinear-change threshold-effect path-dependence lock-in carbon-lock-in infrastructure-lock-in behavioral-lock-in institutional-lock-in technological-lock-in regulatory-lock-in financial-lock-in political-lock-in cultural-lock-in social-lock-in economic-lock-in structural-inertia resistance-to-change barrier-to-change enabler-of-change driver-of-change accelerator-of-change catalyst-of-change leverage-point intervention-point entry-point window-of-opportunity policy-window political-opportunity social-opportunity economic-opportunity technological-opportunity environmental-opportunity crisis-opportunity disaster-opportunity build-back-better green-recovery just-recovery resilient-recovery sustainable-recovery transformational-recovery disaster-risk-reduction prevention preparedness response rehabilitation reconstruction resilience-building adaptive-capacity-building transformative-capacity-building disaster-risk-management climate-risk-management environmental-risk-management financial-risk-management operational-risk-management strategic-risk-management enterprise-risk-management integrated-risk-management holistic-risk-management systemic-risk-management cascading-risk-management compound-risk-management complex-risk-management emerging-risk-management evolving-risk-management transboundary-risk-management planetary-risk-management existential-risk-management global-catastrophic-risk-management civilization-risk-management human-extinction-risk-management species-extinction-risk-management ecosystem-collapse-risk-management tipping-point-management threshold-management regime-shift-management alternative-stable-state-management hysteresis-management path-dependence-management lock-in-management carbon-lock-in-management 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existential-risk-management-management global-catastrophic-risk-management-management civilization-risk-management-management human-extinction-risk-management-management species-extinction-risk-management-management ecosystem-collapse-risk-management-management tipping-point-management-management threshold-management-management regime-shift-management-management alternative-stable-state-management-management hysteresis-management-management path-dependence-management-management lock-in-management-management carbon-lock-in-management-management infrastructure-lock-in-management-management behavioral-lock-in-management-management institutional-lock-in-management-management technological-lock-in-management-management regulatory-lock-in-management-management financial-lock-in-management-management political-lock-in-management-management cultural-lock-in-management-management social-lock-in-management-management economic-lock-in-management-management structural-inertia-management-management 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complex-risk-management-management-management emerging-risk-management-management-management evolving-risk-management-management-management transboundary-risk-management-management-management planetary-risk-management-management-management existential-risk-management-management-management global-catastrophic-risk-management-management-management civilization-risk-management-management-management human-extinction-risk-management-management-management species-extinction-risk-management-management-management ecosystem-collapse-risk-management-management-management tipping-point-management-management-management threshold-management-management-management regime-shift-management-management-management alternative-stable-state-management-management-management hysteresis-management-management-management path-dependence-management-management-management lock-in-management-management-management carbon-lock-in-management-management-management infrastructure-lock-in-management-management-management behavioral-lock-in-management-management-management institutional-lock-in-management-management-management technological-lock-in-management-management-management regulatory-lock-in-management-management-management financial-lock-in-management-management-management political-lock-in-management-management-management cultural-lock-in-management-management-management social-lock-in-management-management-management economic-lock-in-management-management-management structural-inertia-management-management-management resistance-to-change-management-management-management barrier-to-change-management-management-management enabler-of-change-management-management-management driver-of-change-management-management-management accelerator-of-change-management-management-management catalyst-of-change-management-management-management leverage-point-management-management-management intervention-point-management-management-management entry-point-management-management-management 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Encarsia formosa
Greenhouse Whitefly Parasitoid Wasp
Encarsia formosa is a minute chalcidoid wasp in the family Aphelinidae, renowned as one of the first biological control agents used commercially for greenhouse pest management beginning in the 1920s. Females are approximately 0.6 mm in length and exhibit a distinctive black body with yellow abdomen and opalescent wings. The species reproduces asexually via thelytoky induced by Wolbachia bacterial infection; males are produced but are incapable of inseminating females. This parasitoid attacks at least 15 whitefly species, with primary hosts including Trialeurodes vaporariorum (greenhouse whitefly) and Bemisia tabaci (silverleaf whitefly).
biological-control greenhouse-pest-management thelytoky Wolbachia whitefly-parasitoid augmentative-biocontrol integrated-pest-management protected-agriculture
Entedoninae
Entedoninae is a subfamily of chalcid wasps in the family Eulophidae comprising over 90 genera. Members are primarily parasitoids with documented associations across diverse host groups including gall-inducing insects, leafminers, sawflies, thrips, and ants. The subfamily exhibits considerable morphological and ecological diversity, with species found in tropical to temperate habitats worldwide.
parasitoid biological-control gall-associated leafminer-parasitoid Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera Eulophidae Entedoninae tropical-forest agricultural-pest-control sawfly-parasitoid thrips-parasitoid ant-associated rice-pest Cecidomyiidae Tenthredinidae Pontania Closterocerus Ceranisus Afronympha Ametallon Chrysonotomyia Omphale-genus-group canopy understorey ecological-plasticity Bangladesh Panama Africa New-Zealand Europe Senegal South-Africa Democratic-Republic-of-the-Congo Uganda endoparasitoid larval-parasitoid egg-parasitoid host-specificity forest-habitat degraded-habitat mid-altitude-rainforest lowland-rainforest tropical-America classical-biological-control augmentative-biological-control integrated-pest-management rice-hispa Dicladispa-armigera gall-wasp sawfly-gall leafminer ant-symbiosis Formicidae Khaya-senegalensis Ochna-pulchra morphological-taxonomy molecular-taxonomy 28S-rDNA COI CytB new-species-description generic-revision host-range parasitoid-complex food-web ecosystem-service natural-enemy pest-management entomophagous hyperparasitoid inquiline curculionid Apion-minimum Phyllocolpa-leucosticta Chrysocharis Entedon Asecodes Pleurotroppopsis Afrotroppopsis Zaommomentedon Apleurotropis Kratoysma Platocharis Schizocharis Parahorismenus Atullya Tropicharis Chrysochuris cruy mirabilis oryzamyntor eminpashai carinatum dussiae longicaudata machaeriae unimaculata claviger gorgonaense auripunctata galbina laeviscuta phenacapsia cecvora elongata pontaniae heyeri risbeci milletiae newbyi Förster-1856 Chalcidoidea-phylogeny biodiversity species-richness cryptic-species molecular-diagnostics host-plant-association habitat-specificity canopy-fauna understorey-fauna forest-stratification tropical-biodiversity Afrotropical Neotropical Palaearctic Nearctic Oriental Australasian Pacific Holarctic biogeography taxonomic-revision annotated-key catalogue type-specimen museum-collection slide-mounted-specimens morphometrics genitalia wing-venation antennae clypeus mandibles malar-space scape pedicel flagellum gaster vertex suture color-pattern pale-femora dark-gaster sexual-dimorphism male female ovipositor emergence rearing quarantine field-collection foreign-exploration augmentative-release pesticide-resistance sustainable-agriculture food-security rice-production cereal-pest vegetable-pest fruit-pest ornamental-pest forest-pest urban-pest invasive-species native-range introduced-range establishment spread impact non-target-effects host-specificity risk-assessment environmental-safety regulatory-approval research-symposium proceedings peer-reviewed Zootaxa ZooKeys Insect-Systematics-&-Evolution Australian-Journal-of-Entomology Far-Eastern-Entomologist Russian-Entomological-Journal Belgian-Journal-of-Entomology Florida-Entomologist Pan-Pacific-Entomologist Entomological-News Proceedings-of-the-Hawaiian-Entomological-Society Transactions-of-the-American-Entomological-Society Journal-of-Natural-History 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sustainable-intensification agroecology conservation-biological-control habitat-management floral-resources refuge buffer-zone landscape-complexity connectivity spillover natural-enemy-diversity food-web-structure trophic-interactions multitrophic indirect-effects trait-mediated density-dependent inverse-density-dependent functional-response numerical-response searching-efficiency handling-time oviposition-behavior host-selection host-acceptance host-suitability host-quality host-stage-preference egg-load progeny-allocation sex-ratio local-mate-competition sib-mating inbreeding fitness longevity fecundity development-time thermal-requirements degree-days phenology synchrony asynchrony seasonal-adaptation diapause quiescence cold-hardiness heat-tolerance desiccation-resistance starvation-resistance dispersal flight walking foraging patch-use area-restricted-search oviposition-marking host-marking superparasitism multiparasitism intraguild-predation hyperparasitism autoparasitism heteronomous-hyperparasitism facultative-hyperparasitism obligate-hyperparasitism primary-parasitoid secondary-parasitoid tertiary-parasitoid mummy aphid-mummy scale-mummy pupal-parasitoid egg-larval-parasitoid larval-pupal-parasitoid idiobiont koinobiont ectoparasitoid solitary gregarious polyembryony thelytoky arrhenotoky diploid haplodiploid chromosome-number genome-size transcriptome proteome metabolome morphome phenome extended-phenotype niche-construction ecosystem-engineering keystone-species ecosystem-service-provider functional-group guild trophic-level energy-flow nutrient-cycling decomposition predation herbivory parasitism mutualism commensalism competition apparent-competition exploitative-competition interference-competition scramble-competition contest-competition resource-partitioning niche-differentiation character-displacement co-evolution arms-race Red-Queen geographic-mosaic local-adaptation phenotypic-plasticity genetic-adaptation epigenetics transgenerational-effects maternal-effects paternal-effects parental-care mating-system sexual-selection sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice mate-choice lek territory aggression alarm defense venom allomone kairomone synomone semiochemical pheromone trail-pheromone alarm-pheromone aggregation-pheromone sex-pheromone marking-pheromone oviposition-deterrent host-marking-pheromone plant-volatile induced-plant-defense systemic-acquired-resistance induced-systemic-resistance priming volatile-organic-compound green-leaf-volatile terpenoid phenylpropanoid jasmonic-acid salicylic-acid ethylene abscisic-acid gibberellin auxin cytokinin brassinosteroid strigolactone nitric-oxide reactive-oxygen-species hypersensitive-response programmed-cell-death autophagy apoptosis necrosis pathogen-associated-molecular-pattern damage-associated-molecular-pattern pattern-recognition-receptor effector-triggered-immunity gene-for-gene avirulence virulence effector toxin phytotoxin mycotoxin bacterial-toxin viral-toxin insecticidal-protein cry-protein vip-protein cyt-protein spore conidium appressorium haustorium mycelium sclerotium fruiting-body basidiocarp ascocarp perithecium cleistothecium pycnidium acervulus sporodochium symptom sign disease-triangle disease-cycle epidemic endemic pandemic outbreak eradication containment management control prevention forecasting warning-system decision-support-system expert-system model simulation economic-threshold economic-injury-level action-threshold treatment-threshold damage-threshold aesthetic-injury-level cultural-control physical-control mechanical-control chemical-control genetic-control sterile-insect-technique incompatible-insect-technique precision-agriculture site-specific-management variable-rate-application remote-sensing geographic-information-system global-positioning-system unmanned-aerial-vehicle drone sensor imaging spectroscopy machine-learning artificial-intelligence deep-learning neural-network computer-vision image-analysis pattern-recognition classification segmentation detection tracking counting sampling sampling-plan sequential-sampling binomial-sampling presence-absence-sampling fixed-precision-sampling variable-precision-sampling spatial-sampling temporal-sampling stratified-sampling cluster-sampling systematic-sampling random-sampling convenience-sampling judgment-sampling expert-sampling quota-sampling snowball-sampling respondent-driven-sampling capture-recapture mark-recapture mark-resight distance-sampling line-transect point-transect strip-transect plot quadrat pitfall-trap Malaise-trap pan-trap water-pan yellow-pan blue-pan white-pan flight-interception-trap window-trap canopy-fogging beating-tray sweep-net aerial-net ground-net aquatic-net D-vac vacuum-sampler aspirator mouth-aspirator mechanical-aspirator berlese-funnel Tullgren-funnel Winkler-extractor pitfall barber-trap pitfall-array drift-fence funnel-trap light-trap UV-light black-light mercury-vapor sodium-vapor LED actinic color-trap sticky-trap pheromone-trap synthetic-pheromone natural-pheromone kairomone-trap food-bait protein-bait sugar-bait fermentation-bait alcohol-bait vinegar-bait molasses-bait fruit-bait meat-bait fish-bait dung-bait carrion-bait decoy lure attractant repellent deterrent antifeedant oviposition-stimulant arrestant suppressant toxicant stomach-poison contact-poison fumigant systemic translaminar residual persistent non-persistent broad-spectrum narrow-spectrum selective non-selective target-specific host-specific mode-of-action nerve-poison acetylcholinesterase-inhibitor GABA-antagonist sodium-channel-modulator nicotinic-acetylcholine-receptor-agonist ryanodine-receptor-modulator chitin-synthesis-inhibitor juvenile-hormone-mimic ecdysone-agonist microbial-pesticide entomopathogenic-nematode entomopathogenic-fungus entomopathogenic-bacterium entomopathogenic-virus entomopathogenic-protozoa Bacillus-thuringiensis Bt Bacillus-sphaericus Paenibacillus-popilliae Serratia-entomophila Metarhizium-anisopliae Beauveria-bassiana Lecanicillium-lecanii Isaria-fumosorosea Nomuraea-rileyi Hirsutella-thompsonii Entomophthora Neozygites Nosema Vairimorpha Thelohania Anticarsia-gemmatalis-nucleopolyhedrovirus AgMNPV Cydia-pomonella-granulovirus CpGV Spodoptera-exigua-multiple-nucleopolyhedrovirus SeMNPV Autographa-californica-multiple-nucleopolyhedrovirus AcMNPV nucleopolyhedrovirus granulovirus cypovirus entomopoxvirus iridovirus parvovirus tetravirus nodavirus reovirus picornavirus iflavirus densovirus birnavirus totivirus partitivirus hypovirulence mycovirus bacteriophage phage transduction conjugation transformation horizontal-gene-transfer vertical-gene-transfer mobile-genetic-element transposon plasmid integron genomic-island pathogenicity-island symbiosis-island metabolic-island resistance-island virulence-factor antibiotic-resistance insecticide-resistance acaricide-resistance herbicide-resistance fungicide-resistance bactericide-resistance nematicide-resistance molluscicide-resistance rodenticide-resistance resistance-management resistance-monitoring resistance-detection resistance-diagnosis resistance-mechanism metabolic-resistance target-site-resistance penetration-resistance behavioral-resistance cross-resistance multiple-resistance negative-cross-resistance synergism antagonism potentiation safener adjuvant surfactant spreader sticker extender buffer acidifier defoamer drift-retardant rainfastness UV-protectant formulation emulsifiable-concentrate wettable-powder water-dispersible-granule suspension-concentrate capsule-suspension microencapsulation nanotechnology controlled-release slow-release attract-and-kill sterile-insect-release inundative-release inoculative-release conservation augmentation classical neoclassical new-association targeted area-wide suppression protection production integrated-crop-management integrated-production organic-farming biodynamic-farming permaculture agroforestry silvopasture climate-smart-agriculture 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carbon-neutral carbon-negative net-zero climate-adaptation climate-mitigation climate-resilience vulnerability exposure sensitivity adaptive-capacity transition pathway scenario projection forecast prediction uncertainty risk hazard damage loss adaptation mitigation resilience sustainability sustainable-development sustainable-development-goals SDG Agenda-2030 Paris-Agreement Convention-on-Biological-Diversity CBD Nagoya-Protocol Cartagena-Protocol Aichi-Targets Kunming-Montreal-Global-Biodiversity-Framework post-2020-biodiversity-framework One-Health Planetary-Health EcoHealth One-Welfare One-World One-Future interdisciplinary transdisciplinary multidisciplinary cross-disciplinary intersectoral multistakeholder partnership collaboration cooperation network platform hub center-of-excellence capacity-development institutional-strengthening policy-support science-policy-interface evidence-based-policy science-diplomacy technology-transfer knowledge-transfer knowledge-exchange knowledge-sharing open-access open-data open-science open-innovation citizen-science community-based-monitoring action-research transformative-research solution-oriented-research problem-driven-research impact-oriented-research implementation-research operational-research applied-research basic-research fundamental-research strategic-research tactical-research adaptive-research innovation invention discovery breakthrough frontier emerging converging enabling disruptive transformative exponential digital biological physical cognitive social institutional technological ecological evolutionary revolutionary incremental radical systematic holistic integrated comprehensive inclusive participatory bottom-up top-down middle-out hybrid mixed-methods qualitative quantitative empirical theoretical conceptual analytical computational experimental observational descriptive correlational causal mechanistic predictive prescriptive normative evaluative assessment appraisal review audit evaluation outcome-evaluation process-evaluation cost-effectiveness cost-benefit cost-utility multi-criteria-decision-analysis stakeholder-analysis social-network-analysis institutional-analysis political-economy-analysis gender-analysis youth-analysis vulnerability-analysis risk-analysis uncertainty-analysis sensitivity-analysis scenario-analysis systems-analysis life-cycle-assessment footprint water-footprint carbon-footprint ecological-footprint nitrogen-footprint biodiversity-footprint land-footprint material-footprint social-footprint health-footprint planetary-boundary safe-operating-space doughnut-economics regenerative restorative circular green blue bioeconomy circular-economy sharing-economy gig-economy platform-economy digital-economy knowledge-economy creative-economy care-economy wellbeing-economy degrowth post-growth steady-state doughnut sufficiency prosperity flourishing thriving buen-vivir ubuntu harmony balance equilibrium homeostasis robustness adaptability flexibility plasticity evolvability innovability transformability sustainability-science resilience-science complexity-science systems-science network-science data-science information-science computer-science cognitive-science behavioral-science social-science natural-science life-science earth-science environmental-science agricultural-science veterinary-science medical-science health-science nutrition-science food-science material-science engineering-science interdisciplinary-science transdisciplinary-science convergence-science team-science responsible-science ethical-science inclusive-science decolonized-science feminist-science indigenous-science traditional-knowledge local-knowledge expert-knowledge lay-knowledge tacit-knowledge codified-knowledge explicit-knowledge implicit-knowledge procedural-knowledge declarative-knowledge epistemic-knowledge ontological-knowledge practical-knowledge theoretical-knowledge scientific-knowledge indigenous-knowledge traditional-ecological-knowledge TEK 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Eupelmus messene
Eupelmus messene is a tiny parasitoid wasp in the family Eupelmidae. Females are brachypterous (short-winged) and reproduce via thelytoky, producing only daughters. The species is a specialized idiobiont ectoparasitoid of the gall wasp Aulacidea hieracii, attacking both concealed and exposed larvae and pupae of its host. Females possess a remarkably thin, flexible, and mobile ovipositor capable of drilling through hard substrates, including polystyrene Petri dish walls in laboratory observations.
parasitoid gall-wasp-associate ovipositor-drilling thelytoky brachypterous biomimetics idiobiont ectoparasitoid
Gronotoma
Gronotoma is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Figitidae (subfamily Eucoilinae). Species within this genus are primarily known as parasitoids of leaf-mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae), with documented hosts including Liriomyza trifolii, L. huidobrensis, L. sativae, L. bryoniae, Melanagromyza tomaterae, and Japanagromyza tokunagai. Several species, particularly G. micromorpha, have been extensively studied for their potential as biological control agents in agricultural systems. The genus exhibits thelytokous parthenogenesis in at least some species and shows flexibility in host stage utilization.
parasitoid leafminer biological-control Agromyzidae greenhouse thelytoky prosynovigenic
Leptocybe
blue gum chalcid wasp, eucalyptus gall wasp
Leptocybe is a monotypic genus of gall wasps in the family Eulophidae, containing the single species L. invasa. Native to Queensland, Australia, this genus has become globally significant as an invasive pest of Eucalyptus plantations. The wasp induces spherical galls on leaf buds and young tissues of multiple Eucalyptus species, causing substantial economic damage to forestry operations worldwide. The genus is characterized by extremely small body size, thelytokous parthenogenetic reproduction, and rapid population expansion in introduced ranges.
gall-wasp Eucalyptus-pest invasive-species biological-control parthenogenesis forestry-pest Australia-native global-invasive thelytoky Tetrastichinae
Lysiphlebus
Lysiphlebus is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Aphidiinae. Species in this genus are endoparasitoids of aphids, with females laying eggs inside aphid hosts where larvae develop and eventually emerge from mummified aphid remains. The genus exhibits remarkable reproductive diversity, including both sexual and asexual lineages, with some species capable of facultative sex. Several species, particularly L. testaceipes, are important biological control agents used in integrated pest management programs worldwide.
parasitoid biological-control aphid parthenogenesis integrated-pest-management chemical-mimicry hymenoptera braconidae agricultural-pest-management thelytoky facultative-sex mummy-formation
Micromalthus debilis
Telephone-pole Beetle
Micromalthus debilis is a small beetle native to eastern North America and the sole living representative of the family Micromalthidae, often considered a 'living fossil'. The species exhibits one of the most unusual reproductive strategies in Coleoptera: obligate paedogenesis, where reproduction occurs exclusively through parthenogenetic female larvae without production of fertile adults. Adults are vestigial, sterile, and rarely encountered in nature; they can be artificially induced through heat treatment but cannot reproduce. The species is associated with decaying wood and fungal near-red-rot habitats.
paedogenesis parthenogenesis thelytoky haplodiploidy living-fossil vestigial-adults sex-role-reversal xylobiont endosymbiont Rickettsia Wolbachia matriphagy archostematan unusual-reproduction telephone-pole-beetle
Naupactus leucoloma
white-fringed weevil, white-fringed beetle
Naupactus leucoloma is a broad-nosed weevil native to South America that has become a globally distributed agricultural pest. Adults are flightless, parthenogenetic females outside their native range, with males occurring only rarely in Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil. The species is notable for its extreme polyphagy, having been documented feeding on over 385 plant species. Larval root-feeding causes substantially more economic damage than adult folivory.
parthenogenesis thelytoky flightless polyphagy agricultural-pest introduced-species root-feeder Curculionidae Entiminae South-America-native invasive-weevil sexual-dimorphism rare-males
Neochrysocharis
Neochrysocharis is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species in this genus are endoparasitoids of leafmining insects, particularly agromyzid flies. Some species exhibit host-feeding behavior and possess both thelytokous (asexual) and arrhenotokous (sexual) reproductive strains. Multiple species have been evaluated as biological control agents for invasive leafminer pests in agricultural systems.
parasitoid biological-control leafminer agromyzid Eulophidae thelytoky host-feeding integrated-pest-management vegetable-pest tomato-pest invasive-species-management
Neochrysocharis formosa
Neochrysocharis formosa is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae. It is a larval parasitoid of leafminers (Agromyzidae) and has been recorded as a parasitoid of Tuta absoluta (Gelechiidae) and Diprion pini (Diprionidae). The species exhibits host-feeding behavior and is widely used as a biological control agent in agricultural systems. Both thelytokous and arrhenotokous strains exist, with thelytokous strains showing superior biocontrol potential. Sex ratios are typically female-biased.
parasitoid biological-control leafminer Eulophidae agricultural-pest-management host-feeding thelytoky integrated-pest-management
Otiorhynchus sulcatus
black vine weevil, vine weevil, strawberry weevil, cyclamen weevil
Otiorhynchus sulcatus is a parthenogenetic weevil native to the Palearctic region that has become a globally significant horticultural pest. Adults are flightless, nocturnal, and feed on foliage, producing characteristic notching damage along leaf margins. Larvae develop belowground, feeding on roots, corms, and rhizomes, causing severe plant damage or death. The species reproduces exclusively through thelytokous parthenogenesis; males are absent from all populations. Adults exhibit strong visual and thigmotactic preferences for refuge selection, favoring dark colors (black, blue), tall silhouettes, and basal entrance openings.
parthenogenesis thelytoky flightless nocturnal horticultural-pest polyphagous visual-ecology refuge-seeking belowground-herbivory invasive-species entomopathogenic-nematode-host
Phyllonorycter emberizaepenella
Large Midget
A small leaf-mining moth in the family Gracillariidae with a wingspan of 9–10 mm. It reproduces exclusively by thelytokous parthenogenesis, with no males known to exist. Females nevertheless display diurnal calling behavior and produce sex pheromone compounds, despite the absence of mate attraction. The species is widespread across Europe and has been introduced to North America.
leaf-miner parthenogenesis thelytoky Gracillariidae Lonicera honeysuckle introduced-species
Phytomyza plantaginis
Plantain leafminer
Phytomyza plantaginis is a leaf-mining fly in the family Agromyzidae. It is notable as the second documented case of parthenogenetic reproduction (thelytoky) in its family. Populations in Australia exhibit variation in sex ratio, with some areas having only females and others maintaining bisexual populations with female-biased ratios. The species is associated with Plantago host plants.
leafminer parthenogenesis thelytoky sex-ratio-variation Wolbachia Plantago agromyzid Diptera
Platygastrinae
Platygastrinae is a subfamily of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Platygastridae. Members are characterized by their extremely small size, often under 2 mm, and specialized parasitoid biology targeting gall midges (Cecidomyiidae). The subfamily includes approximately 50+ genera, with Synopeas, Leptacis, and Platygaster being among the most studied. Many species exhibit elongated metasomas, though the functional significance of this trait remains unknown. Several species have been documented as biological control agents for agricultural pests, including the recently confirmed parasitoid of soybean gall midge, Synopeas ruficoxum.
parasitoid gall-midge-parasitoid biological-control Cecidomyiidae minute-wasps agricultural-pest-management molecular-taxonomy thelytoky
Platythyrea
Platythyrea is a genus of predatory ants in the subfamily Ponerinae and the sole member of the tribe Platythyreini. Workers range from 4–20 mm in size. The genus exhibits remarkable reproductive diversity: most species have gamergates (reproductive female workers), though P. conradti has ergatoid queens instead. Some species with gamergates also produce alate queens. The genus has a worldwide distribution in tropical and subtropical regions.
ants ponerinae parthenogenesis gamergates trophallaxis age-polyethism predatory tropical clonal-reproduction thelytoky
Platythyrea punctata
Common Silvery Hunter Ant
Platythyrea punctata is a neotropical ant species distinguished by its remarkable reproductive flexibility. Most populations reproduce through thelytokous parthenogenesis, where unmated workers produce female offspring from unfertilized eggs, resulting in colonies with clonal genetic structure. The species also exhibits facultative sexual reproduction, with occasional queens, gamergates (mated reproductive workers), and males appearing in some populations. This combination of alternative reproductive tactics is unique among ants and has made the species a model for studying social evolution, division of labor, and the transition between sexual and asexual reproduction.
ant parthenogenesis thelytoky social-insect clonal neotropical reproductive-plasticity age-polyethism gamergate policing-behavior
Poratia
Poratia is a genus of minute polydesmidan millipedes in the family Pyrgodesmidae, characterized by obligate parthenogenetic reproduction via thelytoky. The genus includes Poratia salvator, a small species (3.5 mm length, 0.5 mm width, 19 body segments, brownish-yellow coloration) originally described from El Salvador and recorded from Brazil. Populations exhibit ecological plasticity, inhabiting both strictly terrestrial and periodically inundated environments. Reproduction is independent of males, with extremely skewed sex ratios (approximately 1 male:140 females) and flavobacteria-mediated parthenogenesis demonstrated at the genus level.
parthenogenesis thelytoky minute-millipede Pantanal ecological-plasticity Pyrgodesmidae detritivore
Pulvinaria vitis
Cottony Grape Scale, Cottony Scale
Pulvinaria vitis is a thelytokous cottony scale insect native to Europe, now established across much of the Northern Hemisphere and beyond. It is a univoltine pest of grape and peach, with adult females overwintering on host bark and producing large ovisacs containing thousands of eggs in spring. The species exhibits distinctive discontinuous growth and feeding patterns, with three nymphal instars and limited mobility after the first moult.
scale-insect pest vineyard-pest orchard-pest thelytoky univoltine invasive-species
Pygostolus
Pygostolus is a genus of braconid wasps in the subfamily Blacinae, comprising approximately eight described species. The genus is best known through studies of P. falcatus, an endoparasitoid of weevils in the genus Sitona. These wasps exhibit thelytokous parthenogenesis and develop as solitary endoparasitoids within the haemocoele of their hosts. The genus has been investigated for biological control applications, particularly against sweetclover weevil (Sitona cylindricollis), though effectiveness is limited by phenological asynchrony and diapause.
parasitoid parthenogenetic thelytoky biological-control weevil-parasite Braconidae Blacinae Sitona
Strumigenys membranifera
Bare Mustache Ant
Strumigenys membranifera is a minute trap-jaw ant species native to the Old World tropics that has become a globally distributed tramp species. It is one of only six known Strumigenys species exhibiting thelytokous parthenogenesis, where virgin queens produce diploid female offspring from unfertilized eggs without sperm involvement. Queens retain a functional spermatheca and complete reproductive system despite rarely mating, with males produced only exceptionally. The species has been recorded from numerous regions including Taiwan, Greece (Crete), the Galápagos Islands, and across Asia, reflecting its capacity for human-mediated dispersal and establishment in new environments without mating requirements.
parthenogenesis tramp-species trap-jaw-ant thelytoky invasive-potential
Strumigenys rogeri
Roger's Pygmy Snapping Ant
Strumigenys rogeri is a small dacetine ant species first described by Emery in 1890. It is notable for exhibiting thelytokous parthenogenesis in Taiwan, where virgin queens produce female offspring without mating. This reproductive mode, combined with a short development time of approximately 39 days, may contribute to its success as a tramp ant species. The species belongs to a genus of over 850 species characterized by distinctive trap-jaw mandibles.
parthenogenesis thelytoky tramp-ant invasive-potential Formicidae Myrmicinae dacetine-ants
Tetrastichinae
Tetrastichinae is one of the largest subfamilies of Eulophidae, containing over 100 genera and nearly 3,000 species of minute chalcid wasps. Members exhibit exceptionally diverse biology: most are parasitoids attacking hosts across 10 insect orders and over 100 families, including nematodes, mites, and spider eggs. Some species are phytophagous (typically as inquilines in galls), gall formers, or inquilines. Endoparasitism predominates over ectoparasitism, with both solitary and gregarious forms known; gregarious species may produce over 2,000 individuals from a single host. Reproduction is often by thelytokous parthenogenesis, though arrhenotoky occurs in some taxa.
parasitoid biological-control chalcid-wasp thelytoky hyperparasitism gregarious-development gall-associated parthenogenesis agricultural-pest-management cryptic-species-complex Tetrastichus-revision Graham-1987 Eulophidae Hymenoptera Chalcidoidea
Trichadenotecnum castum
common barklouse
Trichadenotecnum castum is a uniparental barklouse species in the family Psocidae, described by Betz in 1983. It is one of three obligately parthenogenetic species derived from the biparental ancestor T. alexanderae. Populations are composed exclusively of females that reproduce via obligate thelytokous parthenogenesis. The species belongs to the T. alexanderae species complex, a group of closely related barklice distinguished primarily by reproductive mode and subtle morphological differences.
parthenogenesis thelytoky uniparental barklouse Psocidae species-complex blacklight-attracted
Trichadenotecnum merum
common barklouse
Trichadenotecnum merum is a uniparental barklouse species described in 1983 as part of the Trichadenotecnum alexanderae species complex. It reproduces exclusively through obligatory parthenogenesis (thelytoky), with populations composed entirely of females. The species was established through mating tests, life history observations, and morphological analysis across the geographic range of the species complex. As a member of the family Psocidae, it belongs to a group commonly known as common barklice.
parthenogenesis thelytoky uniparental barklouse psocid North-America species-complex cryptic-species