Greenhouse-pest-management
Guides
Aphidoletes
aphid midge
Aphidoletes is a genus of predatory gall midges (Cecidomyiidae) whose larvae are specialized aphid predators. The best-known species, Aphidoletes aphidimyza, is widely used in commercial biological control programs against aphids in greenhouse and field crops. Adults are small, delicate flies that feed on honeydew, while larvae actively hunt and consume aphids using paralytic venom.
Ceratopogonini
Predaceous Biting Midges
Ceratopogonini is a tribe of biting midges within the family Ceratopogonidae. Members are commonly known as predaceous biting midges, reflecting their primarily predatory lifestyle. The tribe includes species that serve as important biological control agents, particularly against aphid pests in agricultural and greenhouse settings. Adults are small, delicate flies, while larvae are minute predators that subdue prey using paralytic venom.
Delphastus
whitefly destroyers
Delphastus is a genus of small predatory lady beetles in the family Coccinellidae, tribe Serangiini. The genus contains approximately 7-20 described species, with several species commercially utilized as biological control agents of whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in agricultural and ornamental systems. Species such as D. catalinae, D. pusillus, and D. pallidus are well-documented predators of immature whitefly stages, feeding on eggs and nymphs of multiple whitefly species including Bemisia tabaci, B. argentifolii, Trialeurodes vaporariorum, and Singhiella simplex. The genus is characterized by specialized predatory behavior on whiteflies, with documented functional response curves and prey preferences varying by species and whitefly life stage.
Delphastus pusillus
Whitefly Destroyer
Delphastus pusillus is a minute coccinellid beetle specialized as a predator of whiteflies. Adults measure approximately 1.6 mm (1/16 in) and are shiny black with brown heads, though newly emerged individuals appear pale brown to nearly white. The species is a voracious predator of all whitefly life stages, with demonstrated preference for eggs and first-instar nymphs. It has been widely studied as a biological control agent for agricultural whitefly pests including Bemisia tabaci and Trialeurodes vaporariorum. Both larvae and adults are active predators capable of consuming over 100 whitefly eggs daily under optimal conditions.
Dicyphus
Dicyphus is a genus of plant bugs in the family Miridae containing at least 70 described species. Several species, including D. hesperus, D. hyalinipennis, and D. tamanini, are zoophytophagous predators used in biological control of crop pests. The genus exhibits considerable variation in feeding ecology, with some species being primarily phytophagous while others are important predators of whiteflies, thrips, and other horticultural pests.
Encarsia
Encarsia is a large genus of minute parasitic wasps in the family Aphelinidae, comprising approximately 400–473 described species with worldwide distribution. The genus exhibits complex morphological variation that complicates species-level identification. Many species are economically important biological control agents used in greenhouse and agricultural settings against whiteflies and scale insects.
Encarsia formosa
Greenhouse Whitefly Parasitoid Wasp
Encarsia formosa is a minute chalcidoid wasp in the family Aphelinidae, renowned as one of the first biological control agents used commercially for greenhouse pest management beginning in the 1920s. Females are approximately 0.6 mm in length and exhibit a distinctive black body with yellow abdomen and opalescent wings. The species reproduces asexually via thelytoky induced by Wolbachia bacterial infection; males are produced but are incapable of inseminating females. This parasitoid attacks at least 15 whitefly species, with primary hosts including Trialeurodes vaporariorum (greenhouse whitefly) and Bemisia tabaci (silverleaf whitefly).
Ephedrus
Ephedrus is a genus of small braconid wasps in the subfamily Aphidiinae, all species of which are obligate parasitoids of aphids. The genus includes both extant and fossil species, with records from the Eocene Baltic amber indicating an ancient evolutionary history. Multiple species have been evaluated or employed as biological control agents against agricultural pest aphids, particularly in greenhouse systems. Species-level studies reveal complex host discrimination behaviors involving external marking pheromones and internal host quality assessment.
Macrolophus pygmaeus
Macrolophus pygmaeus is a zoophytophagous plant bug in the family Miridae, widely distributed across Europe, North Africa, and Central Asia. It functions as a generalist predator of agricultural pests including whiteflies, aphids, thrips, and spider mites, while also feeding on plant sap and extrafloral nectar. The species has been extensively studied for its potential as a biological control agent in greenhouse vegetable crops, particularly for controlling whiteflies and the tomato leafminer Tuta absoluta. Males produce distinctive vibrational signals during courtship and male-male interactions.
Stratiolaelaps
Stratiolaelaps is a genus of predatory mites in the family Laelapidae, with at least nine described species. The genus is best known from Stratiolaelaps scimitus, a polyphagous soil-dwelling predator native to the Northern Hemisphere that has been commercialized globally as a biological control agent. Members of this genus inhabit soil, litter, and rhizosphere environments where they prey on small invertebrates including fungus gnat larvae, thrips pupae, nematodes, and other mites. The genus exhibits haplodiploid sex determination and has been subject to extensive study regarding mass rearing, genetic management, and behavioral responses to chemical cues.