Aposematic
Guides
Agraulis incarnata
Gulf Fritillary
Agraulis incarnata, commonly known as the Gulf Fritillary, is a brush-footed butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. The species is widely distributed across the southern United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America. Adults are characterized by bright orange upper wings with black markings and three white spots on the forewing. The caterpillars feed exclusively on passionflower vines (Passiflora spp.), sequestering cyanogenic glycosides from their host plants for chemical defense. The species is a sporadic migrant in northern parts of its range, occasionally establishing temporary colonies before winter mortality.
Apheloria virginiensis reducta
Yellow-and-black millipede, Cyanide millipede
A large, colorful millipede in the family Xystodesmidae, distinguished by its black body with bright yellow or orange wedge-shaped posterolateral markings. Like other members of its genus, it produces hydrogen cyanide as a chemical defense, advertised by its conspicuous aposematic coloration. The subspecies represents a western population of A. virginiensis, with records extending from the Appalachian region through the Ozark Plateau to the Arkansas Delta.
Arctia caja
Garden Tiger, Great Tiger Moth
Large, conspicuously colored moth with a wingspan up to 65 mm. Forewings are cryptic brown with irregular cream-colored bands; hindwings are orange (rarely yellow) with large rounded bluish spots. This aposematic species sequesters toxic alkaloids for defense. The species has undergone significant decline in the U.K. over the past 30 years, accompanied by phenotypic changes including longer, narrower wings and reduced genetic diversity.
Battus philenor hirsuta
California pipevine swallowtail, hairy pipevine swallowtail
A California endemic subspecies of pipevine swallowtail distinguished by smaller size, denser body hair, and larger egg clutches than the nominate subspecies. Adults display iridescent green-blue hindwings with red ventral spots, while larvae are black with fleshy protrusions and orange markings. The subspecies maintains a tightly coupled relationship with its sole host plant, Aristolochia californica, sequestering toxic aristolochic acids for chemical defense. Unlike other Battus philenor populations, this subspecies has no known Batesian mimics.
Boraria
Boraria is a genus of flat-backed millipedes in the family Xystodesmidae, established by Chamberlin in 1943. The genus is characterized by the lateral expansion of dorsal segments into paranota, giving individuals a flattened appearance distinct from cylindrical millipedes. Species in this genus, like other xystodesmids, produce hydrogen cyanide as a chemical defense and display bright aposematic coloration—typically black with yellow or orange markings—as warning signals to predators. The genus is part of the diverse Polydesmida order, which represents the culmination of diplosegmentation in millipedes with no external evidence of sutures between fused body somites.
Boraria stricta
Boraria stricta is a flat-backed millipede in the family Xystodesmidae, characterized by its dorsoventrally flattened body form typical of the order Polydesmida. The species is native to North America and belongs to a genus known for aposematic coloration warning of chemical defenses. Like other xystodesmid millipedes, it possesses paranota—lateral extensions of body segments that contribute to its flattened appearance.
Brachinus puberulus
Brachinus puberulus is a species of bombardier beetle in the family Carabidae, described by Chaudoir in 1868. It belongs to the genus Brachinus, renowned for its chemical defense mechanism that produces a hot, noxious spray from the abdomen when disturbed. The species is recorded from the United States and Middle America, though specific details about its biology and ecology remain sparse in the available literature.
Cherokia georgiana georgiana
Cherokia georgiana georgiana is a millipede subspecies in the family Xystodesmidae, characterized by its black body with yellow wedge-shaped posterolateral markings and a wrinkled dorsal surface. It belongs to the order Polydesmida, a group distinguished by lateral expansions of dorsal segments into "paranota" that give a flattened appearance. Like other members of its genus and related genera, it produces hydrogen cyanide (HCN) as a chemical defense against predators, with its bright coloration serving as aposematic warning signals.
Chilopoda
Centipedes
Chilopoda is a class of venomous, predatory arthropods comprising the centipedes. These elongated metameric animals possess one pair of legs per body segment, with leg counts ranging from 30 to 354 depending on species. Centipedes are distinguished from millipedes (class Diplopoda) by their single pair of legs per segment, flattened body profile, and venomous forcipules derived from modified first leg pairs. The class contains four extant orders: Scutigeromorpha (house centipedes), Lithobiomorpha (stone centipedes), Geophilomorpha (soil centipedes), and Scolopendromorpha (giant centipedes). All are obligate carnivores with predatory lifestyles.
Cisseps fulvicollis
Yellow-collared Scape Moth
Cisseps fulvicollis, the yellow-collared scape moth, is a member of the tiger moth subfamily Arctiinae. Adults are distinguished by a bright yellow or orange collar on a black body, with wingspan ranging 25–38 mm. The species is active during daylight hours, feeding on nectar and pollen. Larvae feed nocturnally on grasses and sedges. It is widespread across North America from Canada to Texas and Florida.
Comadia redtenbacheri
agave red worm, chinicuil, gusano rojo del maguey
Comadia redtenbacheri is a moth in the family Cossidae, commonly known as the agave red worm or chinicuil. It is a specialist phytophagous species whose larvae bore into Agave plants, particularly the rhizomes. The species has significant cultural and economic importance in Mexico as a traditional food source. Adults are small moths with forewings 12–14 mm in males and 13–16 mm in females. The species has a long, non-uniform life cycle that can exceed one year.
Ctenucha
ctenucha moths
Ctenucha is a genus of diurnal tiger moths in the family Erebidae, historically classified in family Arctiidae. The genus name derives from Greek, meaning "having a comb," referring to the showy antennae of some species. Adults are frequently observed visiting flowers for nectar, particularly goldenrod in autumn. Many species exhibit aposematic coloration and wasp-like appearance, serving as Müllerian mimics. The genus contains over 50 described species distributed primarily in the Americas.
Dactylotini
Dactylotini is a tribe of grasshoppers within the subfamily Melanoplinae (family Acrididae). Members are primarily distributed in Mexico and Central America. The tribe was found to be paraphyletic in molecular phylogenetic studies due to the placement of Hesperotettix. The genus Liladownsia, described in 2014 from Oaxaca, Mexico, represents one of the more recently described members of this group.
Dactylotum bicolor
Rainbow grasshopper, Painted grasshopper, Barber pole grasshopper
Dactylotum bicolor is a small, flightless grasshopper known for its striking aposematic coloration of black with red, yellow, and green markings. Native to shortgrass prairie and desert grasslands of western North America, it exhibits a complex life cycle with nymphs showing specialized feeding behavior on Wright's false willow (Baccharis wrightii) in parts of its range. The species demonstrates active thermoregulation through behavioral positioning relative to host plants and sunlight. Its bright warning coloration has been experimentally validated as effective aposematism against vertebrate predators.
Danainae
Milkweed Butterflies, Danaids
Danainae is a subfamily of brush-footed butterflies (Nymphalidae) comprising approximately 300 species worldwide. Members are commonly known as milkweed butterflies due to their obligate larval association with milkweed plants (Apocynaceae). The group includes three tribes: Danaini (tropical Asia, Africa, and four North American species including the monarch), Ithomiini (clearwing butterflies of the Neotropics), and Tellervini (restricted to Australia and the Oriental region). Adults are aposematically colored, advertising their sequestration of toxic cardiac glycosides from host plants.
Dasymutilla angulata
Dasymutilla angulata is a species of velvet ant in the family Mutillidae. Like all mutillids, females are wingless while males possess wings. The species belongs to a genus characterized by aposematic coloration advertising their potent defensive sting. As with other Dasymutilla species, D. angulata likely develops as an external parasitoid of ground-nesting wasps or bees, though specific host records for this species are not documented in available sources.
Dasymutilla arenerronea
Dasymutilla arenerronea is a species of velvet ant in the family Mutillidae, described by Bradley in 1916. Like all mutillids, it is actually a wasp rather than an ant, with wingless females and winged males. The species belongs to a large genus of solitary parasitoid wasps that primarily target ground-nesting bees and wasps. Females are capable of delivering a painful sting, a trait common across the family.
Dasymutilla asopus
Dasymutilla asopus is a species of velvet ant in the family Mutillidae. Like all mutillids, females are wingless while males possess wings. The species exhibits the bright aposematic coloration typical of the genus, warning predators of its potent sting. As a parasitoid wasp, females seek out ground-nesting hosts to deposit their eggs. The species occurs across western North America, with confirmed observations from multiple states and provinces.
Dasymutilla bioculata
velvet ant
Dasymutilla bioculata is a species of velvet ant (family Mutillidae), a group of solitary parasitic wasps in which only males possess wings. This species was taxonomically consolidated in 2010, when molecular and morphological analysis demonstrated that 21 previously recognized species and subspecies were actually conspecific. The species exhibits strong sexual dimorphism: females are wingless and run rapidly across the ground searching for host nests, while males fly and visit flowers. Females possess a potent sting used for defense. The species is a parasitoid of ground-nesting sand wasps in the genera Bembix and Microbembex.
Dasymutilla californica
Dasymutilla californica is a species of velvet ant (family Mutillidae) native to California and adjacent regions. Like all mutillids, females are wingless and possess a potent sting, while males are winged and do not sting. This species is part of a large genus of solitary parasitoid wasps that target ground-nesting bees and wasps. The species name reflects its primary geographic association with California.
Dasymutilla creon
Dasymutilla creon is a species of velvet ant, a group of solitary parasitoid wasps in the family Mutillidae. Like all mutillids, females are wingless while males possess wings. The species occurs in the south-central and eastern United States, with documented records from Kansas to Texas and eastward to North Carolina. As with other Dasymutilla species, females are capable of delivering a painful sting and exhibit the family's characteristic aposematic coloration.
Dasymutilla gorgon
Dasymutilla gorgon is a species of velvet ant (family Mutillidae) native to central North America. Like all mutillids, it is a solitary wasp with wingless females and winged males. The species occurs from Colorado to Louisiana, inhabiting arid and semi-arid regions. As a member of the genus Dasymutilla, females likely exhibit aposematic coloration warning of their potent sting.
Dasymutilla heliophila
Dasymutilla heliophila is a species of velvet ant, a family of solitary parasitic wasps in which only males possess wings. The species was described by Cockerell in 1900. Like other members of the genus Dasymutilla, females are wingless and possess a powerful sting. The species belongs to a diverse genus known for aposematic coloration and Müllerian mimicry complexes.
Dasymutilla nigripes
velvet ant
Dasymutilla nigripes is a species of velvet ant (family Mutillidae) native to North America. Females are wingless and possess a powerful sting, while males are winged. The species has been documented as a likely parasite of beewolf wasp nests. It is widespread across the United States and occurs in Alberta, Canada.
Dasymutilla occidentalis
Common Eastern Velvet Ant, Red Velvet Ant, Cow Killer, Cow Ant, Eastern Velvet Ant
Dasymutilla occidentalis is a large, solitary parasitoid wasp in the family Mutillidae, commonly known as the eastern velvet ant or cow killer. Females are wingless, densely covered in velvety red and black hairs, and possess an extremely painful sting. Males are winged and less conspicuously colored. The species is an external parasitoid of ground-nesting bees and wasps, with females actively searching for host nests to lay eggs on or near developing larvae. Despite its common name, it is not an ant but a true wasp, and its sting, while intensely painful, cannot actually kill a cow.
Dasymutilla parksi
Dasymutilla parksi is a species of velvet ant (family Mutillidae), a group of solitary parasitoid wasps in which females are wingless and males are winged. First described by Mickel in 1936, this species belongs to a genus containing over 450 North American species, many of which exhibit bright aposematic coloration advertising their potent sting. Like other velvet ants, females are known for their powerful defensive sting and erratic, rapid ground movement. The biology and host associations of D. parksi specifically remain poorly documented.
Dasymutilla stevensi
Dasymutilla stevensi is a species of velvet ant in the family Mutillidae, native to dryland regions of North America. The species was described by Mickel in 1928 and named for O. A. Stevens, who collected the type specimen in Medora, North Dakota. It occurs from North Dakota south to Guanajuato, Mexico, inhabiting arid and semi-arid environments. Like other velvet ants, females are wingless and capable of delivering a painful sting, while males possess wings and do not sting.
Dasymutilla waco
Dasymutilla waco is a species of velvet ant (family Mutillidae), a group of solitary parasitoid wasps in which females are wingless and males are winged. The species was described by Blake in 1871 and belongs to the large genus Dasymutilla, which contains many brightly colored species known for their powerful sting. Like other velvet ants, females are active ground-dwellers that seek out host nests to parasitize. The species epithet "waco" refers to Waco, Texas, suggesting a type locality or association with that region.
Dasymutillini
velvet ants
Dasymutillini is a tribe of velvet ants (Mutillidae) characterized by dense, velvety pubescence and aposematic coloration. Members are solitary wasps with wingless females and winged males. The tribe includes the genus Dasymutilla, which contains numerous species across the Americas. Females are known for their extremely painful stings, among the most intense of any insect.
Desmocerus aureipennis lacustris
Desmocerus aureipennis lacustris is a subspecies of longhorn beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It belongs to a genus whose members are tightly associated with elderberry plants (Sambucus), with larvae developing in living stems and roots. Adults display striking aposematic coloration combining metallic blue with orange or yellow markings. The subspecies is native to western North America and is part of a complex of Desmocerus taxa that includes the federally threatened valley elderberry longhorn beetle (Desmocerus californicus dimorphus).
Desmocerus californicus dimorphus
Valley Elderberry Longhorn Beetle
Desmocerus californicus dimorphus is a federally threatened subspecies of longhorn beetle endemic to California's Central Valley. Adults display striking aposematic coloration with metallic blue bodies and orange elytral markings. The subspecies is sexually dimorphic, with males possessing notably longer antennae than females. It completes its entire life cycle in association with elderberry (Sambucus nigra ssp. caerulea), with larvae developing in living stems and roots. Detection has been substantially improved through the use of synthetic sex-attractant pheromones.
Diaethria
eighty-eight butterflies
Diaethria is a genus of brush-footed butterflies in the subfamily Biblidinae, distributed across the Neotropics from Mexico to Paraguay. The genus is renowned for distinctive ventral hindwing patterns that resemble the numerals "88" or "89," formed by black dots surrounded by concentric white and black lines. Adults are vividly colored with aposematic black, white, and red wing patterns. The genus comprises approximately twelve described species, including well-known taxa such as D. clymena and D. anna.
Dinothrombium
Giant Velvet Mites, Red Velvet Mites
Dinothrombium is a genus of large predatory mites in the family Trombidiidae, commonly called giant velvet mites. Adults are among the largest mites in the world, with some species reaching 12–14 mm in body length. They are fossorial, spending most of their lives underground in soil or sand, and emerge only after heavy rainfall. Their bright red coloration appears to serve an aposematic function, warning predators of their chemical defenses.
Dione
silverspot butterflies
Dione is a genus of butterflies in the subfamily Heliconiinae, family Nymphalidae, distributed from the southern United States through Central America to South America. Species in this genus are commonly known as silverspot butterflies due to the distinctive silver spots on the ventral wing surfaces. The genus includes at least two recognized species: Dione moneta (Mexican Silverspot) and Dione juno (Juno Silverspot or Juno Longwing). Adults are medium-sized butterflies with elongated wings and are frequently observed visiting flowers for nectar. Larvae feed on passion vines (Passiflora species).
Dolichomitus
ichneumon wasps
Dolichomitus is a genus of ichneumonid wasps containing at least 70 described species. The genus name derives from Greek roots meaning 'long thread,' referring to the elongated ovipositor characteristic of these parasitoids. Species in this genus are parasitoids of wood-boring insect larvae, using their long ovipositors to reach hosts deep within tree trunks and branches. Some species exhibit striking aposematic coloration, including metallic blue and yellow patterns that may deter avian predators.
Ephuta spinifera
Ephuta spinifera is a species of velvet ant (family Mutillidae), a group of solitary wasps known for their dense, velvety pubescence and aposematic coloration. Like other mutillids, females are wingless and often mistaken for ants, while males are winged. The genus Ephuta is part of the diverse North American velvet ant fauna, though specific biological details for E. spinifera remain poorly documented in published literature.
Epicauta aspera
blister beetle
Epicauta aspera is a species of blister beetle in the family Meloidae, described by Werner in 1944. It occurs in North America and has been observed feeding on flowers of Gutierrezia sarothrae (snakeweed) in shortgrass prairie habitats of Oklahoma. Like other Epicauta species, it possesses chemical defenses based on cantharidin, a toxic terpenoid compound that causes blistering upon contact with skin. The species is part of a diverse genus containing over 150 described species in North America.
Eumaeus
Cycadians
Eumaeus is a genus of lycaenid butterflies commonly known as cycadians, characterized by their striking coloration and obligate association with cycad host plants. Members of this genus are specialist herbivores that sequester neurotoxic compounds from their hosts, rendering them chemically defended against predators. Several species have experienced severe population declines due to overharvesting and habitat destruction of their cycad hosts, followed by remarkable recoveries linked to urban ornamental plantings. The genus represents a notable example of reconciliation ecology, where conservation success has been achieved through human-modified landscapes.
Eupompha imperialis
Eupompha imperialis is a blister beetle in the family Meloidae, described by Wellman in 1912. The species is recorded from North America. As a member of the tribe Eupomphini, it belongs to a group of blister beetles known for their aposematic coloration and chemical defense. Museum collections hold 42 specimens of this species.
Euryurus erythropygos
Euryurus erythropygos is a North American millipede species in the family Xystodesmidae, first described by Brandt in 1839. It belongs to a genus characterized by broad, flattened bodies and distinctive coloration patterns. The species name 'erythropygos' refers to its red or reddish posterior (pygidium). Like other xystodesmid millipedes, it likely produces defensive secretions containing benzoquinones when disturbed.
Gnophaela vermiculata
Police Car Moth, Police-Car Moth, Green Lattice
A day-flying moth of western North America, recognized by its striking black-and-white wing pattern with orange accents near the head. The common name 'Police Car Moth' refers to this coloration, which resembles historical police vehicle markings. Adults are active in late summer and visit flowers for nectar. Larvae feed on plants in the borage family, particularly Mertensia, Lithospermum, and Hackelia species.
Haploa
haploa moths
Haploa is a genus of tiger moths in the family Erebidae, erected by Jacob Hübner in 1820. The genus contains approximately six recognized species distributed in North America, including the well-known Clymene moth (H. clymene) and the confused haploa moth (H. confusa). Larvae are generally polyphagous, feeding on diverse host plants across multiple families. The genus is characterized by distinctive caterpillar coloration and adult wing patterns that facilitate identification.
Heliconiinae
longwings, heliconians, fritillaries and longwings
Heliconiinae is a subfamily of brush-footed butterflies (Nymphalidae) comprising 45–50 genera, commonly known as longwings or heliconians. Members are distinguished by elongated forewings and predominantly reddish-black coloration. They are notable among butterflies for actively consuming pollen, which extends adult longevity. The subfamily exhibits complex coevolutionary relationships with Passifloraceae host plants and serves as a classic model for studies of Müllerian and Batesian mimicry.
Hemipepsis ustulata
Flamed Tarantula-hawk Wasp, tarantula hawk
Hemipepsis ustulata is a large spider wasp in the family Pompilidae, commonly known as a tarantula hawk. It is native to the Southwestern United States and is among the largest Hymenoptera, reaching up to 5 cm in length. Females hunt tarantulas, paralyzing them with a powerful sting to serve as living food for their larvae. Males exhibit complex lekking territorial behavior, defending prominent perches on hilltops to intercept receptive females. The species has matte black coloration with rust-orange wings, distinguishing it from the iridescent blue-black Pepsis species.
Lycorea halia
Tropical Milkweed Butterfly, Tiger Mimic-Queen
Lycorea halia is a nymphalid butterfly in the Danainae subfamily, found from Peru through Central America to the Caribbean and Mexico, with occasional strays reaching Texas. It inhabits rainforest environments and has a wingspan of 95–108 mm. The species exhibits aposematic coloration typical of milkweed butterflies and has been documented feeding on bird droppings as adults.
Lygistopterus slevini
Lygistopterus slevini is a species of net-winged beetle in the family Lycidae. As with other lycids, adults are likely to exhibit aposematic coloration warning of chemical defenses. The species is documented from the southwestern United States, with records from Arizona and New Mexico. Observations suggest activity in late spring to early summer, consistent with the phenology of related net-winged beetles in arid regions.
Megetra punctata
Megetra punctata is a blister beetle in the family Meloidae, first described by Selander in 1965. The species is distributed across Central America and North America. Like other members of the genus Megetra, it exhibits aposematic coloration warning of its chemical defenses.
Melanchroia
white-tipped black moths, snowbush spanworms
Melanchroia is a genus of diurnal moths in the family Geometridae, subfamily Ennominae. The genus was established by Jakob Hübner in 1819 and contains eight described species distributed from the southeastern United States through the Neotropics to Argentina. Adults are notable for their striking black and white or black and red coloration, often mistaken for tiger moths or wasp-mimicking groups. The best-known species, M. chephise (white-tipped black or snowbush spanworm), is an occasional pest of ornamental plants whose gregarious larvae feed on Euphorbiaceae.
Melanis pixe
Red-bordered Pixie
Melanis pixe, commonly known as the red-bordered pixie, is a metalmark butterfly in the family Riodinidae. The species was described by Jean Baptiste Boisduval in 1836. It is recognized for its distinctive aposematic coloration featuring black wings with red and yellow-orange markings. The species serves as a Müllerian mimicry model for other toxic insects in its range, including the White-tipped Black Moth (Melanchroia chephise).
Melinaea
clearwing butterflies
Melinaea is a genus of clearwing (ithomiine) butterflies in the family Nymphalidae, comprising 14 recognized species. It is the most species-rich and widespread genus within the subtribe Melinaeina, distributed from Mexico to Northern Argentina. Adults are aposematic and serve as main models in Neotropical Müllerian mimicry rings. The genus has been studied for its role in understanding speciation through divergent selection on wing colour patterns and the evolution of assortative mating.