Myrmecophily
Guides
Aleocharinae
rove beetles
Aleocharinae is the largest subfamily of rove beetles (Staphylinidae), containing over 12,000 described species across more than 1,000 genera and 52 tribes. Members are predominantly small to minute beetles, typically 3–5 mm in length, with highly variable morphology reflecting their diverse ecological specializations. The subfamily exhibits extraordinary biological diversity, including free-living, myrmecophilous, termitophilous, parasitic, predatory, fungivorous, and herbivorous forms distributed across all terrestrial habitats worldwide.
Aleocharini
Aleocharini is the type tribe of the subfamily Aleocharinae, containing three subtribes: Aleocharina, Compactopediina, and Hodoxenina. The tribe comprises approximately 29 genera and over 650 species, with the vast majority of diversity concentrated in the subtribe Aleocharina—particularly the genus Aleochara, which alone contains over 500 species. Members are rove beetles (Staphylinidae) exhibiting diverse ecological strategies, including free-living forms and myrmecophilous species associated with ants.
Anthene emolus
Ciliate blue, Common Ciliate Blue
Anthene emolus, the ciliate blue, is a lycaenid butterfly recorded across India and parts of Southeast Asia. Adults show sexual differences: males are purple with blue at the wing bases, while females are brown with a more limited violet-blue sheen. Both sexes have dark marginal lines and patterned spots. Its caterpillars are notable for a close association with the weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina.
Argyraspodes
Warrior Silverspotted Coppers
Argyraspodes is a lycaenid butterfly genus represented by one accepted species, A. argyraspis. Recent studies report that this South African butterfly is associated with Hermannia plants and Crematogaster melanogaster ants. Females have been observed placing eggs on dead plant material or sand, away from host plants. Its early-stage feeding remains uncertain: one paper describes the butterfly as herbivorous, while another proposes—tentatively—that young larvae may prey on ant brood or Hemiptera.
Aricoris
Aricoris is a genus of butterflies treated in the family Riodinidae in taxonomic studies. Its species do not all share a documented natural history: for example, Aricoris propitia has a close association with fire ants, while A. schneideri was described from South American grasslands. These species-level records illustrate the range of ecological information available for the genus without establishing that the same traits occur throughout it.
Armadillidiidae
pill bugs, roly polies, pill woodlice, slaters, potato bugs, curly bugs, doodle bugs, Butchy-Boys
Armadillidiidae is a family of terrestrial isopod crustaceans distinguished by their ability to roll into a complete ball (conglobation) when disturbed. This defensive behavior, shared with unrelated pill millipedes and some other arthropods, has made them commonly known as pill bugs or roly polies. The family contains approximately 18 recognized genera and shows highest diversity in Mediterranean karstic regions, with some species having achieved widespread global distribution through human activity.
Arthropterus
Arthropterus is an Australian genus of carabid beetles in the ant-associated subfamily Paussinae and tribe Paussini. GBIF’s checklist places 68 child names in accepted status and another 11 as doubtful, illustrating that the catalogued diversity depends on taxonomic treatment. A newly hatched larva has been described, and features of that larva have been interpreted as adaptations to myrmecophily—the close association of insects with ants.
Atinus
ant-loving beetles
Atinus is a genus of myrmecophilous (ant-loving) rove beetles in the family Staphylinidae, subfamily Pselaphinae. The genus was established by Horn in 1868 and contains at least two described species: Atinus brevicornis and Atinus monilicornis. These beetles are small, compact rove beetles associated with ant colonies.
Attaphila
Attaphila is a genus of minute cockroaches that live in leaf-cutting ant colonies and their fungus gardens. A 2021 revision recognizes nine species and provides keys for identifying both sexes. The genus is recorded with Atta and Acromyrmex ants, with different species groups associated with each. Studies of A. fungicola show that these roaches can travel on queen ants and on plant fragments carried by foragers, linking their dispersal to the growth of ant colonies.
Belonopterygini
Ant-loving Lacewings
Belonopterygini is a tribe of green lacewings within the family Chrysopidae, commonly known as Ant-loving Lacewings. Members of this tribe exhibit myrmecophilous associations, with larvae living in arboreal ant nests. Larvae possess distinctive morphological adaptations that appear to defend them against ant aggression. The tribe includes at least the genus Italochrysa, with species documented from Australia and Europe.
Camponotus planatus
compact carpenter ant, short carpenter ant
Camponotus planatus is a Neotropical carpenter ant species characterized by polygynous colony structure—one of only three Camponotus species known to maintain multiple queens per colony. The species exhibits a distinctive compact body form and has been documented as an invasive species spreading in Florida and Texas. Workers display kin discrimination based on matrilineal relatedness, with division of labor organized along queen lineages within colonies. The species serves as a model for Batesian and Wassmanian mimicry by multiple arthropod species, and has been observed tending the endangered Miami blue butterfly caterpillar in Florida.
Celastrina idella
American holly azure, Holly Azure
Celastrina idella is a small blue butterfly in the family Lycaenidae, endemic to the Atlantic coastal plain of the eastern United States. Adults exhibit a single spring flight period from late April to late May, with pupae undergoing extended diapause through summer, autumn, and winter. The species is specialized on holly (Ilex) species as larval hosts, with documented associations with several ant species. It occurs sympatrically with related azure species but is distinguished by host plant specificity, smaller size, and unique phenology.
Ceratocanthinae
Pill Scarab Beetles
Ceratocanthinae is a subfamily of scarabaeoid beetles within Hybosoridae, comprising approximately 366 species in 43 genera distributed across three tribes. These small beetles (2.0–10.0 mm) are renowned for their unique ability to perform complete conglobation—rolling their body into a tight ball by curling three body trunk segments and folding their tibiae. This defensive behavior, which evolved once in the Mesozoic, represents the only known complete conglobation in insects and is supported by specialized exoskeletal structures and thickened, mechanically reinforced dorsal cuticle.
Clavigerini
Clavigerini is a tribe of pselaphine rove beetles. Publicly documented biology is concentrated in clavigerite beetles associated with ants, especially the genus Claviger. Those beetles show specialized body structures and behaviors linked to life in or near ant colonies. Host, range, and life-history traits are not uniform across the tribe.
Clavigeritae
Clavigeritae is a supertribe of minute rove beetles (Staphylinidae: Pselaphinae) comprising approximately 370 described species. These beetles are obligate myrmecophiles, living socially parasitic lives within ant colonies. The group exhibits extreme morphological specialization for this lifestyle, including body segment fusions and unique glandular structures. The 52-million-year-old fossil Protoclaviger trichodens from India represents the oldest known myrmecophilous beetle and reveals transitional features between ancestral and modern forms.
Coccinella magnifica
Scarce Seven-spotted Ladybird Beetle
Coccinella magnifica is a Palaearctic ladybird beetle in the family Coccinellidae. In northwestern Europe it is closely associated with red wood ants in the Formica rufa group, with adults and immature stages recorded around their colonies. Field observations show that it preys on aphids, including species living on trees and herbaceous plants; its ant associations may differ farther south and east.
Conoderinae
Conoderinae is a diverse subfamily of true weevils (Curculionidae) comprising approximately 2,400 described species across more than 210 genera in 15 tribes. The group exhibits worldwide distribution with particular diversity in tropical regions, especially the Neotropics. Members are characterized by active, alert behavior and frequent association with mimicry complexes. Classification within the subfamily remains chaotic with no robust phylogenetic hypotheses, and many genera are likely not monophyletic.
Cremastocheilus crinitus
anteater scarab beetle
Cremastocheilus crinitus is a myrmecophilous scarab beetle known for its specialized parasitic relationship with ants. Adults enter ant colonies by feigning death, allowing scavenging workers to carry them into nests. Once inside, they feed on ant larvae and pupae using modified piercing mouthparts. The species is part of a genus of approximately 35 North American species, commonly called "anteater scarabs" for their predatory behavior toward ant brood.
Cremastocheilus planatus
Cremastocheilus planatus is a myrmecophilous scarab beetle in the genus Cremastocheilus, commonly known as "anteater scarabs." Adults are obligate predators of ant larvae and pupae within host colonies. The species exhibits specialized morphological adaptations for life inside ant nests, including dense armor and modified mouthparts for piercing soft-bodied prey. Like other members of the genus, it is believed to enter host colonies through death-feigning behavior, allowing worker ants to carry it inside.
Crematogaster lineolata
Small-lined Acrobat Ant
Crematogaster lineolata is a species of acrobat ant in the genus Crematogaster, characterized by its ability to raise its abdomen over its thorax when disturbed. The species has been documented in grassland habitats of northeastern Kansas, where it engages in a notable mutualistic relationship with the clytrine leaf beetle Anomoea flavokansiensis. Ant workers are attracted to beetle eggs, carry them into their nests, and provide a protected environment for beetle larval development. The species is part of the diverse Crematogaster genus, which contains numerous species worldwide.
Cryptocephalina
case-bearer leaf beetles
Cryptocephalina is a subtribe of leaf beetles within the subfamily Cryptocephalinae, commonly known as case-bearer leaf beetles. These beetles are characterized by their distinctive life history: adults possess the ability to retract their head, legs, and antennae into grooves on the body, while larvae construct protective cases from fecal material. The subtribe includes species with highly specialized ecological associations, including myrmecophilous (ant-associated) forms that live within ant nests.
Cryptocephalini
case-bearing leaf beetles
Cryptocephalini is a tribe of leaf beetles within the subfamily Cryptocephalinae, characterized by case-bearing larvae that construct and carry protective cases. The tribe comprises approximately 987–988 species in the Palaearctic region alone, with substantial diversity in arid and Mediterranean zones. Some species exhibit myrmecophilous associations with ants.
Cyclargus
A genus of lycaenid butterflies established by Vladimir Nabokov in 1945, split from the genus Hemiargus. The genus contains several species distributed across the Caribbean and southern Florida, including the critically endangered Miami blue butterfly (C. thomasi bethunebakeri). Taxonomic validity remains debated among lepidopterists.
Cyclargus thomasi
Miami blue, Caribbean blue, Thomas's blue
Cyclargus thomasi is a small blue butterfly in the family Lycaenidae with a disjunct distribution across the Caribbean, Florida, and parts of North America. The subspecies C. t. bethunebakeri, known as the Miami blue, is endemic to Florida and was federally listed as endangered in 2012. This subspecies has declined dramatically due to habitat loss and now persists primarily in the Florida Keys. The species exhibits myrmecophilous relationships with ants, particularly Florida carpenter ants, which protect caterpillars in exchange for sugary secretions.
Cyphoderus similis
Cyphoderus similis is an elongate-bodied springtail species in the family Paronellidae, described by J.W. Folsom in 1927. It is myrmecophilic and has been documented in phoretic association with the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta). The species occurs across multiple insular and coastal regions including the Caribbean, Hawaii, Macaronesia, and the Amazon basin.
Dalmosanus
Dalmosanus is a genus of myrmecophilous (ant-loving) rove beetles in the family Staphylinidae. The genus was established by Park in 1952 and contains at least three described species distributed in North America. These beetles belong to the subfamily Pselaphinae, a diverse group of small rove beetles often associated with social insects.
Diaperinae
Diaperinae is a subfamily of darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae) comprising more than 120 genera organized into 11 tribes. The subfamily exhibits considerable ecological diversity, including fungivorous species that inhabit fruiting bodies of bracket fungi, myrmecophilous species that live commensally within ant nests, and free-living forms. Some species display specialized adaptations such as reduced eyes for subterranean life, compact rounded body shapes for physical defense against ants, and cuticular hydrocarbon mimicry of host ant recognition signals.
Diapriinae
Diapriinae is a subfamily of minute parasitoid wasps within the family Diapriidae. Members are typically 1–8 mm in length, with most species averaging 2–4 mm. They are characterized by a distinctive ledge-like extension of the face above the clypeus (the "shelf face"), from which the antennae originate. The subfamily contains three tribes: Diapriini, Psilini, and Spilomicrini. Most species are parasitoids of Diptera larvae and pupae, particularly fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae and Sciaridae), though some lineages have evolved specialized associations with ants. Many species remain undescribed, with an estimated 4,500 species worldwide compared to approximately 2,300 currently described.
Dinarda
Dinarda is a genus of rove beetles in the family Staphylinidae; the GBIF backbone records eight descendant taxa. Its species are reported from Europe. Research on the species Dinarda dentata shows that at least some members are ant associates: D. dentata has been found in Formica sanguinea nests in Germany, where it occupies peripheral chambers and exploits food and debris.
Diomus
lady beetles, ladybirds
Diomus is a genus of small lady beetles (Coccinellidae) comprising at least 20 described species. Species within this genus exhibit diverse ecological strategies, including generalist predation on mealybugs and aphids, as well as specialized myrmecophilous associations. Several species have been evaluated or employed as biological control agents against agricultural pests such as the papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus), yellow sugarcane aphid (Sipha flava), and cassava mealybug (Phenacoccus manihoti). The genus shows notable variation in habitat associations, from agricultural crops to ant nests.
Enicocephalidae
unique-headed bugs, gnat bugs
Enicocephalidae, commonly known as unique-headed bugs or gnat bugs, is a family of approximately 300 species within the ancient and relictual infraorder Enicocephalomorpha. Members are small true bugs, typically around 4 mm in length, characterized by their elongated, constricted heads that give the family its common name. The family exhibits global distribution with greatest species richness in humid tropical and subtropical forests. Enicocephalidae are considered living fossils due to their evolutionarily conserved morphology. The family is classified into about 47 genera placed in five subfamilies, with notable polymorphism including winged males and wingless or short-winged females in many species.
Entylia
keel-shaped treehopper
Entylia is a genus of treehoppers in the family Membracidae, first described by Germar in 1833. The genus contains at least three described species, including Entylia carinata, which is known for its distinctive keel-shaped pronotum that resembles plant debris. These insects are notable for their mutualistic relationships with ants, which protect them from predators in exchange for honeydew. The genus is distributed in North America, with observations recorded from regions including the northeastern United States.
Entylia carinata concisa
Entylia carinata concisa is a subspecies of treehopper in the family Membracidae. Treehoppers in this genus are small insects characterized by an enlarged, often hatchet-shaped pronotum that extends over the thorax. The species Entylia carinata has been documented in association with odorous house ants (Tapinoma sessile), which tend the treehoppers for their honeydew secretions. The subspecies concisa represents a geographic variant within this ant-associated treehopper complex.
Euboarhexius
Euboarhexius is a genus of small rove beetles in the subfamily Pselaphinae, commonly known as ant-loving beetles. The genus was established in 1966 by Grigarick and Schuster and contains at least four described species. Members of this genus are myrmecophilous, living in association with ant colonies. The genus is classified within the tribe Trogastrini.
Eucharitidae
eucharitid wasps, ant parasitoid wasps
Eucharitidae is a family of highly specialized parasitoid wasps in the superfamily Chalcidoidea. The family contains approximately 55 genera and over 400 species distributed across four subfamilies: Akapalinae, Eucharitinae, Gollumiellinae, and Oraseminae. Eucharitids are unique among parasitoids in their ability to exploit ants as hosts, overcoming the sophisticated defense systems that typically protect ant colonies. Most species are tropical, though some extend into temperate regions.
Eumaeini
hairstreaks, elfin butterflies
Eumaeini is a diverse tribe of gossamer-winged butterflies (family Lycaenidae), typically placed in the subfamily Theclinae but sometimes treated as a separate subfamily Eumaeinae. The tribe contains over 1,000 described species, predominantly distributed in the Neotropical realm, with some representatives extending into the Nearctic region and isolated occurrences in the Palearctic. Members are commonly known as hairstreaks or elfin butterflies, characterized by often intricate wing patterns and, in many species, thin tail-like projections on the hindwings. The group has been subject to extensive taxonomic revision due to high species diversity and morphological complexity.
Eupsenius
Eupsenius is a genus of ant-loving beetles in the family Staphylinidae, subfamily Pselaphinae. The genus contains approximately six described species distributed primarily in North America. Members of this genus are myrmecophilous, living in association with ant colonies. The genus was established by John Lawrence LeConte in 1849.
Eustala
humpbacked orb-weavers
Eustala is a genus of orb-weaver spiders in the family Araneidae, first described by Eugène Simon in 1895. As of November 2024, the genus contains 87 species distributed primarily across the Americas, from the United States through Central America to South America, with highest diversity in Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. Several species have been documented exhibiting specialized ecological relationships, including myrmecophily (living among ants) in Central American species that inhabit ant-defended acacia plants. The genus includes the well-known humpbacked orb-weaver, Eustala anastera, found across North and Central America.
Exalloniscus
Exalloniscus is a genus of terrestrial isopods in the family Oniscidae. GBIF lists 28 accepted species, and taxonomic records place the genus across South, Southeast, and East Asia. In China, a 2024 study recorded 11 species, including five described in that paper. Most species have been reported in association with ants or termites, although biological information remains fragmentary.
Falagriini
Falagriini is a tribe of rove beetles within the subfamily Aleocharinae, containing approximately 11 genera and at least 20 described species. The tribe includes several myrmecophilous genera, with some species exhibiting associations with ants. Phylogenetic studies have clarified relationships within the tribe, including the recovery of Sceptobiini as nested within Falagriini.
Formicoxenus
Guest Ants
Formicoxenus is a genus of myrmicine ants comprising seven described species. All members are obligate xenobionts (guest ants) that live within nests of host ant species, primarily in the Nearctic and Palearctic regions. The genus is notable for repeated evolution of social parasitism and is closely related to Leptothorax and Harpagoxenus within the Formicoxenus genus-group. Species exhibit specialized behavioral and chemical adaptations for integration into host colonies.
Fustiger
ant-loving beetles
Fustiger is a genus of myrmecophilous (ant-loving) beetles in the family Staphylinidae, belonging to the tribe Clavigerini. These beetles are highly specialized social parasites that live within ant colonies. The genus contains at least three described species: Fustiger fuchsii, Fustiger knausii, and Fustiger stricticornis. Members of this genus exhibit remarkable morphological adaptations for infiltrating ant nests and exploiting colony resources.
Fustiger fuchsii
Fustiger fuchsii is a species of myrmecophilous rove beetle in the family Staphylinidae, subfamily Pselaphinae. It belongs to the tribe Clavigerini, a group of highly specialized beetles that live as social parasites within ant colonies. The species was described by Brendel in 1866. Like other members of its tribe, it has evolved remarkable morphological adaptations for infiltrating ant nests and exploiting colony resources.
Genuchinus
Genuchinus is a genus of myrmecophilous scarab beetles comprising approximately 10 described species. These beetles are associated with ant colonies, though specific details of these relationships remain poorly documented. The genus was established by Westwood in 1874 and is classified within the tribe Cremastocheilini, subtribe Cremastocheilina. Most species have been described from Central and South America.
Glaucopsyche
blues, silvery blues, green-underside blues, black-eyed blues
Glaucopsyche is a genus of small butterflies commonly called 'blues' in the family Lycaenidae. The genus has a Holarctic distribution, with most species occurring in Palearctic Asia and several species in North America. It includes approximately 30 described species, among them the extinct Xerces blue (G. xerces), last seen in the early 1940s on the San Francisco Peninsula. Several species have notable conservation status, including the federally endangered Palos Verdes blue (G. lygdamus palosverdesensis).
Goniaceritae
ant-loving beetles
Goniaceritae is a supertribe of minute ant-loving beetles within the subfamily Pselaphinae (Staphylinidae), established by Edmund Reitter in 1882. The group comprises approximately 16 genera and at least 30 described species, though this is likely an underestimate given ongoing taxonomic work. The type genus is Goniacerus Motschulsky, 1855. Members of this supertribe are myrmecophilous, meaning they are ecologically associated with ants, though the specific nature of these associations varies among genera and species.
Habrodais
Habrodais is a genus of small butterflies in the family Lycaenidae, containing two species restricted to western North America. The genus was established by Scudder in 1876. Both species are associated with oak woodlands and have specialized ecological relationships with their host plants.
Hamotus
Hamotus is a genus of ant-loving beetles (myrmecophilous rove beetles) in the family Staphylinidae, subfamily Pselaphinae. The genus contains nine described species distributed primarily in North America. These beetles are associated with ant colonies, though specific ecological relationships remain poorly documented for most species. The genus was established by Aubé in 1844.
Haroldius
Haroldius is a genus of small scarab beetles in the subfamily Scarabaeinae. A 2019 taxonomic paper counted 38 known species, distributed across the Old World, including South and Southeast Asia and West Africa. The genus is recognized in part by its smooth body and unusually broad, flattened tibiae. Some species may associate closely with ants, but the beetles’ biology remains poorly documented.
Hemiargus
blues, blue butterflies
Hemiargus is a genus of small butterflies in the family Lycaenidae, commonly known as blues, found in North and South America. The genus contains approximately five recognized species, including the widespread Ceraunus blue (Hemiargus ceraunus) and Reakirt's blue (Hemiargus isola). These butterflies inhabit open, sunny environments and are characterized by their blue or grayish upper wing surfaces with variable spotting patterns. Some species engage in facultative mutualistic associations with ants during their larval stage, where caterpillars produce secretions that attract ant attendants who provide protection against predators.