Aposematic
Guides
Motyxia
Sierra luminous millipedes, motyxias
Motyxia is a genus of blind, cyanide-producing millipedes endemic to three mountain ranges in California. All 11 species exhibit bioluminescence, making them one of only three known bioluminescent millipede groups worldwide. Adults range 3–4 cm in length with 20 body segments and prominent lateral keels (paranota). The genus was established by Chamberlin in 1941 and belongs to the tribe Xystocheirini within the family Xystodesmidae.
Myrmilloides grandiceps
Myrmilloides grandiceps is a species of velvet ant (family Mutillidae) in the order Hymenoptera. Originally described as Mufilla grandiceps by Blake in 1872, it was later transferred to the genus Myrmilloides. The species epithet 'grandiceps' refers to the notably large head characteristic of this species. As with other mutillids, females are wingless and ant-like in appearance, while males possess wings. The genus Myrmilloides is part of the diverse velvet ant fauna of the New World.
Odontophotopsis setifera
Odontophotopsis setifera is a species of velvet ant in the family Mutillidae, described by Schuster in 1952. Velvet ants are solitary wasps in which females are wingless and often possess aposematic coloration. The genus Odontophotopsis is part of the diverse Mutillidae fauna of North America.
Oncopeltus guttaloides
Oncopeltus guttaloides is a seed bug in the family Lygaeidae, closely related to the well-studied large milkweed bug (Oncopeltus fasciatus). The species occurs in southern Central America, the Caribbean, and the southern United States. Its nymphs are gregarious and form large clusters on host plants. Like other Oncopeltus species, it is associated with milkweed plants and exhibits aposematic coloration.
Oncopeltus sanguineolentus
Blood-colored Milkweed Bug
Oncopeltus sanguineolentus, the blood-colored milkweed bug, is a seed bug in the family Lygaeidae found in Central and North America. The species belongs to the same genus as the well-studied large milkweed bug (Oncopeltus fasciatus), but has received less scientific attention. Like congeners, it is associated with milkweed plants and exhibits aposematic coloration warning predators of chemical defenses.
Opiliones
harvestmen, harvesters, daddy longlegs, granddaddy longlegs, shepherd spiders
Opiliones is an ancient order of arachnids comprising over 6,650 described species, with estimates suggesting more than 10,000 extant species worldwide. The order includes five suborders: Cyphophthalmi, Eupnoi, Dyspnoi, Laniatores, and Tetrophthalmi. Fossil evidence from 410 million-year-old Devonian deposits demonstrates that harvestmen have remained morphologically conservative since their early evolution. Despite superficial resemblance to spiders, Opiliones represent a distinct arachnid lineage with unique anatomical and behavioral characteristics.
arachnidharvestmandaddy-longlegsancient-lineageomnivorenocturnalgregariouscave-dwellingpaternal-carechemical-defenseautotomymodel-organismconservation-concernvenomlesstracheal-respirationdirect-copulationshort-range-endemictroglobiteaposematiccrypsismimicrythanatosisviscoelastic-adhesiveanurophagyvertebrate-predatorOurapterygini
Ourapterygini is a large tribe of geometer moths within the subfamily Ennominae, described in 1846. The tribe is particularly diverse in the Neotropics and is considered the youngest tribe of its subfamily based on phylogenetic evidence. Members are distinguished by characteristic asymmetrical processes of the anellus, a derived trait present at least seasonally. Many species exhibit butterfly-like appearance and partially diurnal behavior, with conspicuous coloration that may serve as aposematic warning signals.
Papilioninae
Swallowtails
Papilioninae is a subfamily of swallowtail butterflies (family Papilionidae) comprising approximately 480 species distributed worldwide, with greatest diversity in tropical and subtropical regions. The subfamily is characterized by distinctive morphological features including hindwing tail extensions, specialized wing venation patterns, and structural adaptations of antennae and palpi. Papilioninae was formally classified by Rothschild and Jordan in 1895 and contains four tribes: Papilionini, Troidini, Leptocircini, and Teinopalpini.
Pepsis grossa
tarantula hawk, New Mexico state insect
Pepsis grossa is one of the largest spider wasps in North America, reaching up to 51 mm in females. This species hunts tarantulas exclusively, paralyzing them with a sting to serve as living food for its larvae. The sting is considered among the most painful of any insect, though not medically dangerous to humans. The species exhibits three distinct color morphs—orange-winged (xanthic), black-winged (melanic), and a dark-amber intermediate form (lygamorphic)—that are geographically segregated across its broad range from the southern United States to northern South America. It was designated the state insect of New Mexico in 1989.
Pepsis mildei
Milde's tarantula-hawk wasp, Milde's tarantula hawk
Pepsis mildei is a large spider wasp in the family Pompilidae, commonly known as Milde's tarantula-hawk wasp. It is native to the Western Hemisphere, with documented records across the southwestern and central United States, Mexico, and Central America. The species exhibits sexual dimorphism in antennae structure and lifespan, with females living longer than males. Adults feed on nectar from flowers, while larvae are obligate parasitoids of tarantulas. The wasp has been observed to learn from experience, avoiding chemically defended spiders after a single negative encounter.
Poecilopompilus interruptus interruptus
Poecilopompilus interruptus interruptus is a subspecies of spider wasp in the family Pompilidae. It is part of a genus known for Müllerian mimicry of paper wasps (Polistes), displaying bold aposematic coloration. The species is distributed across much of North America, with this nominate subspecies representing the eastern population. Females are solitary hunters that provision nests with paralyzed orbweaver spiders.
Procridinae
Forester Moths
Procridinae is a subfamily of Zygaenidae moths commonly known as foresters. All Australian species belong to this subfamily, which includes diurnal moths with aposematic coloration and chemical defense capabilities. The group is taxonomically challenging, with genital examination often required for species identification in Europe. Members exhibit specialized herbivory with documented host plant associations including Hibbertia (Dilleniaceae) and Achillea (Asteraceae).
Pseudomethoca brazoria
A species of velvet ant in the family Mutillidae, characterized by the wingless females typical of this family. The species name refers to Brazoria County, Texas, suggesting a geographic association with the Gulf Coastal Plain region. As with other mutillids, females are solitary and possess a potent sting, while males are winged and less frequently encountered.
Pseudomethoca contumax
Pseudomethoca contumax is a species of velvet ant in the family Mutillidae. Like all mutillids, the wingless females are covered in dense, often brightly colored setae, while males possess wings. The species is distributed across the western and central United States and northern Mexico. Members of this genus are known for their rapid, erratic movement patterns and are frequently suggested as potential models for mimetic species in other insect families.
Pseudomethoca meritoria
Pseudomethoca meritoria is a species of velvet ant in the family Mutillidae (order Hymenoptera). The genus Pseudomethoca is part of a diverse group of solitary wasps in which females are wingless and exhibit aposematic coloration. Like other mutillids, this species likely exhibits the characteristic traits of the family: females are wingless and ant-like in appearance, while males possess wings. The genus name Pseudomethoca indicates a close relationship to the genus Methoca, from which it may be distinguished by subtle morphological differences.
Pseudomethoca sanbornii
Pseudomethoca sanbornii is a species of velvet ant in the family Mutillidae, a group of solitary wasps known for their aposematic coloration and powerful sting. Females are wingless and ant-like in appearance, while males possess wings. The species occurs across much of the eastern and central United States. Like other mutillids, females are reportedly capable of delivering a painful sting, though they are not aggressive and sting only in defense.
Pseudomethoca toumeyi
Pseudomethoca toumeyi is a species of velvet ant in the family Mutillidae, order Hymenoptera. The genus Pseudomethoca is part of a diverse group of solitary wasps in which females are wingless and often exhibit aposematic coloration. Like other mutillids, this species likely possesses a powerful sting used for defense. The species is documented from a limited number of observations, with 18 records currently available.
Pseudomethoca wickhami
Pseudomethoca wickhami is a species of velvet ant (family Mutillidae) distributed across the southeastern and south-central United States. Like other mutillids, females are wingless and males are winged. The species has been documented in 11 states from Virginia to Texas. As with all velvet ants, females possess a powerful sting and are known for their rapid, erratic movement patterns.
Pseudosphinx
tetrio sphinx, giant gray sphinx, frangipani hornworm, plumeria caterpillar, Rasta caterpillar
Pseudosphinx is a monotypic moth genus in the family Sphingidae, containing only Pseudosphinx tetrio. The genus is notable for its highly specialized herbivory on toxic Apocynaceae plants and its striking aposematic larval coloration. Adults are large brown sphinx moths with 12.7–14 cm wingspans. The caterpillars are among the largest hornworms in the Americas, exceeding 15 cm in length, and are serious defoliators of ornamental Plumeria species throughout the tropical and subtropical Americas.
Pyrota invita
Pyrota invita is a species of blister beetle in the family Meloidae, described by George Henry Horn in 1885. The species is found in North America and belongs to the tribe Pyrotini, a group characterized by aposematic coloration and the production of cantharidin, a toxic defensive compound. As with other Pyrota species, it exhibits the typical meloid body plan with soft, flexible elytra and thread-like antennae.
Pyrota mylabrina
Pyrota mylabrina is a blister beetle in the family Meloidae, distributed across Central America and North America. The species was described by Chevrolat in 1834. Like other members of the genus Pyrota, it is characterized by aposematic coloration, typically featuring orange or yellow and black patterns that serve as warning signals for its chemical defenses. The genus is known for pronounced sexual size dimorphism in some species, with males often considerably smaller than females.
Pyrota perversa
Pyrota perversa is a blister beetle in the family Meloidae, native to North America. Like other members of the genus Pyrota, it likely exhibits aposematic coloration and possesses chemical defenses based on cantharidin, a toxic compound characteristic of the family. The species was described by Dillon in 1952. Specific ecological details for this species remain poorly documented in published sources.
Pyrota trochanterica
Arizona Trochanter Blister Beetle
Pyrota trochanterica is a blister beetle in the family Meloidae, native to the southwestern United States. The species exhibits two recognized subspecies: the nominate P. t. trochanterica and P. t. werneri. Like other members of the genus Pyrota, it possesses aposematic coloration warning of its chemical defenses. The species is known to aggregate on flowers, particularly yellow-flowered shrubs, where mating occurs.
Romalea
Horse Lubbers, Lubber Grasshoppers
Romalea is a genus of large, flightless lubber grasshoppers in the family Romaleidae. Traditionally containing a single species, R. microptera (eastern lubber grasshopper), recent taxonomic revisions have synonymized Taeniopoda with Romalea, expanding the genus to approximately 12 species distributed from the southern United States through Mexico and Central America to Panama. These grasshoppers are among the largest in North America, characterized by aposematic coloration, chemical defenses, and reduced wings that render them incapable of flight.
Romalea microptera
Eastern Lubber Grasshopper, Lubber Grasshopper
Romalea microptera is a large, flightless grasshopper native to the southeastern United States, reaching up to 3.5 inches in length. Its aposematic coloration—yellow with black markings in eastern populations, black with red or yellow markings in western populations—serves as a warning to predators. Despite its formidable defensive arsenal including spines, body armor, chemical secretions, and threat displays, it is harmless to humans and rarely causes significant agricultural damage.
Romaleidae
lubber grasshoppers, lubbers
Romaleidae, commonly known as lubber grasshoppers, are a family of large, flightless or short-winged grasshoppers found in the Americas. The family includes some of the largest and most robust grasshoppers in North America, with adults often exceeding 50 mm in length and displaying striking color patterns. The common name "lubber" derives from nautical slang for a clumsy person, referencing their slow, deliberate movements and inability to fly. The family comprises two subfamilies, Bactrophorinae and Romaleinae, with the latter containing the well-known genus Romalea. Many species exhibit aposematic coloration as nymphs and adults, advertising their chemical defenses against predators.
Saucrobotys
Saucrobotys is a genus of moths in the family Crambidae, established by Munroe in 1976. The genus contains at least two described species: Saucrobotys fumoferalis and Saucrobotys futilalis. Larvae of at least one species, S. futilalis (the dogbane webworm), are known to feed on dogbane (Apocynum spp.), sequestering the plant's toxic cardenolides for their own chemical defense.
Scantius aegyptius
Mediterranean red bug
Scantius aegyptius, commonly known as the Mediterranean red bug, is a ground-dwelling true bug in the family Pyrrhocoridae. It is recognized by its striking red and black aposematic coloration. The species is native to the Mediterranean region and has established invasive populations in North America, particularly in California since 2009. It feeds primarily on seeds and seed pods of plants in the family Malvaceae.
Spilosoma
tiger moths, ermine moths
Spilosoma is a genus of tiger moths in the family Erebidae, established by John Curtis in 1825. The genus is taxonomically heterogeneous and widely acknowledged to require systematic revision, with many species likely needing reclassification into separate genera. Members are commonly known as tiger moths or ermine moths, with larvae often called 'woolly bears' due to their dense, colorful setae. The genus has a global distribution with particular diversity in tropical and temperate regions. Several species are significant agricultural pests, notably Spilosoma obliqua (Bihar hairy caterpillar) in South Asia, which causes severe defoliation of jute, legumes, and other crops.
Spilosomina
Spilosomina is a subtribe of tiger moths within the tribe Arctiini of the family Erebidae. Members are commonly known as tiger moths and often exhibit aposematic coloration. The subtribe was formerly classified as the tribe Spilosomini in the family Arctiidae before taxonomic revision. It contains numerous genera, though the complete list remains unresolved due to unassigned arctiine genera.
Syntomeida epilais
Polka-Dot Wasp Moth, Oleander Moth, Uncle Sam Moth
Syntomeida epilais, commonly known as the polka-dot wasp moth or oleander moth, is a day-flying moth native to the Caribbean that has become established in the southeastern United States. The species is notable for its striking aposematic coloration—iridescent blue wings with white polka-dots and a red-tipped abdomen—that mimics the appearance of stinging wasps. Both adults and larvae sequester cardiac glycosides from their host plants, making them toxic to predators. The species possesses the most elaborate acoustic communication system known in the family Erebidae, with females producing ultrasonic signals to attract mates and defend against bats.
Syntomeida ipomoeae
Yellow-banded Wasp Moth, Orange-banded Wasp Moth
Syntomeida ipomoeae is a wasp-mimicking moth in the subfamily Arctiinae, described by Thaddeus William Harris in 1839. The species exhibits aposematic coloration and is known for its diurnal activity pattern, unusual among moths. Its common names derive from the distinctive yellow or orange banding on the body. The species has a restricted distribution in the southeastern United States.
Taeniopoda eques
western horse lubber grasshopper, horse lubber
Taeniopoda eques is a large, flightless lubber grasshopper endemic to the Chihuahuan Desert and adjacent arid regions of the southwestern United States and Mexico. Adults are notable for their aposematic black coloration with yellow markings, though color morphs vary geographically. The species is chemically defended against vertebrate predators and uses behavioral thermoregulation to accelerate development in its short growing season. It is univoltine, with eggs undergoing diapause through winter before hatching with summer rains.
Tetraopes linsleyi
A milkweed longhorn beetle described by Chemsak in 1963. Like other members of the genus Tetraopes, it is a specialist herbivore associated with milkweeds (Asclepias), possessing bright aposematic coloration and the characteristic divided eyes that give the genus its name. The species is known from the United States, though specific details about its range and biology remain limited.
Tetraopes tetrophthalmus
Red Milkweed Beetle
Tetraopes tetrophthalmus, commonly known as the red milkweed beetle, is a longhorn beetle (Cerambycidae) specialized on milkweed host plants. Both its genus and species names derive from Ancient Greek for "four eyes," referring to the extreme adaptation where antennal bases bisect the compound eyes. Adults are aposematically colored in red and black, warning predators of their toxicity derived from sequestered cardiac glycosides. The species exhibits specialized behaviors including vein-cutting to disable latex defenses, vibrational communication for mating and territorial contests, and substrate-borne signaling distinct for different social contexts.
Timulla
velvet ants
Timulla is a genus of velvet ants (family Mutillidae) comprising nearly 200 described species. These solitary wasps exhibit pronounced sexual dimorphism: females are wingless and often brightly colored with dense velvety pubescence, while males are winged. The genus occurs across the Americas and has been documented as a parasitoid of solitary bees and other ground-nesting insects. Some Timulla species serve as models for Müllerian or Batesian mimicry complexes, notably with ground spiders in the genus Sergiolus.
Timulla euterpe
Timulla euterpe is a species of velvet ant in the family Mutillidae, a group of wingless wasps known for their potent sting and aposematic coloration. Like other mutillids, females are wingless while males possess wings. The genus Timulla is frequently mimicked by spiders in the genus Sergiolus, which share similar habitats in sun-dappled forest floors. T. euterpe is part of a mimicry complex involving multiple Timulla species that resemble each other and their spider mimics.
Timulla hollensis
Timulla hollensis is a species of wingless wasp in the family Mutillidae, commonly known as velvet ants. The species is part of a genus noted for aposematic coloration and a potent sting. Males are winged while females are wingless and ant-like in appearance. The species has been documented in the eastern United States, with observations spanning multiple states.
Timulla subhyalina
Timulla subhyalina is a species of velvet ant in the family Mutillidae, a group of wingless female wasps known for potent stings and aposematic coloration. The species is part of a genus frequently involved in mimicry complexes with spiders and other insects. Like other mutillids, females are wingless and ant-like in appearance, while males possess wings. The species has been documented in North America with limited observational records.
Triprocris smithsoniana
Triprocris smithsoniana is a species of forester moth in the family Zygaenidae, a group known for aposematic coloration and cyanide-based chemical defenses. The species was described by James Brackenridge Clemens in 1861 (originally as Procris smithsonianus). It belongs to a genus of small, diurnal moths primarily distributed in North America. Like other zygaenids, adults are likely active during daylight hours. The species is rarely recorded, with few documented observations.
Tytthotyle maculata
Furnace Heat Lubber
Tytthotyle maculata is a species of lubber grasshopper in the family Romaleidae, commonly known as the Furnace Heat Lubber. It is native to arid regions of western North America, particularly California and surrounding areas. As a member of the Romaleidae, it belongs to a family known for large, flightless or poorly flying grasshoppers with aposematic coloration. The specific epithet 'maculata' refers to spotted or mottled patterning.
Uraniidae
Swallowtail Moths, Sunset Moths
Uraniidae is a family of moths in the order Lepidoptera, comprising approximately 700 species across 90 genera and four subfamilies. The family exhibits striking diversity in appearance and behavior: diurnal species are often brightly colored with iridescent scales and tail-like hindwing extensions, while nocturnal species are typically small and pale. Uraniidae are distributed throughout tropical regions of the Americas, Africa, and Indo-Australia. The family is closely related to Geometridae but distinguished by unique wing venation patterns. Some species, notably in the genus Chrysiridia, are known as 'sunset moths' and are apparently toxic, with aposematic coloration serving as predator warnings.
Uresiphita
Uresiphita is a genus of crambid moths comprising approximately six recognized species distributed across North America, New Zealand, Europe, and the Middle East. The genus is notable for larval sequestration of quinolizidine alkaloids from leguminous host plants, a chemical defense mechanism against predators. Several species have expanded their ranges through association with introduced host plants.
Uresiphita reversalis
Genista Broom Moth, Sophora Worm
Uresiphita reversalis is a multivoltine crambid moth native to Mexico and the southwestern United States that has expanded its range north and east across North America. The caterpillars feed diurnally in groups on leguminous host plants, particularly members of the tribe Genisteae, and sequester quinolizidine alkaloids for chemical defense. The species has gained notoriety as both a pest of ornamental plants and a potential biocontrol agent for invasive broom species. Adults are small moths with distinctive white bodies and bright yellow or orange hindwings.