Chemical-defense
Guides
Abacion magnum
crested millipede
Abacion magnum is a crested millipede species in the family Abacionidae, first described by Loomis in 1943. It is native to North America and is characterized by defensive chemical secretions containing p-cresol. In captivity, it has been observed to feed on dead insects and conspecifics, indicating opportunistic scavenging behavior.
Adalia
ladybugs, lady beetles, ladybirds
Adalia is a genus of lady beetles (Coccinellidae) containing two species: A. bipunctata (two-spot ladybird) and A. decempunctata (ten-spot ladybird). These beetles are aphid predators found across the Palearctic region. Both species exhibit color pattern polymorphism and possess alkaloid chemical defenses. A. bipunctata is known to harbor multiple male-killing symbionts including Wolbachia, Rickettsia, and Spiroplasma, though symbiont phenotypes vary geographically.
Adephaga
Ground and Water Beetles, adephagans
Adephaga is the second-largest suborder of beetles, comprising over 40,000 species across 10 families. The suborder includes ground beetles (Carabidae), tiger beetles, predaceous diving beetles, and whirligig beetles. Members are characterized by specialized anatomical features including visible notopleural sutures and a first abdominal sternum separated by hind coxae. The vast majority of species belong to the family Carabidae.
Agraulis
Agraulis is a subgenus of longwing butterflies (Heliconiinae) within the genus Dione. The group contains at least two species: the widespread Gulf fritillary (Dione vanillae, formerly Agraulis vanillae), found from Argentina to the southern United States with seasonal migrations reaching as far north as New Jersey and San Francisco, and Dione dodona, a recently described species restricted to xeric western slopes of the Andes in Peru and northern Chile. Members are characterized by bright orange and black coloration, association with Passifloraceae host plants, and chemical defense mechanisms.
Agraulis incarnata
Gulf Fritillary
Agraulis incarnata, commonly known as the Gulf Fritillary, is a brush-footed butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. The species is widely distributed across the southern United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America. Adults are characterized by bright orange upper wings with black markings and three white spots on the forewing. The caterpillars feed exclusively on passionflower vines (Passiflora spp.), sequestering cyanogenic glycosides from their host plants for chemical defense. The species is a sporadic migrant in northern parts of its range, occasionally establishing temporary colonies before winter mortality.
Alydidae
broad-headed bugs, broad headed bugs
Alydidae, commonly known as broad-headed bugs, is a family of true bugs in the order Hemiptera containing at least 60 genera and approximately 300 species worldwide. Members are characterized by their notably broad heads, often similar in length and width to the pronotum and scutellum, and elongated, curved terminal antennal segments. The family is closely related to Coreidae (leaf-footed bugs) and shares many morphological features, though Alydidae generally lack the flattened hind tibiae typical of many coreids. Most species are tropical or subtropical in distribution, with relatively few species occurring in temperate regions. Several species are economically significant agricultural pests, particularly in Asia where they damage rice and legume crops.
Amphibolips nubilipennis
translucent oak gall wasp
Amphibolips nubilipennis is a gall wasp in the family Cynipidae that induces distinctive succulent galls on oak trees. The species exhibits a complex life cycle with alternating sexual and asexual generations, each producing different gall types. The translucent oak gall formed by the sexual generation accumulates exceptionally high concentrations of malic acid, creating extremely acidic tissue conditions. This species has been documented across eastern North America and serves as a model organism for studying gall chemistry and plant-insect interactions.
Amphizoa
troutstream beetles
Amphizoa is a monogeneric genus of aquatic beetles, the sole representative of the family Amphizoidae. These beetles are commonly called troutstream beetles due to their association with cold, flowing mountain waters. The genus contains five known species, with three distributed in western North America and two in the eastern Palearctic region (China and North Korea). Adults and larvae are predatory, feeding primarily on stonefly larvae. When disturbed, adults release a yellowish, cantaloupe-scented fluid from the anus as a chemical defense.
Anisomorpha
two-striped walkingsticks, twostriped walkingsticks
Anisomorpha is a genus of large wingless walking stick insects (Phasmida) known for their potent chemical defense. Adults possess paired metathoracic glands that discharge an irritating secretion capable of causing intense burning pain and temporary blindness in predators, including humans. Females are substantially larger than males, with some individuals reaching nearly four inches in length. The genus contains four accepted species distributed across the southeastern United States, Central America, and northern South America.
Anisomorpha buprestoides
Southern Two-striped Walkingstick, Devil Rider, Musk Mare, Twostriped Walkingstick
Anisomorpha buprestoides is among the largest insects in the continental United States, with females reaching nearly 100 mm. This phasmid exhibits extreme sexual size dimorphism, with females substantially larger than males. The species is notable for its potent chemical defense spray containing anisomorphal and related compounds, which can cause severe eye irritation in humans. Three regionally distinct color morphs occur: brown, white, and orange forms, with the latter two restricted to specific areas of Florida.
Anisomorpha ferruginea
Northern Two-striped Walkingstick, Dark Walkingstick, Prairie Alligator
A large, sexually dimorphic walkingstick native to North America, recognized by two longitudinal pale stripes running the length of its dark brown to black body. Females are substantially larger than males. The species possesses chemical defense glands behind the head that can spray a noxious terpene dialdehyde mist when threatened. Active primarily in autumn when mating pairs are most frequently observed.
Apaturinae
emperors
Apaturinae is a subfamily of brush-footed butterflies (Nymphalidae) comprising approximately 20 genera and roughly 100 species commonly called 'emperors.' Members are distinguished by a green proboscis, strikingly colored upperwings, and cryptic underwings. The subfamily exhibits a disjunct global distribution, with most genera occurring in South and East Asia and Africa, while the genera Doxocopa and Asterocampa are primarily Neotropical and Nearctic. Larvae of at least some species possess a unique defensive mechanism: oral emission of volatile halitosis (alcohols and aldehydes/ketones with 4–5 carbon chains) when disturbed by predators.
Apheloria
cherry millipedes, flat-backed millipedes
Apheloria is a genus of large, chemically defended millipedes in the family Xystodesmidae, distributed across eastern North America. These millipedes are notable for producing hydrogen cyanide and benzaldehyde as defensive secretions, which imparts a characteristic cherry or almond odor. The genus participates in Müllerian mimicry rings in the Appalachian Mountains, with species displaying highly variable aposematic coloration involving black backgrounds with contrasting yellow, orange, red, or white markings. Species-level identification requires examination of male gonopod morphology due to extensive color polymorphism and convergent color patterns among co-occurring species.
Apheloria montana
mountain cherry millipede
Apheloria montana is a large flat-backed millipede in the family Xystodesmidae, native to the southern Appalachian Mountains of eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. It serves as the type species for the genus Apheloria. The species produces hydrogen cyanide and benzaldehyde as chemical defenses, which emit a characteristic cherry or almond odor. Its bright yellow or orange spots function as aposematic coloration warning predators of its toxicity.
Apheloria virginiensis corrugata
Aromatic Cherry Millipede
Apheloria virginiensis corrugata is a subspecies of flat-backed millipede in the family Xystodesmidae, commonly known as the Aromatic Cherry Millipede. Like other members of the genus Apheloria, it produces hydrogen cyanide (HCN) as a chemical defense and displays bright aposematic coloration warning predators of its toxicity. The species exhibits the characteristic flattened body shape of Polydesmida, with lateral expansions of the dorsal segments called paranota. It belongs to a group of xystodesmid millipedes that share warning coloration patterns across related genera including Apheloria, Boraria, and Cherokia.
Apheloriini
cherry millipedes
Apheloriini is a tribe of large, colorful flat-backed millipedes endemic to the temperate forests of eastern North America. All species produce hydrogen cyanide as a chemical defense, which generates a characteristic cherry or almond odor from benzaldehyde byproducts. Members display bright aposematic coloration warning predators of their toxicity. The tribe includes seven genera, with greatest diversity concentrated in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Species in this tribe participate in Müllerian mimicry rings, resulting in extreme intraspecific variation in color patterns.
Aphis nerii
oleander aphid, milkweed aphid, sweet pepper aphid, nerium aphid
Aphis nerii is a cosmopolitan aphid species in the family Aphididae, primarily associated with plants in the dogbane family (Apocynaceae), especially milkweeds (Asclepias) and oleander (Nerium oleander). The species exhibits complex reproductive strategies including parthenogenesis and viviparity, with winged and wingless female morphs. It is a significant pest of ornamental plants and a known vector of multiple plant viruses. The species has been introduced widely beyond its native range and is now found in tropical, Mediterranean, and temperate regions globally.
Apiomerus flaviventris
Yellow-bellied Bee Assassin, bee assassin bug
Apiomerus flaviventris is a predatory assassin bug in the family Reduviidae, commonly known as the yellow-bellied bee assassin. This species is notable for its specialized feeding habits targeting bees and its remarkable use of plant-derived chemical defenses. Females collect resin from brittlebush (Encelia farinosa) and apply it to their eggs as a protective barrier against predation, particularly by ants. The species inhabits arid and semiarid regions of southwestern North America.
Arctia plantaginis
wood tiger, wood tiger moth
Arctia plantaginis, commonly known as the wood tiger moth, is a Holarctic moth species in the family Erebidae. Males exhibit striking color polymorphism with yellow or white hindwing morphs, both featuring black banding patterns that function as aposematic warning signals. The species has been extensively studied as a model organism for understanding the evolutionary trade-offs between predator avoidance, sexual selection, immune function, and thermoregulation. Larvae show predator-induced plasticity in warning signal expression, developing more melanized coloration when exposed to predation risk.
Arctiinae
Tiger Moths and Allies, Tiger Moths, Woolly Bear Moths, Footmen, Lichen Moths, Wasp Moths
Arctiinae is a large and diverse subfamily of moths within the family Erebidae, comprising approximately 11,000 species worldwide. The subfamily includes tiger moths, footmen, lichen moths, and wasp moths. Many species are characterized by aposematic coloration, chemical defenses, and the production of ultrasonic sounds for defense and communication. The group was formerly classified as the family Arctiidae but was reclassified as a subfamily of Erebidae based on phylogenetic studies.
Battus
Pipevine Swallowtails and Allies
Battus is a New World genus of swallowtail butterflies in the family Papilionidae. The genus comprises approximately 9 species distributed across the Americas, with the most well-known North American representatives being Battus philenor (pipevine swallowtail) and Battus polydamas (Polydamas swallowtail). All members share a specialized ecological relationship with pipevine plants (Aristolochia), which serve as their exclusive larval host plants. The genus is notable for its aposematic coloration and chemical defense system derived from sequestered toxins.
Battus philenor
pipevine swallowtail, blue swallowtail
Battus philenor, commonly known as the pipevine swallowtail or blue swallowtail, is a North American swallowtail butterfly distinguished by its iridescent blue hindwings and aposematic black coloration. The species is chemically defended throughout all life stages through sequestration of aristolochic acids from its obligate host plants in the genus Aristolochia. Females exhibit sophisticated host discrimination behavior, selecting plants based on leaf quality and bud characteristics. The butterfly serves as a model for Batesian mimicry by several palatable butterfly species. Populations in central California have shown resilience to drought conditions, contrasting with declines in montane butterfly faunas.
Battus philenor philenor
Pipevine Swallowtail, Blue Swallowtail
Battus philenor philenor is a subspecies of the pipevine swallowtail butterfly found in North America. Adults display iridescent blue hindwings against a black background, serving as aposematic warning coloration derived from sequestered aristolochic acids from their host plants. The subspecies is univoltine to bivoltine with flight periods from late winter through autumn, peaking before July. Populations have shown resilience to drought conditions in California's Central Valley, in contrast to montane butterfly declines.
Battus polydamas
Polydamas Swallowtail, Gold Rim Swallowtail, Tailless Swallowtail
Battus polydamas is a tailless swallowtail butterfly distinguished by black wings with yellow submarginal spots and red hindwing lunules. First described by Linnaeus in 1758, it occurs throughout the Neotropics and southern United States. Larvae are obligate specialists on Aristolochia (pipevine) plants, sequestering toxic aristolochic acids for chemical defense against predators.
Battus polydamas lucayus
Florida Polydamas Swallowtail, Polydamas Swallowtail, Gold Rim, Tailless Swallowtail
A tailless swallowtail butterfly distinguished by gold-rimmed black wings with red spots. Larvae feed exclusively on pipevine plants (Aristolochia) and sequester toxic aristolochic acids for chemical defense, rendering both caterpillars and adults unpalatable to vertebrate predators. Adults exhibit slow, weak flight and are active pollinators.
Boraria infesta
Boraria infesta is a species of flat-backed millipede in the family Xystodesmidae, native to southeastern North America. It belongs to a group of polydesmidan millipedes that produce hydrogen cyanide as a chemical defense and display aposematic coloration warning predators of their toxicity. The species is part of a genus closely related to other cyanide-producing millipedes including Apheloria and Pleuroloma.
Brachinus
bombardier beetles
Brachinus is a genus of ground beetles commonly known as bombardier beetles, native to the Nearctic, Palearctic, Near East, and North Africa. The genus is renowned for its explosive defensive chemistry, wherein beetles discharge a hot, noxious spray from the abdomen when disturbed. Species within Brachinus exhibit diverse ecological strategies: wetland-associated species are pupal ectoparasitoids of water beetles (Dytiscidae, Gyrinidae, Hydrophilidae), while dryland species such as B. explodens and B. crepitans parasitize ground beetle pupae of the genus Amara (Carabidae). The genus has been extensively studied for its chemical ecology, parasitoid life history, and habitat associations across agricultural and natural landscapes.
Brachinus aabaaba
Brachinus aabaaba is a species of bombardier beetle in the family Carabidae, first described by Terry Erwin in 1970. It belongs to the genus Brachinus, which is renowned for its chemical defense mechanism that produces a hot, noxious spray from the abdomen when disturbed. The species name 'aabaaba' is unusual and appears to be a non-standard formation, possibly reflecting a descriptive or arbitrary designation by the author. Records indicate this species occurs in Mexico and the southwestern United States.
Brachinus adustipennis
Brachinus adustipennis is a species of bombardier beetle in the family Carabidae, first described by Terry Erwin in 1969. It belongs to the genus Brachinus, which is renowned for its remarkable chemical defense mechanism—producing a hot, noxious spray from the abdomen when disturbed. The species occurs across a broad geographic range spanning the Caribbean, Central America, and North America, with confirmed records from Cuba, Mexico, Panama, and the United States.
Brachinus alexiguus
Brachinus alexiguus is a species of bombardier beetle in the family Carabidae, described by Erwin in 1970. As a member of the genus Brachinus, it possesses the characteristic defensive chemical spray mechanism for which these beetles are renowned. The species is known from North America, with confirmed records from the United States.
Brachinus alternans
Brachinus alternans is a species of bombardier beetle in the family Carabidae, characterized by its chemical defense mechanism. The species occurs in Central America and North America, including the United States. Like other members of the genus Brachinus, it possesses the ability to discharge a hot, noxious chemical spray from the abdomen as a defense against predators. The specific epithet 'alternans' refers to some alternating pattern in the original description, though the precise nature of this pattern is not detailed in available sources.
Brachinus costipennis
Brachinus costipennis is a species of bombardier beetle in the ground beetle family Carabidae, first described by Motschulsky in 1859. As a member of the genus Brachinus, it possesses the characteristic chemical defense system that defines this group: the ability to spray a hot, noxious mixture of benzoquinones from the abdomen when threatened. The species occurs in Central America and North America, with records from Guatemala, Mexico, and the United States.
Brachinus cyanipennis
Cyan-winged Bombardier Beetle
Brachinus cyanipennis is a bombardier beetle species in the family Carabidae, characterized by explosive defensive chemistry typical of the genus. Based on molecular phylogenetic analysis using COI, CAD, and 28S gene regions, this species was moved from Erwin's fumans species group to the newly erected cyanipennis species group within the subgenus Neobrachinus. The species is found in North America.
Brachinus cyanochroaticus
bombardier beetle
Brachinus cyanochroaticus is a species of bombardier beetle in the ground beetle family Carabidae. It is native to North America, with confirmed records from the United States and Canada. Like other members of the genus Brachinus, it possesses the distinctive defensive chemical reaction that gives bombardier beetles their common name. The species was described by Terry Erwin in 1969.
Brachinus favicollis
Brachinus favicollis is a species of bombardier beetle in the family Carabidae, described by Terry Erwin in 1965. Like other members of the genus Brachinus, this species possesses the remarkable defensive ability to eject a hot, noxious chemical spray from the tip of its abdomen when disturbed. The species occurs in the southwestern United States and Mexico.
Brachinus fulminatus
Brachinus fulminatus is a species of ground beetle in the family Carabidae, described by Erwin in 1969. The species is known from North America, with distribution records from the United States. Like other members of the genus Brachinus, it is expected to possess chemical defense capabilities, though specific details for this species remain undocumented.
Brachinus fumans
American bombardier beetle
Brachinus fumans, commonly known as the American bombardier beetle, is a ground beetle in the family Carabidae and subfamily Brachininae. This species belongs to the subgenus Neobrachinus and was originally placed in Erwin's fumans species group based on morphological characters, though molecular phylogenetic studies have redefined this group. The species is endemic to the Nearctic region and is found across North America. Like other bombardier beetles, it possesses remarkable explosive defensive chemistry.
Brachinus hirsutus
Brachinus hirsutus is a species of bombardier beetle in the family Carabidae, characterized by its ability to produce defensive chemical sprays. It is found in Central America and North America, with records from Mexico and the United States. Like other members of the genus Brachinus, it possesses specialized defensive glands that can discharge hot, noxious chemicals when threatened.
Brachinus janthinipennis
Brachinus janthinipennis is a species of bombardier beetle in the family Carabidae, native to North America. Like other members of the genus Brachinus, it possesses the remarkable defensive ability to discharge a hot, noxious chemical spray from its abdomen when threatened. The species occurs in Canada and the United States, though specific details about its biology and ecology remain poorly documented in the scientific literature.
Brachinus medius
Medial Bombardier Beetle
Brachinus medius is a species of bombardier beetle in the family Carabidae. It is one of approximately 40 species in the genus Brachinus found in North America. Like other members of its genus, it possesses the remarkable defensive ability to discharge a hot, noxious chemical spray from the tip of its abdomen when threatened. The species occurs across much of North America including the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
Brachinus pallidus
Brachinus pallidus is a bombardier beetle in the family Carabidae, first described by Erwin in 1965. Like other members of the genus Brachinus, it possesses the remarkable chemical defense system for which bombardier beetles are famous: paired glands that combine hydroquinones and hydrogen peroxide to produce a hot, noxious spray of benzoquinones when threatened. The species is known from California and represents part of the diverse North American fauna of this chemically defended ground beetle genus.
Brachinus phaeocerus
Brachinus phaeocerus is a species of ground beetle in the family Carabidae, first described by Chaudoir in 1868. It belongs to the bombardier beetle genus Brachinus, notable for its chemical defense mechanism. The species occurs in Central America and North America, including Mexico and the United States. Like other members of its genus, it possesses the characteristic ability to produce and eject defensive chemicals when threatened.
Brachinus puberulus
Brachinus puberulus is a species of bombardier beetle in the family Carabidae, described by Chaudoir in 1868. It belongs to the genus Brachinus, renowned for its chemical defense mechanism that produces a hot, noxious spray from the abdomen when disturbed. The species is recorded from the United States and Middle America, though specific details about its biology and ecology remain sparse in the available literature.
Brachinus quadripennis
Square-winged Bombardier Beetle
Brachinus quadripennis is a species of ground beetle in the family Carabidae, commonly known as the Square-winged Bombardier Beetle. It belongs to the bombardier beetle genus Brachinus, which is renowned for its chemical defense mechanism. The species is found in Central America and North America, with records from Canada, the United States, and Middle America.
Brachinus texanus
Brachinus texanus is a species of bombardier beetle in the family Carabidae. Like other members of its genus, it possesses a remarkable defensive chemical mechanism, spraying a hot, corrosive liquid from its abdomen when disturbed. The species occurs in North America, with records from the United States and Canada.
Brachinus vulcanoides
Brachinus vulcanoides is a species of bombardier beetle in the ground beetle family Carabidae, first described by Erwin in 1969. As a member of the genus Brachinus, it possesses the characteristic defensive chemical spray mechanism that defines this group. The species is known from North America, specifically recorded from the United States, though detailed natural history information remains limited in the available literature.
Brachycybe petasata
Brachycybe petasata is a small millipede in the order Platydesmida, endemic to the southern Appalachian Mountains of the southeastern United States. It inhabits moist forest floor habitats, particularly leaf litter and decaying wood in beech, birch, maple, and hemlock forests. The species is distinguished by its production of four unique monoterpene alkaloids as chemical defenses: gosodesmine, hydrogosodesmine, homogosodesmine, and hydrohomogosodesmine. As a member of the subterclass Colobognatha, it represents one of the few millipede lineages known to synthesize terpenoid alkaloids.
Brevicoryne brassicae
cabbage aphid, cabbage aphis, mealy cabbage aphid
Brevicoryne brassicae, commonly known as the cabbage aphid, is a destructive agricultural pest native to Europe that has spread worldwide. The species feeds exclusively on plants in the family Brassicaceae, including cabbage, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and other cultivated brassicas. Large colonies form on the undersides of young leaves and flower heads, causing significant yield losses through direct feeding damage and virus transmission. The aphid possesses a unique chemical defense mechanism, producing myrosinase enzyme and sequestering glucosinolates from host plants to release toxic mustard oil compounds when attacked.
Callosamia promethea
Promethea Silkmoth, Spicebush Silkmoth
Callosamia promethea is a North American silk moth in the family Saturniidae, notable for being the only member of its family with sexually dimorphic activity patterns: males are diurnal while females are nocturnal. Adults do not feed. Larvae feed on a broad range of host plants across multiple families, including Rosaceae, Oleaceae, and Lauraceae. The species produces silk for cocoon construction and exhibits distinctive defensive behaviors including thanatosis and chemical secretion.
Calosoma marginale
rimmed caterpillar hunter, Wrinkle-winged Calosoma
A large ground beetle in the genus Calosoma, commonly known as the rimmed caterpillar hunter. Adults are crepuscular and active predators that hunt caterpillars and scarabaeid beetles. The species occurs across a broad geographic range from Central America through the southern and central United States. Adults overwinter in the ground.
Calosoma wilcoxi
Wilcox's Spring Caterpillar Hunter, Wilcox's caterpillar hunter
Calosoma wilcoxi is a medium-sized ground beetle in the genus Calosoma, commonly known as Wilcox's Spring Caterpillar Hunter. It is an arboreal predator that climbs trees to hunt caterpillars, including fall cankerworms, spring cankerworms, gypsy moth larvae, and eastern tent caterpillars. The species is smaller than its congener Calosoma scrutator (the fiery searcher), typically reaching about one third of that species' size. It has been observed in large numbers during caterpillar outbreaks in deciduous forests. Adults are active both day and night and possess potent chemical defenses including methacrylic acid and salicylaldehyde.
Carabidae
ground beetles
Carabidae is one of the largest families of beetles, comprising over 40,000 described species worldwide. Members are predominantly predatory, with elongated bodies, thread-like antennae, and prominent forward-directed mandibles. The family includes diverse forms from fast-running tiger beetles to flightless tyrant ground beetles, occupying nearly every terrestrial habitat. Many species serve as important biological control agents of agricultural pests.
Ceratomia
Ceratomia is a genus of hawkmoths (family Sphingidae) erected by Thaddeus William Harris in 1839. The genus contains seven recognized species distributed primarily in North America. Several species are notable for their specialized host plant associations, particularly with Catalpa and Fraxinus (ash). Ceratomia catalpae, the catalpa sphinx, is among the best-studied species due to its chemical sequestration of the iridoid glycoside catalpol from host plants, which provides defense against predators but not against its specialist parasitoid Cotesia congregata. Ceratomia undulosa, the waved sphinx, is an ash specialist whose populations are threatened by emerald ash borer-induced host decline.
Ceratomia catalpae
Catalpa Sphinx, Catawba worm
Ceratomia catalpae, the catalpa sphinx, is a hawk moth in the family Sphingidae native to southeastern North America. The species is notable for its close association with catalpa trees (Catalpa spp.), which serve as the exclusive host plants for its larvae. The caterpillars, known as "catawba worms," are highly valued as fishing bait and sequester defensive iridoid glycosides from their host plants. Adults are dull brown with distinctive wing markings and a wingspan of 65–95 mm. The species has been extensively studied for its chemical ecology, particularly the sequestration of catalpol and its interactions with the parasitoid wasp Cotesia congregata.
Chauliognathus deceptus
Chauliognathus deceptus is a species of soldier beetle in the family Cantharidae. It occurs in the foothills and mountains of western North America, where it replaces its close relative C. basalis. Adults display black and orange coloration and possess chemical defenses secreted from abdominal glands. The species participates in Müllerian mimicry with other toxic beetles sharing similar warning coloration.
Cherokia georgiana
Georgia Flat-backed Millipede, Wrinkled Flat-backed Millipede
Cherokia georgiana is a monospecific millipede genus in the family Xystodesmidae, representing the sole species in genus Cherokia. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of seven gene loci supports recognition of a single highly variable species, with three formerly recognized subspecies (C. g. ducilla, C. g. latassa) now synonymized. The species exhibits extensive morphological variation in coloration, body size, and paranota shape that correlates with geography and elevation rather than phylogenetic relationships. It is sister to the genus Pleuroloma.
Chlaenius ruficauda
Chlaenius ruficauda is a ground beetle in the family Carabidae, native to North America with confirmed records from the United States and Mexico. As a member of the large genus Chlaenius, which contains approximately 1,000 species worldwide, this species shares the characteristic metallic coloration and predatory habits typical of the genus. The specific epithet 'ruficauda' refers to the reddish coloration of the abdomen or tail region. Like other Chlaenius species, it possesses chemical defense glands that emit aromatic compounds when disturbed.
Chlaenius tomentosus
Brown Chlaenius Carabid
Chlaenius tomentosus is a ground beetle in the family Carabidae, native to North America. The species belongs to a large and diverse genus of predatory beetles found across multiple continents. Like other members of Chlaenius, it likely exhibits rapid running behavior and possesses chemical defense capabilities. The specific epithet "tomentosus" refers to a hairy or woolly appearance.
Chrysochus
dogbane leaf beetles, milkweed beetles
Chrysochus is a genus of leaf beetles in the subfamily Eumolpinae, established in 1836 by Louis Alexandre Auguste Chevrolat. The genus name derives from Greek χρυσοχόος, meaning 'goldsmith,' referencing the striking metallic coloration of its members. The genus contains at least eight described species distributed across North America, Europe, and Asia, with six species in the Palearctic realm and two in North America. Species in this genus are specialized herbivores of plants in the dogbane and milkweed families (Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae).
Chrysochus cobaltinus
Cobalt Milkweed Beetle, Blue Milkweed Beetle
Chrysochus cobaltinus is a leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, notable for its iridescent cobalt-blue coloration and specialized association with milkweed and dogbane plants. The species sequesters toxic cardenolides from its host plants for chemical defense against predators. Adults emerge in early summer and remain on host plants for approximately six weeks. The species exhibits polygamous mating with extended post-copulatory mate guarding by males, and hybridizes with its sister species C. auratus in narrow contact zones.
Chrysomela
leaf beetles
Chrysomela is a genus of leaf beetles in the family Chrysomelidae, containing approximately 40 species distributed across most continents except Australia. The genus is notable for its chemical defense mechanisms, with larvae producing volatile compounds derived from host plant chemistry. Several species are economically significant, including the cottonwood leaf beetle (C. scripta) in North America. Research on Chrysomela species has contributed to understanding plant-herbivore interactions, local adaptation, and chemical ecology.
Chrysomela aeneicollis
Willow Leaf Beetle
Chrysomela aeneicollis is a willow leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae that has served as an important model organism for studies of natural selection, climate adaptation, and conservation genomics. Populations in the Sierra Nevada mountains of California have been studied intensively since 1984 to understand how montane insects respond to thermal variation, reduced oxygen availability, and environmental change. The species sequesters salicin from host willows to produce defensive salicylaldehyde secretions, though these are ineffective against specialist predators. It is included in the California Conservation Genomics Project due to its documented population structure and genetic variation along environmental gradients.
Chrysomelina
Chrysomelina is a subtribe of leaf beetles within the family Chrysomelidae, subfamily Chrysomelinae. Members of this subtribe are characterized by their ability to produce chemical defenses, including de novo synthesis of iridoids (cyclic monoterpenes) and host-plant-dependent compounds such as salicylaldehyde. Larvae possess specialized glandular secretions used to repel predators. The subtribe exhibits diverse defensive strategies that have evolved through recruitment of oxidases from the glucose-methanol-choline (GMC) oxidoreductase superfamily. Some species display subsocial behavior with maternal care of offspring.
Chrysomelinae
broad-bodied leaf beetles, broad-shouldered leaf beetles
Chrysomelinae is a subfamily of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) comprising approximately 3,000 species worldwide, commonly known as broad-bodied or broad-shouldered leaf beetles. The subfamily includes the economically significant Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata), a major agricultural pest. Chrysomelinae exhibits remarkable diversity in form and coloration, with adults typically displaying convex, rounded bodies often with bright coloration and variable patterns. The subfamily is distinguished by several unique morphological features including antennae inserted on or adjacent to the anterior head edge, mandibles with large membranous prosthecae, and a single anal cell in each wing. Larvae possess six pairs of stemmata, palmate mandibles, and annular spiracles. Both life stages possess defensive glands that secrete protective chemicals.
Cimbex
Elm sawflies, Birch sawflies, Almond leaf wasps
Cimbex is a genus of large, robust sawflies in the family Cimbicidae, distributed across North America, Europe, and Asia. Adults are among the largest sawflies, with body lengths reaching 20-25 mm, and are frequently mistaken for bees or wasps due to their plump appearance and yellow-and-black coloration. The genus includes notable species such as C. americanus (elm sawfly), C. femoratus (birch sawfly), and C. quadrimaculatus (almond leaf wasp), some of which are significant defoliators of trees. Larvae are caterpillar-like, with seven pairs of prolegs distinguishing them from lepidopteran caterpillars, and possess chemical defense glands. The genus has a fossil record extending from the Eocene to the Miocene.
Cycnia tenera
dogbane tiger moth, delicate cycnia
Cycnia tenera, commonly known as the dogbane tiger moth or delicate cycnia, is a North American moth in the family Erebidae. Adults display white wings with buttery yellow forewing margins and a yellow body marked with black spots. The species is chemically defended, sequestering cardiac glycosides from its larval host plants. It has been extensively studied for its sophisticated anti-predator defense: emitting ultrasonic clicks that jam bat echolocation and serve as aposematic warnings. The moth occurs across much of North America and flies both day and night.
Cyphomyrmex
fungus-growing ants
Cyphomyrmex is a genus of small, drab-colored fungus-growing ants in the tribe Attini, found primarily in the Neotropics. These ants cultivate fungi in the tribe Leucocoprineae as their primary food source, with most species growing fungal nodules rather than full mycelial gardens. Colonies are typically monogynous and small, rarely exceeding 500 workers. The genus is divided into two species complexes: the strigatus complex (South America only) and the rimosus complex (southern North America to South America). Cyphomyrmex represents a basal lineage among attine ants and serves as sister group to Mycetophylax.
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Milkweed Butterflies, Danaids
Danainae is a subfamily of brush-footed butterflies (Nymphalidae) comprising approximately 300 species worldwide. Members are commonly known as milkweed butterflies due to their obligate larval association with milkweed plants (Apocynaceae). The group includes three tribes: Danaini (tropical Asia, Africa, and four North American species including the monarch), Ithomiini (clearwing butterflies of the Neotropics), and Tellervini (restricted to Australia and the Oriental region). Adults are aposematically colored, advertising their sequestration of toxic cardiac glycosides from host plants.
Danaini
Tiger and Crow Butterflies, Tiger butterflies
Danaini is a tribe of brush-footed butterflies within the milkweed butterfly subfamily Danainae. The tribe includes approximately 300 species across multiple subtribes, most notably Danaina (containing the monarch butterfly Danaus plexippus and related tiger butterflies) and Euploeina (containing crow butterflies and tree nymphs). Members are characterized by reduced forelegs, bright aposematic coloration, and associations with plants containing defensive compounds. The tribe lacks a fixed colloquial name, though 'tiger butterflies' is occasionally applied to subtribe Danaina.
Danaus eresimus
Soldier, Tropical Queen
Danaus eresimus, commonly known as the Soldier or Tropical Queen, is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae distributed across North America, the Caribbean, and South America. It is a milkweed butterfly that sequesters cardiac glycosides from host plants for chemical defense. The species is closely related to the Monarch and Queen butterflies, sharing similar orange and black coloration but distinguished by specific wing pattern details. It has been documented utilizing multiple Apocynaceae species as larval hosts, including a recently recorded association with Telminostelma foetidum in Oaxaca, Mexico.
Danaus plexippus
Monarch, Monarch butterfly, Milkweed, Common tiger, Wanderer, Black veined brown
The monarch butterfly is a large, migratory milkweed butterfly with distinctive orange, black, and white wing patterns. It is best known for its spectacular multigenerational migration between overwintering sites in central Mexico and coastal California and breeding grounds across North America. The species has declined dramatically in recent decades, with the western population declining 99.9% and the eastern population declining 84% since the 1990s. It was listed as Endangered by the IUCN in 2022, though it remains a candidate for listing under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Conservation efforts focus on protecting milkweed host plants and overwintering habitat.
Desmocerus aureipennis cribripennis
Desmocerus aureipennis cribripennis is a subspecies of elderberry longhorn beetle in the family Cerambycidae. Like other members of the genus Desmocerus, it is associated with elderberry plants (Sambucus). The species complex exhibits bright aposematic coloration involving orange and blue or black patterns. This subspecies occurs in western North America and is part of a group that has been studied for chemical ecology and conservation biology.
Dineutus assimilis
Dineutus assimilis is a species of whirligig beetle in the family Gyrinidae, native to North America. Like other members of the genus Dineutus, it inhabits the surface of freshwater bodies where it exhibits characteristic rapid, erratic swimming behavior. The species is distinguished from congeners primarily by ventral coloration and leg pigmentation. It is part of a diverse genus of surface-dwelling aquatic beetles known for their gregarious "rafting" behavior and chemical defenses.
Dineutus ciliatus
whirligig beetle
Dineutus ciliatus is a species of whirligig beetle in the family Gyrinidae. It is one of two genera of whirligig beetles found in Missouri, distinguished from the smaller Gyrinus by its larger size (~12 mm) and hidden scutellum. The species is found in North America and is distinguished from similar congeners primarily by its dark ventral coloration and dark legs, in contrast to the orange-legged D. emarginatus. Whirligig beetles are aquatic insects that live almost exclusively on the water surface, where they form aggregations called 'rafts' that provide anti-predator benefits through increased vigilance and chemical defense.
Dinocampini
Dinocampini is a tribe of parasitoid wasps within the subfamily Euphorinae of the family Braconidae. Members of this tribe are known to exhibit complex mating behaviors including lek formation, as documented in the recently described species Napo townsendi. The tribe is represented in the Neotropical region, with observations from Ecuadorian cloud forest habitats.
Diplopoda
millipedes
Millipedes (Diplopoda) are a class of myriapod arthropods characterized by having two pairs of jointed legs on most body segments, a result of segmental fusion during their evolutionary history over 400 million years ago. They are primarily detritivores that play critical roles in ecosystem nutrient cycling through decomposition of organic matter. The class contains approximately 12,000 described species across 16 extant orders, with body forms ranging from elongated cylindrical forms to short, pill-like species capable of conglobation (rolling into a defensive ball).
Dyspnoi
Dyspnoan Harvestmen
Dyspnoi is a suborder of harvestmen (Opiliones) comprising approximately 43 extant genera and 356 described species across eight families. The group is organized into three superfamilies: Acropsopilionoidea, Ischyropsalidioidea, and Troguloidea. Dyspnoi represents one of the most biogeographically conserved higher groups of harvestmen, with distribution patterns suggesting relictual status as paleo-European mainland fauna. Members possess distinctive defensive scent glands with complex functional anatomy involving hidden ozopores and specialized secretion discharge mechanisms.
Eleodes
pinacate beetles, desert stink beetles
Eleodes is the largest genus of darkling beetles in North America, comprising approximately 200 species. These beetles are endemic to western North America, ranging from southern Canada to central Mexico, with some species introduced to Colombia. Commonly known as pinacate beetles or desert stink beetles, they are flightless due to fused elytra and vestigial hindwings. All species possess chemical defense glands that produce quinone compounds, and many exhibit distinctive head-standing behavior when threatened. The genus shows remarkable ecological diversity, with species occupying deserts, forests, grasslands, and caves.
Eleodes armata
Armored Stink Beetle
Eleodes armata, commonly known as the armored stink beetle, is a species of darkling beetle in the family Tenebrionidae. It inhabits arid regions of the western United States and Mexico. The species is distinguished by prominent spurs on all legs, a feature reflected in its specific epithet 'armata' (armed). Like other members of the genus Eleodes, it exhibits the characteristic head-standing defensive posture when disturbed.
Eleodes caudifera
desert stink beetle
Eleodes caudifera is a species of darkling beetle in the family Tenebrionidae, commonly referred to as a desert stink beetle. The species is native to arid regions of western North America and exhibits the defensive head-standing behavior typical of the genus Eleodes. It has been documented in sandy desert habitats, particularly in association with dune systems. The species was described by LeConte in 1858.
Eleodes cordata
desert stink beetle, clown beetle
Eleodes cordata is a species of darkling beetle in the family Tenebrionidae, commonly referred to as a desert stink beetle or clown beetle. The species is part of a large genus of flightless, ground-dwelling beetles native to arid and semi-arid regions of North America. Like other Eleodes species, it possesses defensive chemical capabilities and exhibits the characteristic "headstand" defensive posture when threatened. The species was described by Eschscholtz in 1829.
Eleodes eschscholtzii
desert stink beetle
Eleodes eschscholtzii is a species of darkling beetle (family Tenebrionidae) native to arid regions of western North America. The species is part of the diverse Eleodes genus, commonly known as clown beetles or desert stink beetles, characterized by defensive chemical secretion and a distinctive head-stand posture when threatened. Two subspecies are recognized: E. e. eschscholtzii and E. e. lucae.
Eleodes gracilis
desert stink beetle
Eleodes gracilis is a species of desert stink beetle in the family Tenebrionidae, first described by LeConte in 1858. The species belongs to the genus Eleodes, commonly known as stink beetles or darkling beetles, which are characterized by their defensive behavior of raising the abdomen when disturbed. Two subspecies are recognized: Eleodes gracilis gracilis and Eleodes gracilis distans. The species is distributed in Mexico and has been recorded in the southwestern United States.
Eleodes hirsuta
Hairy Stink Beetle, Hairy Eleodes
Eleodes hirsuta is a large darkling beetle (Tenebrionidae) native to western North America, recognized by its conspicuously hairy body and defensive chemical-secreting behavior. The species belongs to the 'clown beetle' group, known for their characteristic head-stand posture when threatened. Adults are primarily nocturnal and active during warmer months in arid and semi-arid grassland habitats.
Empyreuma
spotted oleander caterpillar moth
Empyreuma is a genus of tiger moths in the family Erebidae, containing three species. The genus name derives from the Greek ἐμπύρευμα, meaning "a live coal covered with ashes." Adults exhibit striking aposematic coloration with orange and black patterns that mimic stinging wasps. Larvae feed exclusively on oleander (Nerium oleander), a toxic plant containing cardiac glycosides that the caterpillars sequester for their own defense. The genus is notable for its acoustic courtship behavior, with males producing sounds detected by female tympanic organs.
Epicauta cicatrix
Blister beetle
Epicauta cicatrix is a species of blister beetle in the family Meloidae, described by Werner in 1951. The genus Epicauta is one of the largest in the family and contains species known for producing cantharidin, a defensive chemical compound. This species is part of the North American fauna of Epicauta, a group that includes numerous species often associated with grassland and prairie habitats. Like other members of its genus, it likely possesses chemical defenses derived from cantharidin production.
Epicauta pensylvanica
black blister beetle, black aster bug
Epicauta pensylvanica is a blister beetle species in the family Meloidae, commonly known as the black blister beetle or black aster bug. The species is characterized by its predominantly black coloration and is known to contain the defensive compound cantharidin, which can cause skin blistering upon contact. Adults are typically found on flowers of plants in the Asteraceae family, particularly snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae). The species occurs across North America and has been documented as a pest of soybean foliage in agricultural settings.
Eros
Eros is a genus of net-winged beetles in the family Lycidae, established by Newman in 1838. The genus contains at least three described species. Net-winged beetles are characterized by soft, flexible elytra with a distinctive net-like pattern of raised veins. Members of this genus are found in the Neotropical region, with distribution records from Colombia.
Erotides
Erotides is a genus of net-winged beetles (family Lycidae) established by Waterhouse in 1879. Species are medium-sized with elongated, flattened bodies and strongly costate, reticulate elytra forming the characteristic net-like pattern. The genus is distributed across the Oriental and Australasian regions, including Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Papua New Guinea. Members participate in Müllerian and Batesian mimicry complexes and are chemically defended.
Erotylinae
pleasing fungus beetles
Erotylinae is a subfamily of pleasing fungus beetles in the family Erotylidae. Members are typically small to medium-sized beetles with compact, often brightly colored bodies. The subfamily is characterized by the presence of exocrine compound glands across all examined genera, with the highest diversity in Megalodacne (up to 9 pairs). These glands are likely involved in chemical defense and possibly pheromone production. The group exhibits diverse morphological forms across approximately 27+ genera including Triplax, Dacne, Megalodacne, and Iphiclus.
Eudaminae
Dicot Skippers
Eudaminae is a subfamily of skipper butterflies (family Hesperiidae) comprising approximately 350 species. The group is predominantly Neotropical in distribution, with some species extending into temperate North America and one genus, Lobocla, occurring in East Asia. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies have elevated this group from tribal status within Pyrginae to subfamily rank, dividing it into four tribes: Entheini, Phocidini, Eudamini, and Oileidini. Members are commonly known as "flashers" due to their rapid flight patterns.
Eumaeus
Cycadians
Eumaeus is a genus of lycaenid butterflies commonly known as cycadians, characterized by their striking coloration and obligate association with cycad host plants. Members of this genus are specialist herbivores that sequester neurotoxic compounds from their hosts, rendering them chemically defended against predators. Several species have experienced severe population declines due to overharvesting and habitat destruction of their cycad hosts, followed by remarkable recoveries linked to urban ornamental plantings. The genus represents a notable example of reconciliation ecology, where conservation success has been achieved through human-modified landscapes.
Eumaeus atala
Atala, Atala butterfly, Atala hairstreak, coontie hairstreak
The Atala butterfly is a small, colorful lycaenid butterfly unique within its range for its aposematic coloration and exclusive association with cycad host plants. Once considered the most conspicuous insect in South Florida in 1888, it was believed extinct by the 1950s due to overharvesting of its sole native host plant, coontie (Zamia integrifolia), for starch production. Rediscovered in 1979 on a Miami barrier island, the species has recovered dramatically through conservation efforts and the popularity of coontie as an ornamental landscape plant, becoming common enough in southeast Florida to occasionally be regarded as a pest. The butterfly sequesters toxic cycasin compounds from its host, rendering all life stages unpalatable to predators.
butterflyhairstreakLycaenidaecycadcoontieZamiaaposematic-colorationchemical-defenseconservationendangered-species-recoveryFlorida-endemicpine-rocklandhost-plant-specialistsequestrationurban-wildlifeornamental-pestfreeze-dried-dietex-situ-conservationreintroductionfire-dependent-ecosystemnative-plant-landscapingcycasin-toxicitymultivoltineterritorial-malescorematasound-producing-pupaeEupackardia
Eupackardia is a monotypic moth genus in the family Saturniidae, containing a single species, Eupackardia calleta (the calleta silkmoth). The genus was erected by Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell in 1912. The sole species is notable for its striking black-and-white wing pattern with red thoracic markings, and its caterpillars possess bright aposematic coloration with chemical defenses.
Euphydryas gillettii
Gillett's Checkerspot, Gillette's Checkerspot
Euphydryas gillettii is a medium-sized checkerspot butterfly native to western North America. The species exhibits variable chemical defense through sequestration of iridoid glycosides from host plants, with defensive compound concentrations varying significantly between populations based on host plant use. First described by William Barnes in 1897, this montane butterfly has been the subject of ecological research examining host-plant selection and chemical ecology.
Eupompha imperialis
Eupompha imperialis is a blister beetle in the family Meloidae, described by Wellman in 1912. The species is recorded from North America. As a member of the tribe Eupomphini, it belongs to a group of blister beetles known for their aposematic coloration and chemical defense. Museum collections hold 42 specimens of this species.
Eurycotis
Eurycotis is a genus of cockroaches in the family Blattidae, distributed across the Americas from the southern United States through Central America to South America. Members possess a distinctive defensive capability: both sexes harbor large abdominal glands that secrete a milky, acidic fluid when threatened, which can be released as an oozing liquid or projected as a spray up to three feet. The genus includes at least 20 species in Cuba alone, with Eurycotis floridana being the most extensively studied species. Research on E. floridana has documented detailed mating behaviors involving spermatophore transfer and courtship rituals.
Exapion ulicis
Gorse Seed Weevil
Exapion ulicis is a small seed-feeding weevil specialized on gorse (Ulex europaeus). Adults are light gray with a prominent snout roughly half the body length. The species is native to western Europe and has been introduced to New Zealand, California, Hawaii, and other regions as a biological control agent targeting invasive gorse populations. Larval feeding destroys seeds within pods, reducing plant spread, while adult feeding on stems and spines causes minor damage.
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oreas
Hill Mound Ant
Formica oreas is a thatching ant in the Formica rufa species group, known for constructing conspicuous mound nests from plant material. The species is an aggressive predator with well-documented chemical defense mechanisms. Workers produce alarm-recruitment pheromones from their poison gland (formic acid) and Dufour's gland (hydrocarbons) to coordinate nest defense. These semiochemicals are exploited by blacklegged ticks (Ixodes scapularis) as predator avoidance cues, representing a documented case of eavesdropping on predator communication signals.
Gosodesmus
pink feather boa millipede
Gosodesmus is a monotypic genus of platydesmidan millipedes described by Ralph V. Chamberlin in 1922. The sole species, Gosodesmus claremontus, is endemic to California and notable for its bright pink to coral coloration. The species has been the subject of chemical research following the 2020 discovery of a novel alkaloid, gosodesmine, in its defensive secretions.
Gyrinidae
Whirligig Beetles
Whirligig beetles (family Gyrinidae) are aquatic beetles that inhabit the surface film of freshwater habitats worldwide. The family comprises approximately 700 extant species in 15 genera. These beetles are instantly recognizable by their habit of swimming rapidly in circles on the water surface when alarmed, a behavior that gives them their common name. They possess divided compound eyes—upper portions adapted for vision above water and lower portions for underwater viewing—a unique adaptation among insects. Members of this family are active predators and scavengers that form conspicuous aggregations or "rafts" on the water surface, which serve defensive functions through enhanced predator detection and possible aposematic signaling.
Gyrinus picipes
whirligig beetle
Gyrinus picipes is a species of whirligig beetle in the family Gyrinidae. It is found in North America, with records from multiple Canadian provinces including Alberta, British Columbia, and Manitoba. Whirligig beetles in this genus are characterized by their distinctive habit of swimming in erratic, circling patterns on the water surface.
Halysidota tessellaris
Banded Tussock Moth, Pale Tiger Moth, Tessellated Halisidota
A tiger moth species in the family Erebidae, described by James Edward Smith in 1797. Adults acquire defensive alkaloids from host plants. Caterpillars are conspicuous, with distinctive tufted setae and extra-long hair-pencils at both ends. The species is univoltine in northern parts of its range and multivoltine in the south.
Harpaphe haydeniana
yellow-spotted millipede, almond-scented millipede, cyanide millipede
Harpaphe haydeniana is a flat-backed millipede native to the Pacific coast of North America, recognized by its black body with yellow-tipped lateral keels. The species is notable for its chemical defense system, secreting hydrogen cyanide when threatened, which produces a characteristic almond odor. It plays a significant role in forest decomposition, particularly in redwood ecosystems. Despite its common names suggesting uniqueness, both the color pattern and cyanide defense occur in other flat-backed millipedes globally.
Harrisina
grapeleaf skeletonizer moths
Harrisina is a genus of moths in the family Zygaenidae, commonly known as grapeleaf skeletonizer moths. The genus includes several species, notably Harrisina americana (grapeleaf skeletonizer) and Harrisina metallica (western grapeleaf skeletonizer), which are significant agricultural pests of grapevines. Members of this genus are characterized by their aposematic coloration—typically black with bright red or metallic markings—and their ability to produce hydrogen cyanide as a chemical defense. The larvae feed gregariously on grape foliage, skeletonizing leaves by consuming the tissue between the veins.
Harrisina americana
Grapeleaf Skeletonizer Moth
Harrisina americana, commonly known as the Grapeleaf Skeletonizer Moth, is a day-flying moth in the family Zygaenidae. Adults are uniformly black with a distinctive bright red collar on the neck, serving as aposematic warning coloration. The species is notable among insects for its ability to produce hydrogen cyanide as a chemical defense. Larvae feed on grape family plants, skeletonizing leaves by consuming tissue between the veins. The moth is widespread in the eastern United States and is frequently observed in association with wild and cultivated grapes as well as Virginia creeper.
Heliconiinae
longwings, heliconians, fritillaries and longwings
Heliconiinae is a subfamily of brush-footed butterflies (Nymphalidae) comprising 45–50 genera, commonly known as longwings or heliconians. Members are distinguished by elongated forewings and predominantly reddish-black coloration. They are notable among butterflies for actively consuming pollen, which extends adult longevity. The subfamily exhibits complex coevolutionary relationships with Passifloraceae host plants and serves as a classic model for studies of Müllerian and Batesian mimicry.
Ithomiini
clearwings, glasswings, tigerwings
Ithomiini is a diverse tribe of approximately 370 species in 40–45 genera, endemic to the Neotropics from Mexico to Argentina. These butterflies are renowned for their Müllerian mimicry rings, slow flight, and unpalatability derived from sequestered pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Adults actively seek out and sequester these defensive compounds from plants rather than synthesizing them de novo. The tribe represents the largest known radiation of Müllerian mimetic butterflies and dominates Neotropical mimetic butterfly communities by number.
Junonia coenia
Common Buckeye, Buckeye
Junonia coenia, commonly known as the common buckeye, is a distinctive butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is widely distributed across North America, Central America, and parts of northern South America. The species is known for its prominent eyespots on the wings and its migratory behavior, moving south in autumn to escape cold temperatures. Adults feed preferentially on yellow flowers, while larvae specialize on plants containing iridoid glycosides.
Labidomera clivicollis
Swamp Milkweed Leaf Beetle, Milkweed Leaf Beetle
Labidomera clivicollis is a large leaf beetle specialized on milkweeds (Asclepias spp.). Adults and larvae feed on milkweed foliage, sequestering cardiac glycosides for chemical defense. The species exhibits aposematic orange and black coloration as part of a Müllerian mimicry complex with monarch butterflies and other milkweed feeders. Reproduction is photoperiodically controlled, with short day lengths inducing adult diapause. Larvae suffer high predation mortality, particularly from ground-dispersing predators.
Laetilia coccidivora
scale-feeding snout moth, Scale-feeding Snout
Laetilia coccidivora is a small pyralid moth whose larvae are specialized predators of scale insects (family Coccidae). First described by Comstock in 1879, it occurs in the southern United States and has been documented in Mexico preying on Coccus pseudomagnoliarum. The species is notable among Lepidoptera for its entomophagous diet and use of sequestered carminic acid from its prey for chemical defense.
Lasius interjectus
Larger Yellow Ant, Larger Citronella Ant, Citronella Ant
Lasius interjectus, commonly known as the larger yellow ant or larger citronella ant, is a North American ant species distinguished by its yellowish coloration and distinctive lemon-citronella scent. Formerly classified in the genus Acanthomyops (now a subgenus of Lasius), this species nests in soil, often along building foundations, and is known for producing alate swarms that sometimes emerge indoors. The species poses no structural threat to buildings and is recognized by its chemical defense using citronellal and formic acid.
Leptoglossus
leaf-footed bugs
Leptoglossus is a genus of true bugs in the leaf-footed bug family Coreidae, tribe Anisoscelini. Species are characterized by leaflike dilations of the hind tibia, a diagnostic trait of the genus. The genus is distributed throughout the Americas, with some introduced populations in Europe and Asia. Several species are economically significant agricultural pests, notably L. occidentalis, which has become invasive in multiple continents.
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nchanmoss-bugarchaeorrhynchanfulgoromorphancicadomorphanmembracoidtreehopperleafhopperplanthopperpsyllidjumping-plant-lousewhiteflyaleyrodidscale-insectcoccoidmealybugaphidadelgidphylloxeransternorrhynchanthysanopteranthripspsocopteranbarklousebooklousephthirapteranlousesucking-lousechewing-lousemallophagananoplurandermapteranearwigblattodeancockroachtermiteisopteranmantodeanmantidphasmidstick-insectleaf-insectorthopterangrasshopperlocustkatydidcricketmole-cricketpygmy-mole-cricketcamel-cricketcave-cricketwetaensiferancaeliferangryllotalpidmyrmecophilidtettigoniidgryllidacrididpamphagidpneumoridlentulidtristirideumastacidproscopiidtridactylidtetrigidgrouse-locustpygmy-grasshopperplecopteranstoneflyembiopteranwebspinnerzorapteranangel-insectdictyopteranLomamyia
Nearctic Beaded Lacewings
Lomamyia is a genus of beaded lacewings (family Berothidae) containing approximately 11 described species, all native to the Nearctic region. Larvae are specialized predators of termites, incapacitating prey with a chemical spray emitted from the anus—a unique defensive and predatory mechanism among Neuroptera. The genus is notable for having the first published complete life history record for the family Berothidae, based on detailed study of Lomamyia latipennis.
Lycinae
net-winged beetles
Lycinae is a subfamily of net-winged beetles (family Lycidae) containing approximately 11 tribes and numerous genera distributed across tropical and subtropical regions. Members are characterized by their soft, flexible elytra with prominent net-like venation. The subfamily includes familiar genera such as Lycus, Calopteron, and Macrolycus. Many species exhibit aposematic (warning) coloration, often in orange, red, or black patterns.
Lygaeinae
Lygaeinae is a subfamily of ground bugs (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) commonly known as milkweed bugs. Members are characterized by ancestral adaptations for sequestering cardenolides—potent cardiac glycosides from host plants—using resistant Na+/K+-ATPases. These coevolved traits enable chemical defense against predators and have facilitated host shifts to cardenolide-producing plants across multiple families. The subfamily exhibits diverse feeding strategies from dietary specialists to generalists, with sequestration mediating predator-prey interactions with vertebrates and invertebrates.
Lygaeus
seed bugs, milkweed bugs
Lygaeus is a genus of seed bugs in the family Lygaeidae, containing over 60 described species. Members are characterized by aposematic coloration—typically combinations of red, black, gray, and white—that advertises chemical defenses. Several species, notably L. kalmii (small milkweed bug), sequester cardiac glycosides from host plants, rendering them unpalatable to predators. The genus exhibits diverse feeding strategies ranging from seed-feeding specialization to opportunistic scavenging.
Lygaeus kalmii
Small Milkweed Bug, Common Milkweed Bug
Lygaeus kalmii is a seed bug in the family Lygaeidae known for its bright orange-red and black aposematic coloration. Adults measure 10–12 mm and feed primarily on milkweed seeds and flower nectar, though they exhibit dietary flexibility including scavenging on dead insects and feeding on seeds of other plants such as composites. The species sequesters cardiac glycosides from milkweed, making it unpalatable to predators. Unlike the migratory large milkweed bug (Oncopeltus fasciatus), L. kalmii is non-migratory and overwinters as adults. Two subspecies are recognized: L. k. kalmii in western North America and L. k. angustomarginatus in the east, distinguished by differences in the white markings on the membranous portion of the forewings.
Lymantriinae
Tussock Moths
Lymantriinae is a subfamily of moths within Erebidae, comprising approximately 350 genera and over 2,500 species. Members are commonly known as tussock moths, referring to the distinctive tufted appearance of their caterpillars. The subfamily has a cosmopolitan distribution absent only from Antarctica, with notable concentrations in sub-Saharan Africa, India, Southeast Asia, and South America. Many species are significant forest defoliators, including economically important pests such as the spongy moth (Lymantria dispar).
Manduca sexta
Carolina sphinx moth, tobacco hawk moth, tobacco hornworm, Goliath worm
Manduca sexta is a large sphinx moth native to the Americas, widely recognized as both a significant agricultural pest and a premier model organism in biological research. The species exhibits marked sexual dimorphism in adults and undergoes complete metamorphosis through five larval instars. Larvae are notable for their ability to sequester and metabolize nicotine from tobacco plants, using it as a chemical defense against predators. The species has been extensively studied in neurobiology, developmental biology, and immunology due to its large size, short life cycle, and accessible nervous system.
Mastigoproctus tohono
Tohono whipscorpion, Tohono vinegaroon
Mastigoproctus tohono is a species of whip scorpion (order Uropygi) described in 2018 from populations previously attributed to Mastigoproctus giganteus. It is distinguished by specific setal patterns and epistoma positioning. The species produces acetic acid spray as a chemical defense, creating a vinegar-like odor. It inhabits arid regions of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico.
Megetra punctata
Megetra punctata is a blister beetle in the family Meloidae, first described by Selander in 1965. The species is distributed across Central America and North America. Like other members of the genus Megetra, it exhibits aposematic coloration warning of its chemical defenses.
Melinaea lilis
Mimic Tigerwing
Melinaea lilis is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae, commonly known as the Mimic Tigerwing. It belongs to the tribe Ithomiini, a group of neotropical butterflies known for their unpalatability to predators and participation in Müllerian mimicry rings. The species was originally described as Mechanitis lilis by Doubleday in 1847. It is one of approximately 12 species in the genus Melinaea, which are distributed across Central and South America.
Meloe angusticollis
short-winged blister beetle, oil beetle
Meloe angusticollis is a North American blister beetle known for its short elytra that leave most of the abdomen exposed. Adults release cantharidin-laden hemolymph as a chemical defense, which causes skin blistering in humans. The species exhibits hypermetamorphosis, with mobile first-instar larvae (triungulins) that parasitize solitary bees by hitchhiking to nest sites. Females are notably larger than males, reaching up to 19 mm.
Meloidae
Blister Beetles
Meloidae, commonly known as blister beetles, is a family of approximately 7,500 species worldwide within the order Coleoptera. Members are characterized by their production of cantharidin, a toxic terpenoid compound that serves as a potent chemical defense against predators. The family exhibits remarkable diversity in adult morphology, with some species displaying aposematic coloration while others are cryptically colored. Life histories are complex, typically involving hypermetamorphosis with mobile triungulin larvae that often parasitize grasshopper eggs or bee nests. Adults are primarily herbivorous, with many species feeding on flowers and foliage of various plants.
Metrius contractus
Contracted Bombing Beetle
Metrius contractus is a bombardier beetle in the family Carabidae, described by Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz in 1829. It belongs to the subfamily Paussinae and is one of approximately 295 documented observations. The species is distributed in North America, specifically in Canada and the United States. It is known for its defensive chemical capabilities characteristic of bombardier beetles.
Metrius contractus contractus
Contracted Bombing Beetle
Metrius contractus contractus is a subspecies of ground beetle in the family Carabidae, native to western North America. It belongs to the tribe Metriini, which is notable for its specialized chemical defense mechanisms. The species has been documented in Canada and the United States, with observations concentrated in western regions. Like other members of its genus, it possesses the ability to discharge defensive chemicals, earning it the common name 'Contracted Bombing Beetle.'
Monophadnus
Monophadnus is a genus of sawflies in the family Tenthredinidae. Species in this genus are specialized herbivores of Ranunculaceae plants, particularly Helleborus species. Larvae sequester host plant secondary metabolites—including furostanol saponins and, in some species, phytoecdysteroids—into their haemolymph for chemical defense against predators. This sequestration represents a documented case of bioaccumulation, with ecdysteroid concentrations in larval haemolymph reaching levels thousands of times higher than in host plant tissues.
Narceus
Narceus is a genus of large cylindrical millipedes in the family Spirobolidae native to eastern North America. The genus includes some of the largest millipedes in the region, with individuals reaching up to 12 cm in length. It comprises three to four recognized species, including two Florida endemics and a widespread species complex (N. americanus/annularis) spanning eastern Canada to the southern United States. These millipedes are significant decomposers in forest ecosystems and serve as intermediate hosts for certain parasites.
Nasutitermitinae
Nasute Termites
Nasutitermitinae is a subfamily of higher termites within Termitidae, comprising 81 genera and approximately 605 species with near-cosmopolitan distribution. The subfamily is distinguished by a highly derived soldier caste bearing vestigial mandibles and a prominent fontanellar process (the nasus) used to project chemical defenses. Notable genera include Nasutitermes, Hospitalitermes, and Constrictotermes, the latter two recognized for forming conspicuous above-ground foraging trails.
Neacoryphus
Neacoryphus is a genus of seed bugs in the family Lygaeidae, established by Scudder in 1965. The genus contains approximately five to seven described species, with Neacoryphus bicrucis being the most extensively studied. Members of this genus are seed-feeding insects with documented chemical defense mechanisms and complex territorial behaviors.
Neacoryphus bicrucis
Whitecrossed seed bug, Ragwort seed bug, White-crossed seed bug
Neacoryphus bicrucis is a seed-feeding true bug (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) commonly known as the whitecrossed seed bug or ragwort seed bug. The species is specialized on Senecio species as host plants, from which it sequesters pyrrolizidine alkaloids that render it distasteful to some predators. It exhibits complex territorial and mating behaviors centered on host plant patches, with males defending high-density areas where females preferentially oviposit. The species shows pronounced sexual dimorphism in flight behavior: females conditionally histolyze flight muscles based on resource availability, while males retain flight capability throughout life. It has a broad distribution across the Americas and has been introduced to Oceania.
Neanurinae
Neanurinae is the largest subfamily of springtails (Collembola) in the family Neanuridae, containing approximately 800 described species. These springtails are distinguished by their stout, pudgy bodies, short legs, and complete loss of the furcula—the springing organ that characterizes most Collembola. They move exceptionally slowly and possess a distinctive mulberry-like appearance due to spherical tubercles covering the dorsal body surface. The subfamily was established by Carl Börner in 1901 and is currently divided into six tribes, though phylogenetic analyses suggest this classification may not reflect evolutionary relationships.
Neochlamisus gibbosus
warty leaf beetle
Neochlamisus gibbosus is a species of warty leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, found in Central and North America. The species exhibits remarkable frass-mimicry as adults, with a compact, humped body that closely resembles caterpillar excrement. Females lay single eggs covered in frass, forming bell-shaped protective coverings. Larvae are case-bearing, constructing portable cases from their own feces and attaching them to host plants during molting. When threatened, both adults and larvae release a yellow defensive liquid. The species has been studied in detail from populations on Rubus laudatus in Kansas.
Neodiprion
Neodiprion is a genus of conifer sawflies in the family Diprionidae, containing approximately 25 species native to North America. Larvae are specialized folivores of pine needles, with most species exhibiting strong host associations with particular Pinus species. Several species, including N. lecontei and N. sertifer, are significant forest pests capable of causing extensive defoliation during outbreak years. The genus is distinguished from related sawflies by morphological and ecological traits associated with conifer specialization.
Neodiprion pratti
Virginia pine sawfly, jack pine sawfly
Neodiprion pratti is a conifer sawfly native to North America with documented populations in Canada and the eastern United States. The species exhibits complex host-associated population structure, with distinct populations adapted to specific pine hosts including Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), jack pine (Pinus banksiana), sand pine (Pinus clausa), slash pine (Pinus elliottii), and longleaf pine (Pinus palustris). Populations show significant variation in life history, with northern forms typically univoltine and a distinctive West Florida population exhibiting winter-active phenology with adults emerging in October-November.
Neodiprion pratti pratti
Virginia pine sawfly
Neodiprion pratti pratti, the Virginia pine sawfly, is a conifer-feeding sawfly native to eastern North America. It is a univoltine species with larvae that feed gregariously on pine needles, particularly Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana) and pitch pine (Pinus rigida). The subspecies exhibits a distinctive winter-active life history in some populations, with adults emerging in late autumn and larvae feeding during the cool season. This phenology allows escape from egg parasitoids but exposes small larvae to periodic mortality from freezing events and ice storms.
Nomius pygmaeus
stink beetle, stinking beetle
Nomius pygmaeus is a small ground beetle in family Carabidae, the sole representative of tribe Psydrini. Adults emit a distinctive repugnant odor when captured or disturbed, earning the common name "stink beetle." The species exhibits a remarkably disjunct global distribution, occurring in North America from Canada to California and sporadically across parts of Europe and southwestern Asia.
Notodontidae
Prominent Moths
Notodontidae is a family of moths comprising approximately 3,800 described species, first established by James Francis Stephens in 1829. The family is distributed globally but reaches its greatest diversity in tropical regions, particularly the New World. Adults are characterized by heavy bodies, long wings held folded across the back at rest, and predominantly dull coloration in grey or brown tones. The family name derives from Greek roots meaning 'back tooth,' referring to the tuft of hair often present on the trailing edge of the forewing. Larvae exhibit remarkable morphological diversity and possess chemical defenses uncommon in other Lepidoptera.
Oedemeridae
false blister beetles, pollen-feeding beetles
Oedemeridae is a cosmopolitan family of beetles containing approximately 100 genera and 1,500 species. Adults are slender, soft-bodied beetles commonly found on flowers and foliage, where they feed primarily on pollen and nectar. Larvae develop in decaying wood or herbaceous plant stems, with most species being xylophagous. The family is notable for producing cantharidin, a toxic defensive compound also found in blister beetles (Meloidae), which makes adults chemically protected and often brightly colored with aposematic coloration.
Opiliones
harvestmen, harvesters, daddy longlegs, granddaddy longlegs, shepherd spiders
Opiliones is an ancient order of arachnids comprising over 6,650 described species, with estimates suggesting more than 10,000 extant species worldwide. The order includes five suborders: Cyphophthalmi, Eupnoi, Dyspnoi, Laniatores, and Tetrophthalmi. Fossil evidence from 410 million-year-old Devonian deposits demonstrates that harvestmen have remained morphologically conservative since their early evolution. Despite superficial resemblance to spiders, Opiliones represent a distinct arachnid lineage with unique anatomical and behavioral characteristics.
arachnidharvestmandaddy-longlegsancient-lineageomnivorenocturnalgregariouscave-dwellingpaternal-carechemical-defenseautotomymodel-organismconservation-concernvenomlesstracheal-respirationdirect-copulationshort-range-endemictroglobiteaposematiccrypsismimicrythanatosisviscoelastic-adhesiveanurophagyvertebrate-predatorPaederus iowensis
Iowa Tomcat Rove Beetle
Paederus iowensis is a small rove beetle in the family Staphylinidae, commonly known as the Iowa Tomcat Rove Beetle. Like other members of the genus Paederus, it possesses specialized defensive glands containing pederin, a potent vesicant compound that can cause dermatitis upon contact with human skin. The species is native to the midwestern and northeastern United States and adjacent Canada.
Papilioninae
Swallowtails
Papilioninae is a subfamily of swallowtail butterflies (family Papilionidae) comprising approximately 480 species distributed worldwide, with greatest diversity in tropical and subtropical regions. The subfamily is characterized by distinctive morphological features including hindwing tail extensions, specialized wing venation patterns, and structural adaptations of antennae and palpi. Papilioninae was formally classified by Rothschild and Jordan in 1895 and contains four tribes: Papilionini, Troidini, Leptocircini, and Teinopalpini.
Parnassius smintheus
Rocky Mountain parnassian, Rocky Mountain apollo
Parnassius smintheus is a high-altitude butterfly endemic to the Rocky Mountains of North America. It inhabits alpine and subalpine meadows where it depends on Sedum lanceolatum as its primary larval host plant. The species exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism in behavior: males are highly mobile and patrol meadows for females, while females are relatively sedentary and search for oviposition sites primarily by crawling. Population dynamics are strongly influenced by early-winter weather conditions, particularly November temperature extremes and snowfall, which affect overwintering egg survival. Climate change poses significant threats through rising treeline and altered snowpack patterns.
Paussinae
Ant nest beetles, paussines, flanged bombardier beetles
Paussinae is a subfamily of ground beetles (Carabidae) commonly known as ant nest beetles or flanged bombardier beetles. The subfamily includes four tribes: Metriini, Ozaenini, Paussini, and Protopaussini. Many species are obligate myrmecophiles, living within ant nests where they feed on ant brood and reproduce. Some lineages exhibit chemical defense capabilities, and the group displays diverse morphological adaptations including flanged elytra and modified antennae.
Phalangioidea
harvestmen
Phalangioidea is a superfamily of harvestmen (order Opiliones) within the suborder Eupnoi, comprising five families and over 1,500 species. Members are characterized by relatively long legs, fused body regions (cephalothorax and abdomen not separated by a pedicel), and the absence of venom glands and silk production. The superfamily includes the common long-legged harvestmen frequently encountered in temperate regions. Phalangioidea is distinct from the similarly named Phalangodoidea, a superfamily within the suborder Laniatores.
Phasmatidae
stick insects, walking sticks
Phasmatidae is a family of stick insects characterized by extreme elongation of the body and limbs to resemble twigs or branches. Members range from small species to the largest insects known, with Phobaeticus chani reaching 567 mm total length. The family exhibits remarkable crypsis through body form, coloration, and behavior, including swaying movements that mimic branches in wind. Many species possess defensive chemical glands when camouflage fails. The family has undergone significant taxonomic revision, with six subfamilies recognized in Phasmatidae sensu stricto.
Phasmida
stick insects, walking sticks, stick-bugs, phasmids, ghost insects, leaf insects
Phasmida is an order of insects comprising approximately 3,000 valid species worldwide, grouped into 523 genera and 13 families. Members are renowned for extreme cryptic morphology resembling sticks, twigs, or leaves, with elongated bodies and appendages that match host vegetation in color and texture. The order exhibits remarkable size variation, from small species to the longest insects known, with some exceeding 18 inches in length. The group was formerly classified within Orthoptera but now constitutes its own order based on distinct morphological and molecular characteristics. The name derives from Greek 'phasma' (apparition, ghost), referencing their uncanny resemblance to inanimate plant parts.
Photuris versicolor
Changeable Firefly
Photuris versicolor is a species complex of predatory firefly found throughout the Eastern United States. Males produce a species-typical triple-pulsed flash for courtship signaling. Females are larger than males with a more developed flash organ, and are known to hunt males of other firefly species by mimicking their flash patterns. This species is notable for acquiring defensive compounds called lucibufagins from its prey.
Phratora
Phratora is a genus of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) distributed across the Northern Hemisphere in cool, moist regions where their host plants occur. The genus is synonymous with Phyllodecta. Species in this genus feed primarily on willows (Salix), poplars (Populus), or birch (Betula), with host plant associations showing evolutionary conservation—closely related beetle species tend to feed on closely related plant species. European species are difficult to distinguish by external morphology alone and require examination of female genitalia for reliable identification. Several species, particularly Phratora vulgatissima, are economically significant pests of short-rotation coppice willow plantations.
Plagiodera
willow leaf beetles
Plagiodera is a genus of leaf beetles in the subfamily Chrysomelinae, containing approximately six recognized species distributed across the Holarctic region. The genus is best known for Plagiodera versicolora, commonly called the imported willow leaf beetle, which has been introduced to North America from Europe and is a significant pest of willow and poplar species. Members of this genus are specialized herbivores of Salicaceae, with well-documented chemical ecology and host-plant interactions.
Pleuropasta reticulata
Pleuropasta reticulata is a species of blister beetle in the family Meloidae, described by Van Dyke in 1947. The species is found in Central America and North America, with records from the southwestern United States and Mexico. As a member of the tribe Eupomphini, it belongs to a group of meloid beetles characterized by aposematic coloration and chemical defenses. The specific epithet 'reticulata' refers to a net-like or reticulated pattern, likely describing the elytral markings. Field observations indicate adults are active during warmer months and may be found in association with flowering plants.
Pogonomyrmex tenuispinus
Pogonomyrmex tenuispinus is a species of harvester ant in the genus Pogonomyrmex. Like other members of this genus, it is a seed-collecting ant native to arid regions. The species was described by Auguste Forel in 1914. As a harvester ant, it likely participates in seed dispersal and ecosystem engineering through nest construction, though specific ecological studies for this species are limited.
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flat-backed millipedes, tractor millipedes
Polydesmidae is a family of millipedes in the order Polydesmida comprising over 240 species across more than 30 genera. These millipedes are characterized by their flattened, plate-like dorsal exoskeletons that give them the common name "flat-backed millipedes." They range from 4 mm to 30 mm in length and display coloration from black through brownish to pallid, rarely vivid. The family has a predominantly Holarctic distribution extending to Mexico, North Africa, and Java, with highest diversity in the Mediterranean region. Several species exhibit notable biological traits, including sexual dimorphism in segment number and chemical defense secretions.
Polyzoniida
camphor millipedes
Polyzoniida is an order of millipedes in the subterclass Colobognatha, containing three families (Hirudisomatidae, Polyzoniidae, Siphonotidae) and more than 70 described species. These millipedes are commonly known as camphor millipedes due to the strong camphor-like odor of their defensive secretions. They range from 4–50 mm in length, typically 10–15 mm, with a domed dorsal surface and flat ventral side. Their defensive chemistry has ecological significance: poison frogs in South America and Madagascar have been observed to sequester toxins from these millipedes.
Prenolepis imparis
winter ant, false honey ant, false honeypot ant, American Winter Ant
Prenolepis imparis is a cold-adapted ant species widespread across North America, notable for being active during winter and early spring when most other ants are dormant. The species exhibits distinctive thermal physiology, with workers foraging at near-freezing temperatures and colonies undergoing summer aestivation. Workers are small (3-4 mm), brown, with shiny gasters. The species produces specialized replete workers that store fat and nutrients as living energy reserves. Five highly divergent genetic lineages occur across the continent, with limited gene flow between them. Nuptial flights occur unusually early, from February through April.
Procridinae
Forester Moths
Procridinae is a subfamily of Zygaenidae moths commonly known as foresters. All Australian species belong to this subfamily, which includes diurnal moths with aposematic coloration and chemical defense capabilities. The group is taxonomically challenging, with genital examination often required for species identification in Europe. Members exhibit specialized herbivory with documented host plant associations including Hibbertia (Dilleniaceae) and Achillea (Asteraceae).
Promecognathus
Promecognathus is a genus of ground beetles comprising two described species, P. laevissimus and P. crassus. These beetles are specialist predators of cyanide-producing flat-backed millipedes in the family Xystodesmidae. They possess exceptional physiological tolerance to hydrogen cyanide, surviving doses 7–15 times greater than those lethal to other carabid beetles. This tolerance allows them to attack millipedes directly without behavioral avoidance of chemical defenses, representing the first documented case of cyanide tolerance in predatory insects.
Promecognathus crassus
Straight-jawed Pedunculate Ground Beetle
Promecognathus crassus is a specialist predatory ground beetle endemic to the Pacific coast of North America. It exhibits exceptional physiological tolerance to hydrogen cyanide and benzaldehyde, enabling it to prey on cyanogenic millipedes that are chemically defended against most predators. The species has been documented to withstand cyanide exposures 7–15 times greater than doses that incapacitate other carabid beetles, with individuals remaining active after two hours of high-concentration exposure. This tolerance appears to be a specific adaptation supporting its obligate millipede diet, as the beetles do not employ behavioral avoidance of their prey's chemical defenses.
Promecognissimus laevissimus
smooth millipede hunter
Promecognathus laevissimus is a ground beetle specializing in predation on cyanide-producing millipedes. It possesses exceptional physiological tolerance to hydrogen cyanide and benzaldehyde, toxins that incapacitate most other predators. The species exhibits unique prey-handling behaviors and has been extensively studied for its biochemical resistance mechanisms, which may have potential applications in human medicine for cyanide poisoning treatment.
Pryeria sinica
euonymus leaf notcher, euonymus defoliator moth
Pryeria sinica is a univoltine zygaenid moth native to East Asia, introduced to the United States in 2002 where it has established populations in Maryland and Virginia. The species is a specialist herbivore of Celastraceae, particularly Euonymus species, where larvae feed gregariously and create distinctive marginal notches on leaves. Adults are diurnal wasp mimics with clear wings and aposematic coloration. The species has been reported more recently in the United Kingdom.
Pygarctia
tiger moths
Pygarctia is a genus of arctiine tiger moths in the family Erebidae, established by Grote in 1871. The genus contains approximately 13 described species distributed primarily in North America. At least one species, Pygarctia roseicapitis, has been documented producing acoustic warning signals to deter bat predators, a behavior termed acoustic aposematism. Caterpillars of P. roseicapitis are specialist herbivores on Euphorbia plants, exhibiting distinctive trenching behavior where they cut leaf veins before feeding to reduce latex flow.
Pyromorpha
orange-patched smoky moths, leaf-skeletonizer moths
Pyromorpha is a genus of zygaenid moths known as leaf-skeletonizer moths. Species in this genus possess aposematic black and orange coloration and contain hydrogen cyanide at all life stages, which they synthesize rather than sequester from host plants. The genus participates in Müllerian mimicry complexes with net-winged beetles (family Lycidae), particularly Calopteron terminale. At least one species, P. dimidiata, has larvae that feed on leaf litter, especially oak leaves.
Pyromorpha dimidiata
Orange-patched Smoky Moth
Pyromorpha dimidiata is a leaf skeletonizer moth in the family Zygaenidae, native to eastern North America. Adults display distinctive orange and dark gray forewings with a pattern that resembles toxic net-winged beetles (Calopteron spp.) in a Müllerian mimicry complex. All life stages contain hydrogen cyanide, which the moth synthesizes independently rather than sequestering from host plants. The species is active primarily in spring and early summer.
Pyrota insulata
Yellow-crescent Blister Beetle
Pyrota insulata is a blister beetle in the family Meloidae, recognized by the common name yellow-crescent blister beetle. Adults reach approximately 2 cm in length and possess the chemical defense typical of meloids: cantharidin, a skin-irritating compound that causes blistering on contact with human skin. The species occurs in the southwestern United States and Mexico.
Rhadinoceraea
iris sawfly
Rhadinoceraea is a genus of sawflies in the family Tenthredinidae, tribe Phymatocerini. Species in this genus are herbivorous and exhibit specialized host associations with plants in the orders Liliales and Ranunculales. Some species are notable for sequestering defensive compounds from their host plants. The genus includes recognized species such as R. micans, a garden pest of irises, and R. nodicornis, which feeds on Veratrum and shows strict innate host specificity.
Rhinocricidae
Rhinocricidae is a family of millipedes in the order Spirobolida, established by Brölemann in 1913. The family exhibits a disjunct distribution pattern, occurring in Malesia and neighboring parts of Australasia as well as in the Neotropics. It is one of the most species-rich millipede families, with over 500 nominal species classified into 27 genera and 3 subgenera. Members are characterized by their cylindrical body form typical of spirobolidan millipedes and possess well-developed chemical defense systems.
Rilaena triangularis
Spring Harvestman
Rilaena triangularis is a harvestman species in the family Phalangiidae, first described by Herbst in 1799. It is widely distributed across Europe and has been introduced to parts of North America. The species is recognized by its distinctive triangular or vase-shaped dorsal marking, often outlined in pale coloration. When disturbed, it emits a defensive secretion containing 1,4-benzoquinone, 1,4-naphthoquinone, and caprylic acid.
Romalea
Horse Lubbers, Lubber Grasshoppers
Romalea is a genus of large, flightless lubber grasshoppers in the family Romaleidae. Traditionally containing a single species, R. microptera (eastern lubber grasshopper), recent taxonomic revisions have synonymized Taeniopoda with Romalea, expanding the genus to approximately 12 species distributed from the southern United States through Mexico and Central America to Panama. These grasshoppers are among the largest in North America, characterized by aposematic coloration, chemical defenses, and reduced wings that render them incapable of flight.
Romalea microptera
Eastern Lubber Grasshopper, Lubber Grasshopper
Romalea microptera is a large, flightless grasshopper native to the southeastern United States, reaching up to 3.5 inches in length. Its aposematic coloration—yellow with black markings in eastern populations, black with red or yellow markings in western populations—serves as a warning to predators. Despite its formidable defensive arsenal including spines, body armor, chemical secretions, and threat displays, it is harmless to humans and rarely causes significant agricultural damage.
Saucrobotys
Saucrobotys is a genus of moths in the family Crambidae, established by Munroe in 1976. The genus contains at least two described species: Saucrobotys fumoferalis and Saucrobotys futilalis. Larvae of at least one species, S. futilalis (the dogbane webworm), are known to feed on dogbane (Apocynum spp.), sequestering the plant's toxic cardenolides for their own chemical defense.
Saucrobotys futilalis
dogbane saucrobotys moth, dogbane webworm
Saucrobotys futilalis, commonly known as the dogbane saucrobotys moth or dogbane webworm, is a crambid moth native to North America. The species is notable for its specialized relationship with dogbane (Apocynum) and milkweed (Asclepias) plants, which serve as exclusive larval hosts. Larvae construct silken nests on host plants and exhibit a striking ontogenetic color change from cryptic green to aposematic orange with black spots as they mature. Both larval and adult stages sequester cardiac glycosides from their host plants for chemical defense against predators. The species has been recorded across a broad geographic range from northeastern North America to British Columbia and south to Texas and California.
Sclerosomatidae
Sclerosomatid Harvestmen
Sclerosomatidae is a large family of harvestmen (Opiliones) comprising approximately 1,300 described species. The family is characterized by a hardened body structure, reflected in its name derived from Greek skleros ('hard') and soma ('body'). Members exhibit the classic 'daddy long legs' morphology with small, rounded bodies and long, slender legs. The family includes several subfamilies—Gagrellinae, Gyantinae, Leiobuninae, and Sclerosomatinae—distributed across diverse habitats worldwide. Some species display iridescent metallic coloration, particularly in tropical lineages. A former subfamily has been removed to form the separate family Globipedidae.
Scolopostethus
dirt-colored seed bugs
Scolopostethus is a genus of dirt-colored seed bugs comprising more than 30 described species in the family Rhyparochromidae. Species occupy diverse habitats including ruderal areas, weedy lawns, and ant-associated environments. Some species are myrmecophilous, living near ant nests through chemical defense strategies rather than chemical mimicry. The genus has a Palearctic origin with at least one species, S. affinis, recently established in North America.
Semijulistus flavipes
Semijulistus flavipes is a flat-backed millipede in the family Xystodesmidae, order Polydesmida. The species was formerly classified under the genus Pleuroloma, and taxonomic revisions have placed it in Semijulistus. Like other xystodesmid millipedes, it produces hydrogen cyanide (HCN) as a chemical defense. The specific epithet "flavipes" refers to yellow leg coloration.
Semionellus placidus
Salmon Cherry Millipede
Semionellus placidus is a species of flat-backed millipede in the family Xystodesmidae, commonly known as the Salmon Cherry Millipede. It is a North American species characterized by its polydesmidan body plan with a flattened dorsal profile. As a member of the Xystodesmidae, it belongs to one of the most diverse families of millipedes in North America. The species was described by Wood in 1864.
Silphidae
carrion beetles, burying beetles, large carrion beetles, sexton beetles
Silphidae is a family of beetles commonly known as carrion beetles or burying beetles, comprising approximately 183 species in two tribes: Silphini and Nicrophorini. Members feed primarily on decaying organic matter, particularly animal carcasses, with some species exhibiting specialized behaviors such as burying small carcasses and providing parental care. The family has forensic importance due to predictable colonization patterns on human remains. Silphidae are most diverse in temperate regions, with flight capability varying among species and correlated with food source type.
Taeniopoda
horse lubbers
Taeniopoda is a genus of large, flightless grasshoppers commonly known as horse lubbers, native to the southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central America. The genus contains approximately 12 described species, characterized by bold aposematic coloration that serves as warning signals to predators. Taeniopoda is closely related to Romalea, with which it can produce fertile hybrids in captivity; some authorities consider Taeniopoda a junior synonym of Romalea. Species in this genus exhibit striking defensive behaviors including hissing, secretion of foul-smelling froth, and vomiting.
Taeniopoda eques
western horse lubber grasshopper, horse lubber
Taeniopoda eques is a large, flightless lubber grasshopper endemic to the Chihuahuan Desert and adjacent arid regions of the southwestern United States and Mexico. Adults are notable for their aposematic black coloration with yellow markings, though color morphs vary geographically. The species is chemically defended against vertebrate predators and uses behavioral thermoregulation to accelerate development in its short growing season. It is univoltine, with eggs undergoing diapause through winter before hatching with summer rains.
Tegrodera aloga
iron cross blister beetle
Tegrodera aloga is a large, conspicuous blister beetle endemic to the Sonoran Desert. Adults are easily recognized by their black bodies with contrasting yellow and red spots and a distinctive black cross pattern on the elytra. The species is notable for its aposematic coloration, which advertises the presence of cantharidin toxins used for defense. Adults feed on spring blossoms and occur in large aggregations during mating and feeding. The species poses a documented risk to livestock, particularly horses, when contaminated alfalfa hay is ingested.
Tetramesa
Tetramesa is a genus of minute phytophagous wasps in the family Eurytomidae comprising over 200 described species. Members are exclusively associated with grasses (Poaceae), where they typically induce stem or inflorescence galls. The genus exhibits pronounced host specificity, with most species restricted to a single grass species or closely related congeners. Several species have been deployed as biological control agents against invasive grasses, including T. romana for giant reed (Arundo donax) and candidate agents for medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) and African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). Adults feed on nectar. Recent phylogenomic studies have synonymized the genera Aiolomorphus and Cathilaria within Tetramesa.
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marmoratus
A species of harvestman in the family Sclerosomatidae, described by Banks in 1894. As with other harvestmen in the genus Trachyrhinus, it belongs to the order Opiliones—arachnids distinct from spiders that lack fangs, venom glands, and silk production. Members of this genus are known to employ chemical defenses through repugnatorial glands.
Trirhabda flavolimbata
Coyote Brush Leaf Beetle
Trirhabda flavolimbata, commonly called the coyote brush leaf beetle, is a skeletonizing leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. It is restricted to California where it inhabits coastal scrublands and chaparral. Both larvae and adults are metallic green and sequester toxins from their host plants, rendering them unpalatable to predators. The species has a single annual brood with a distinctive life cycle involving extended egg diapause.
Tritoma
pleasing fungus beetles
Tritoma is a genus of pleasing fungus beetles (family Erotylidae) comprising over 100 species distributed worldwide, with greatest diversity in the Old World. Members are associated with fungi, with some species feeding on euagaric mushrooms and mycorrhizae. The genus is currently considered paraphyletic based on molecular evidence and may require taxonomic revision into two separate genera. Tritoma bipustulata, a common European species with distinctive black-and-red spotted coloration, has been studied for its chemical defensive system.
Troidini
Birdwings, Cattlehearts, Pipevine Swallowtails
Troidini is a tribe of swallowtail butterflies (Papilionidae: Papilioninae) comprising approximately 135 species across 12 genera. The tribe is notable for its strict specialization on host plants in the family Aristolochiaceae (pipevines), from which larvae sequester aristolochic acids for chemical defense. This sequestration renders adults distasteful to vertebrate predators and has driven the evolution of aposematic coloration, primarily black wings with contrasting spots or bands in white, orange, or blue. The tribe includes well-known species such as the pipevine swallowtail (Battus philenor) and Polydamas swallowtail (Battus polydamas), as well as the birdwings (genus Ornithoptera). Troidini butterflies serve as models for Batesian mimicry complexes, with numerous palatable butterfly species converging on similar color patterns to gain protection from predators.
Tyria jacobaeae
Cinnabar moth
The cinnabar moth is a specialist herbivore native to Europe and western Asia, introduced to North America, Australia, and New Zealand for biological control of ragwort. Adults display aposematic black and red coloration advertising their chemical defense. Larvae sequester toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids from host plants, rendering them unpalatable to predators. The species has been extensively studied for its population ecology, dispersal behavior, and multitrophic chemical ecology.
Uresiphita reversalis
Genista Broom Moth, Sophora Worm
Uresiphita reversalis is a multivoltine crambid moth native to Mexico and the southwestern United States that has expanded its range north and east across North America. The caterpillars feed diurnally in groups on leguminous host plants, particularly members of the tribe Genisteae, and sequester quinolizidine alkaloids for chemical defense. The species has gained notoriety as both a pest of ornamental plants and a potential biocontrol agent for invasive broom species. Adults are small moths with distinctive white bodies and bright yellow or orange hindwings.
Uropygi
whip scorpions, vinegaroons, uropygids
Uropygi is an order of arachnids commonly known as whip scorpions or vinegaroons, characterized by a whip-like flagellum on the posterior end and large scorpion-like pedipalps. They lack venom glands but possess defensive glands capable of spraying acetic and caprylic acid, producing a vinegar-like odor. These nocturnal predators use only six legs for walking, with the first two pairs modified as sensory appendages. The order comprises approximately 100 species across 18 extant genera, all placed in the single family Thelyphonidae.
Utetheisa ornatrix
Ornate Bella Moth, Bella Moth, Rattlebox Moth, Ornate Moth
Utetheisa ornatrix is a diurnal moth distinguished by its aposematic coloration ranging from pink, red, orange, and yellow to white with black markings. The species has a wingspan of 33–46 mm and is found from the southeastern United States through Central America to South America. Larvae specialize on Crotalaria species (Fabaceae), sequestering toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids that render them unpalatable to predators. The species exhibits complex mating behavior including female polyandry, nuptial gift transfer, and pheromone-mediated mate choice.
Xystocheir dissecta
Xystocheir dissecta is a flat-backed millipede in the family Xystodesmidae. It is found along the coast of Northern California, particularly in and around the San Francisco Bay Area. The species is notable for its chemical defense system, producing hydrogen cyanide gas when threatened. Three subspecies are recognized: X. d. dissecta, X. d. microrama, and X. d. taibona.
Xystocheir dissecta taibona
Xystocheir dissecta taibona is a subspecies of flat-backed millipede in the family Xystodesmidae. It is a synonym of Xystocheir taibona and is known from California. Like other members of its genus, it produces cyanide as a chemical defense against predators. The subspecies is documented as prey for the specialized carabid beetle Promecognathus.
Xystodesmidae
Cherry Millipedes, flat-backed millipedes
Xystodesmidae is a family of flat-backed millipedes in the order Polydesmida, established by O. F. Cook in 1895. The family comprises over 390 described species across 62 genera, with many additional species remaining undescribed. Members are characterized by broad, compact bodies with prominent paranota (lateral keels), chemical defenses based on hydrogen cyanide and benzaldehyde, and frequent participation in Müllerian mimicry rings. Peak diversity occurs in the Appalachian Mountains, where approximately one-third of species are found.
Zygaenidae
burnet moths, forester moths, smoky moths, leaf skeletonizer moths
Zygaenidae is a family of approximately 1,000 species of diurnal moths in the superfamily Zygaenoidea. Adults are characterized by metallic coloration, often with red or yellow spots, and clubbed antennae. Members of this family are notable for their ability to produce and sequester hydrogen cyanide as a chemical defense throughout all life stages, making them among the few insects capable of synthesizing this toxin independently of dietary sources. The family includes seven subfamilies, with Zygaeninae (burnet moths) and Procridinae (forester moths) being the most frequently encountered in temperate regions, while Chalcosiinae dominates tropical faunas.