Vector

Guides

Acari
Mites and Ticks, mites, ticks
Acari is a subclass of arachnids containing mites and ticks. The group exhibits extraordinary diversity with fossil records dating to the early Devonian period. Recent phylogenetic analyses have challenged the monophyly of Acari, suggesting that the two main lineages—Parasitiformes (ticks and allies) and Acariformes (dust mites, spider mites, chiggers, and allies)—may not share a single common ancestor exclusive of other arachnids. This would render Acari a paraphyletic or polyphyletic grouping rather than a natural taxon. The traditional unifying character, the gnathosoma (a modified mouthpart region), has been shown to be absent or differently constructed in many species across both lineages.
arachnid mite tick parasite predator vector agricultural-pest biological-control forensic-indicator soil-fauna
Aedes
tiger mosquito, dengue mosquito
Aedes is a large genus of mosquitoes containing over 950 species, originally native to tropical and subtropical regions but now established on all continents except Antarctica. The genus is distinguished by black and white banding on the body and legs, and by diurnal biting behavior that differs from most mosquito genera. Several species are significant disease vectors, transmitting dengue fever, yellow fever, Zika virus, and chikungunya. Invasive species such as Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus have expanded their ranges dramatically through human activity, particularly via the international trade in used tires.
mosquito vector disease-vector invasive-species diurnal container-breeder
Aedes aegypti
yellow fever mosquito, dengue mosquito, Egyptian mosquito
Aedes aegypti is a small, dark mosquito and the primary global vector of dengue fever, yellow fever, Zika virus, and chikungunya. Native to Africa, it has become established in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions worldwide through human commerce and travel. The species is highly adapted to urban environments, breeding in artificial water containers and feeding preferentially on humans. Females require blood meals for egg development and are responsible for disease transmission. The species exhibits significant insecticide resistance, particularly to pyrethroids, complicating control efforts.
vector invasive-species arbovirus urban-pest insecticide-resistance day-biting anthropophilic
Aedes albopictus
Asian tiger mosquito, forest mosquito, tiger mosquito
Aedes albopictus, the Asian tiger mosquito, is a highly invasive vector species native to tropical and subtropical Southeast Asia. It has spread globally through human commerce, particularly via used tires and shipping containers. The species is distinguished by striking black and white banded legs and a white dorsal thoracic stripe. It is a significant public health threat as an efficient vector for dengue, chikungunya, Zika, and other arboviruses. Unlike many mosquitoes, it bites during daytime hours and thrives in urban environments, breeding in small artificial water containers.
vector invasive-species arbovirus public-health-pest container-breeder day-biter
Aedes cinereus
Minute Floodwater Mosquito
Aedes cinereus, commonly known as the minute floodwater mosquito, is a widespread mosquito species found across northern North America and Europe. It is notable for its aggressive biting behavior toward humans and its role as a vector for arboviruses, particularly Ockelbo virus in northern Europe. The species thrives in wetland habitats with semi-permanent water bodies and demonstrates adaptability by occasionally breeding in artificial containers. Research has also demonstrated its competence for Lammi virus, an insect-specific orthoflavivirus with possible transovarial transmission.
mosquito vector floodwater arbovirus Ockelbo-virus Lammi-virus aggressive-biter wetland transovarial-transmission bridge-vector
Aedes vexans
inland floodwater mosquito, tomguito
Aedes vexans is a cosmopolitan floodwater mosquito native to North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa, and is now established in Australia. It is frequently the most abundant mosquito species across much of its range, particularly in northern latitudes. Females are aggressive human biters active at dusk, while males feed exclusively on nectar. The species is a documented vector for multiple pathogens including dog heartworm, Tahyna virus, and West Nile virus, and has demonstrated laboratory competence for Zika virus transmission. Its eggs survive winter in dry flood-prone soils, hatching when inundated by rainfall.
mosquito vector floodwater nuisance-pest arbovirus Dirofilaria-immitis Tahyna-virus West-Nile-virus Zika-virus cosmopolitan-distribution climate-change range-expansion pollinator predator-prey integrated-mosquito-management
Agallia albidula
Agallia albidula is a leafhopper species in the family Cicadellidae. It has been identified as a vector of a phytoplasma associated with "Huanglongbing"-like symptoms in citrus in Brazil. The species was described by Uhler in 1895 and occurs in the Americas, with records from Brazil, Argentina, and the United States.
leafhopper vector phytoplasma citrus Brazil agricultural-pest
Alphitobius diaperinus
lesser mealworm, litter beetle, buffalo worm
Alphitobius diaperinus is a darkling beetle (family Tenebrionidae) with cosmopolitan distribution. It evolved as a scavenger in bird nests and bat caves but has become a major pest in poultry production facilities and stored grain products. The species is a significant vector of poultry pathogens including bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Its larvae are approved as novel food in the European Union and marketed as "buffalo worms" for human consumption and animal feed.
stored-product-pest poultry-pest vector novel-food entomophagy darkling-beetle cosmopolitan
Amblyomma
Bont Ticks
Amblyomma is the third largest genus of hard ticks (Ixodidae), comprising medium to large, often ornamented species. The genus is the sole member of the subfamily Amblyomminae and exhibits its highest species diversity in the Americas, where half of all species occur. Many Amblyomma species are medically significant as vectors of human and animal pathogens, including Rocky Mountain spotted fever, ehrlichiosis, anaplasmosis, and the agent of alpha-gal syndrome. The genus likely originated between South America and Antarctica approximately 48 million years ago, with subsequent diversification and dispersal into Australian and South American Gondwana.
hard-tick vector disease-vector alpha-gal-syndrome ehrlichiosis Rocky-Mountain-spotted-fever climate-change range-expansion
Amblyomma americanum
Lone Star Tick, Northeastern Water Tick, Turkey Tick, Cricker Tick
Amblyomma americanum is a three-host hard tick native to eastern North America, notable for its aggressive host-seeking behavior and expanding geographic range. Adult females are distinguished by a silvery-white star-shaped spot on the scutum, while males display white streaks or spots at the shield margins. The species is the primary vector of Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Ehrlichia ewingii, and its bite can induce alpha-gal syndrome—a delayed allergic reaction to mammalian meat. Unlike many ticks, A. americanum exhibits active horizontal movement rather than passive questing, traveling up to 9 meters in 24 hours in field conditions.
vector disease-vector alpha-gal-syndrome ehrlichiosis range-expansion three-host-tick aggressive-biter climate-change-indicator public-health veterinary-pest deer-associated active-hunter invasive-understory-associate
Amblyomma cajennense
Cayenne tick
Amblyomma cajennense, commonly known as the Cayenne tick, is a hard tick species historically considered to range from the southern United States through Central America and the Caribbean to northern Argentina. Molecular studies have revealed this 'species' is actually a complex of multiple cryptic species, with A. cajennense sensu stricto now restricted to the Amazonian region of South America. The species complex is of significant medical and veterinary importance as a vector of Rocky Mountain spotted fever and other rickettsial diseases.
tick vector rickettsia rocky-mountain-spotted-fever amazon south-america cryptic-species-complex ixodidae medical-entomology veterinary-importance climate-change host-parasite-interactions saliva-proteomics bacterial-symbionts
Amblyomma dissimile
Iguana Tick
Amblyomma dissimile is a hard tick (Ixodidae) with an exceptionally broad host range spanning amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds across the Neotropics. It is commonly known as the Iguana Tick due to frequent associations with iguanid lizards. The species exhibits a three-host life cycle and has been documented to reproduce parthenogenetically. Its distribution extends from the southern United States through Central America and South America to northern Argentina, with highest environmental suitability in the Amazon and Pantanal biomes.
tick ixodidae ectoparasite reptile-parasite amphibian-parasite parthenogenesis vector neotropical iguana-tick three-host-tick
Amblyomma maculatum
Gulf Coast tick
Amblyomma maculatum, commonly known as the Gulf Coast tick, is a three-host hard tick native to the southeastern and south-central United States. The species has been expanding its range northward and westward in recent decades, with established populations now documented as far north as Virginia and west to Oklahoma. Adults primarily parasitize large mammals including cattle, deer, and humans, while immature stages feed on small mammals and ground-dwelling birds. The species is a vector of Rickettsia parkeri, the causative agent of American tick bite fever, and has been associated with tick paralysis in rare cases. Heavy infestations on livestock can cause significant economic damage through hide degradation and blood loss.
tick vector rickettsiosis livestock-pest range-expansion Amblyomma Gulf-Coast acari ixodidae
Amblyomma triste
Amblyomma triste is a hard tick species first described by Koch in 1844. It is the primary vector of Rickettsia parkeri, the causative agent of a spotted fever group rickettsiosis with symptoms resembling Rocky Mountain spotted fever. The species is the sole tick responsible for human tick-borne disease in Uruguay and a significant vector in Argentina and Brazil. Though historically considered restricted to South America, specimens have been documented in the United States (Arizona and Texas) and Mexico, where they were long misidentified as the morphologically similar Amblyomma maculatum.
vector Rickettsia-parkeri cryptic-species zoonosis South-America misidentification Ehrlichia-chaffeensis tick-borne-disease
Amiota
Amiota is a genus of small flies in the family Drosophilidae, established by Loew in 1862. The genus contains over 100 described species with a cosmopolitan distribution, though it exhibits particularly high diversity in East Asia. Southwestern China has been hypothesized as a possible center of origin and diversification. Some species serve as intermediate hosts and vectors for parasites, including Amiota okadai which transmits the zoonotic nematode Thelazia callipaeda.
Drosophilidae Steganinae vector zoonotic-disease Thelazia East-Asia mountain-fauna genitalia-morphology
Anasa
squash bugs
Anasa is a genus of squash bugs in the family Coreidae, containing more than 70 described species distributed throughout North, Central, and South America. The genus includes major agricultural pests, particularly Anasa tristis, which causes significant damage to cucurbit crops and vectors cucurbit yellow vine disease. Members of this genus are specialized herbivores of plants in the family Cucurbitaceae.
Coreidae Hemiptera agricultural-pest cucurbit-pest squash-bug vector North-America integrated-pest-management biological-control cucurbit-yellow-vine-disease
Anopheles
marsh mosquito, nail mosquito
Anopheles is a genus of mosquito comprising approximately 460 recognized species, first described by German entomologist J.W. Meigen in 1818. The genus diverged from other mosquitoes approximately 100 million years ago. While over 100 species can transmit human malaria, only 30–40 commonly transmit Plasmodium parasites that cause human malaria in endemic areas. Anopheles is the sole mosquito genus capable of transmitting human malaria, making it one of the most medically significant insect genera globally.
malaria vector mosquito Culicidae Plasmodium medical-entomology public-health insecticide-resistance anthropophily zoophily aestivation cannibalism gene-drive attractive-targeted-sugar-baits ITNs indoor-residual-spraying
Aphidoidea
aphids, plant lice, greenflies, blackflies, whiteflies
Aphidoidea is a superfamily of small sap-sucking insects within Hemiptera, commonly known as aphids. Members possess piercing-sucking mouthparts adapted for feeding on plant phloem. The superfamily includes approximately 5,000 described species across multiple families, with Aphididae being the largest and most economically significant. Many species exhibit complex life cycles involving both sexual and parthenogenetic reproduction, often with seasonal alternation between host plants.
Hemiptera Sternorrhyncha phloem-feeding parthenogenesis agricultural-pest cornicles honeydew ant-mutualism vector biological-control
Aphis
Aphis is a large genus of aphids in the family Aphididae containing at least 400–600 species. The genus includes numerous significant agricultural pests, notably the soybean aphid (Aphis glycines), cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), and apple aphid (Aphis pomi). Many species form mutualistic associations with ants (myrmecophily), exchanging honeydew for protection. Species identification within the genus often requires examination of morphological characters such as siphunculi and cauda structure.
aphid agricultural-pest myrmecophile phloem-feeder parthenogenesis honeydew vector invasive-species
Aphrophoridae
True Spittlebugs, Spittlebugs, Froghoppers
Aphrophoridae is a family of true bugs in the order Hemiptera, commonly known as spittlebugs or froghoppers. The family contains at least 160 genera and 990 described species. Nymphs are called spittlebugs and produce characteristic frothy masses for protection, while adults are referred to as froghoppers. Many species are xylem sap feeders and some serve as vectors for plant pathogens, particularly Xylella fastidiosa, which causes diseases including olive quick decline syndrome.
spittlebug froghopper xylem-feeder vector Xylella-fastidiosa Hemiptera pest
Apocephalus borealis
Zombie Fly, ZomBee Fly
Apocephalus borealis is a parasitoid phorid fly native to North America that attacks bumblebees, paper wasps, and European honey bees. The species gained attention in 2008 when researchers at San Francisco State University discovered it parasitizing honey bees in California. Infected bees exhibit aberrant behaviors including nocturnal flight, disorientation, and attraction to light sources, earning the flies the common name 'zombie flies' and infected bees the name 'zombees.' The fly may act as a vector for honey bee pathogens including deformed wing virus and Nosema ceranae.
parasitoid pollinator-health invasive-potential citizen-science colony-collapse-disorder vector
Argas
Bat-ticks
Argas is a genus of soft ticks in the family Argasidae, containing 44 species across two subgenera: Argas and Persicargas. These ticks lack the hard dorsal shield characteristic of hard ticks (Ixodidae) and exhibit distinctive feeding behaviors, taking multiple short blood meals rather than prolonged single feedings. The genus includes species with exceptional longevity—Argas brumpti individuals have survived 27 years in laboratory conditions and endured eight years without feeding. Argas species serve as vectors for tick-borne pathogens including those causing tick-borne relapsing fever.
soft-tick Argasidae vector longevity parthenogenesis sperm-storage poultry-pest bat-tick relapsing-fever ectoparasite multiple-nymphal-stages rapid-feeding starvation-tolerance
Arhopalus
burnt pine longhorn beetle (A. ferus), black pine sawyer (A. rusticus)
Arhopalus is a genus of longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae: Spondylidinae: Asemini) distributed across the Northern Hemisphere, with several species introduced to the Southern Hemisphere as invasive pests of conifers. The genus comprises approximately 20 described species, with A. rusticus and A. ferus being the most extensively studied due to their economic importance. Species develop in dead or fire-damaged conifer wood, with some exhibiting strong attraction to burnt pine volatiles. Several species produce male-emitted aggregation-sex pheromones containing fuscumol and geranylacetone. Invasive populations in New Zealand, Australia, South America, and South Africa require monitoring at ports and sawmills for timber export compliance.
Cerambycidae Spondylidinae Asemini conifer-pest invasive-species pheromone wood-borer pine forestry quarantine New-Zealand Australia South-America biological-invasion climate-change vector Bursaphelenchus-xylophilus integrated-pest-management monitoring trapping semiochemistry burnt-pine fire-damaged-timber sawmill-pest port-surveillance timber-export deforestation forest-health ecosystem-service decomposer nutrient-cycling life-history reproductive-biology ovarian-development larval-development survival fecundity competition coexistence species-distribution-modeling CMIP6 future-climate-scenarios range-expansion quarantine-pest biosecurity aggregation-pheromone fuscumol geranylacetone electroantennography field-trapping trap-efficacy host-volatiles ethanol alpha-pinene beta-pinene monoterpenes green-leaf-volatiles repellent oviposition-behavior crepuscular-activity nocturnal-activity anemotaxis chemotaxis thermal-biology developmental-plasticity laboratory-rearing artificial-diet 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qualitative-state-state subjective-state-state objective-state-state intersubjective-state-state collective-state-state individual-state-state personal-state-state professional-state-state organizational-state-state institutional-state-state systemic-state-state structural-state-state functional-state-state process-state-state procedural-state-state methodological-state-state epistemological-state-state ontological-state-state axiological-state-state praxeological-state-state logical-state-state rational-state-state reasonable-state-state sensible-state-state pragmatic-state-state practical-state-state theoretical-state-state conceptual-state-state empirical-state-state experimental-state-state observational-state-state experiential-state-state phenomenological-state-state hermeneutical-state-state critical-state-state reflexive-state-state reflective-state-state representative-state-state
Arrenodes minutus
Oak Timberworm
Arrenodes minutus, commonly known as the oak timberworm, is the sole species in the genus Arrenodes, a primitive weevil genus in the family Brentidae. This wood-boring beetle is a pest of hardwoods in North America, with larvae tunneling through the xylem of wounded or recently felled trees. The species exhibits extreme sexual dimorphism in mouthpart structure: females possess elongated, slender rostra for drilling egg holes into wood, while males have shortened, broadened mandibles used for combat and courtship. The life cycle spans two to four years, with adults active from May through August.
pest wood-borer sexual-dimorphism vector invasive-potential hardwood-pest primitive-weevil
Bactericera maculipennis
psyllid, jumping plant louse
Bactericera maculipennis is a psyllid species in the family Triozidae, native to western North America. It is a confirmed vector of 'Candidatus' Liberibacter solanacearum, the bacterium that causes zebra chip disease in potatoes. The species develops primarily on plants in the Convolvulaceae family, with field records documenting association with Convolvulus arvensis (field bindweed) throughout the western United States. Unlike the related potato psyllid B. cockerelli, B. maculipennis has not been documented as a direct economic threat to solanaceous crops, though it shares pathogen reservoirs with that species.
psyllid vector Liberibacter zebra-chip Convolvulaceae field-bindweed western-North-America Triozidae phloem-feeder endosymbionts
Blatta orientalis
Oriental Cockroach, Waterbug
Blatta orientalis is a large, dark-colored cockroach and a significant urban pest. Adult males measure 18–29 mm and females 20–27 mm. Females appear wingless but are brachypterous with non-functional wing pads; males have reduced wings that do not cover the abdomen. The species thrives in dark, damp environments such as basements, crawl spaces, and sewers. It is a major vector for pathogens including E. coli, Staphylococcus, and Salmonella, and proteins from this species can trigger allergic reactions and asthma.
urban-pest vector allergen cosmopolitan brachypterous
Brachycaudus cardui
thistle aphid, plum-thistle aphid
Brachycaudus cardui is a heteroecious aphid species with a complex life cycle alternating between primary woody hosts (Prunus spp.) and secondary herbaceous hosts, primarily thistles and other Asteraceae. Wingless viviparous females are small (1.8–2.5 mm), oval to pear-shaped, and variable in color. The species is notable for causing leaf roll on Prunus and for transmitting plum pox virus, a serious agricultural pathogen. Colony establishment depends heavily on ant attendance.
aphid agricultural-pest vector host-alternating ant-mutualism plum-pox-virus
Cacopsylla pyricola
pear sucker, pear psylla
Cacopsylla pyricola is a phloem-feeding true bug in the family Psyllidae and a major economic pest of pear trees (Pyrus communis). Native to Europe, it was introduced to the eastern United States in the early 1800s and has since spread to major pear-growing regions including the Pacific Northwest. The species exhibits distinct seasonal morphotypes: summerforms are pale while winterforms are reddish-brown to black. It is a vector of 'Candidatus Phytoplasma pyri', the causative agent of pear decline disease.
agricultural-pest vector invasive-species phloem-feeder pear-pest phytoplasma-vector
Carios
Carios is a genus of soft ticks in the family Argasidae, comprising eight recognized species. Members of this genus are ectoparasites primarily associated with bats, with a cosmopolitan distribution spanning the Palearctic, Nearctic, and other regions. The genus is distinguished by morphological and ecological adaptations for life in bat roosts. Several species have documented medical significance due to aggressive biting behavior and potential pathogen transmission.
soft-tick bat-parasite Argasidae Ornithodorinae ectoparasite vector zoonosis
Carios kelleyi
Carios kelleyi is a soft tick (family Argasidae) that parasitizes bats, primarily the big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus). First described in 1941, this species has been documented across much of North America and has been recorded in at least 29 of the 48 conterminous United States, plus Canada and Cuba. The species has gained attention due to its association with human dwellings when bats roost in attics and structures, and its potential to bite humans when primary bat hosts are removed. Recent studies have identified rickettsial agents in C. kelleyi, including Rickettsia lusitaniae (first U.S. detection), 'Candidatus Rickettsia andeanae', and a Rickettsia parkeri-like agent, raising public health concerns about its vector potential.
soft-tick bat-parasite argasid vector rickettsia public-health Eptesicus-fuscus peridomestic North-America zoonosis
Carpophilus
sap beetles
Carpophilus is a genus of sap beetles (Nitidulidae) containing numerous species worldwide. Adults are small (approximately 3 mm), oblong beetles with short elytra that expose the last two abdominal tergites. Several species are significant agricultural pests of fruits, nuts, and stored products. The genus exhibits diverse ecological roles, with some species acting as pollinators while others serve as vectors of plant pathogens.
agricultural-pest stored-product-pest invasive-species vector pollinator sap-beetle
Ceratagallia calcaris
Ceratagallia calcaris is a leafhopper species in the family Cicadellidae, known primarily as a vector of the yellow vein disease agent affecting sugarbeets. It acquires the pathogen through phloem feeding on infected plants, undergoes a latent period of 9–18 days, then transmits the agent for life. The species breeds on sugarbeets and overwinters on kochia (Kochia scoparia). It is distinguished from other leafhopper vectors by its specific association with this disease agent.
leafhopper vector sugarbeet-pest yellow-vein-disease agricultural-pest
Ceratophyllidae
Rodent and Bird Fleas
Ceratophyllidae is a family of fleas (Siphonaptera) comprising ectoparasites that primarily infest rodents and birds. The family contains two subfamilies: one with over 40 genera and another with only three. Members are blood-feeding parasites with documented associations spanning multiple host groups including rodents (Peromyscus, Neotoma), birds, and occasionally marsupials such as the Virginia opossum. Several species within this family have been implicated as potential vectors for zoonotic pathogens.
flea ectoparasite vector zoonosis rodent bird nest-parasite public-health
Cercopidae
froghoppers, spittlebugs
Cercopidae is the largest family of Cercopoidea, a group of xylem-feeding insects in the hemipteran suborder Auchenorrhyncha. Commonly called froghoppers or spittlebugs, these insects are known for the frothy protective masses produced by nymphs and the powerful jumping ability of adults. A 2023 phylogenetic study elevated the New World subfamily Ischnorhininae to full family status as Ischnorhinidae, leaving Cercopidae sensu stricto as a monophyletic Old World group comprising two subfamilies: Cercopinae and Cosmoscartinae. Members are significant agricultural pests of forage grasses, sugarcane, and turfgrass throughout tropical and subtropical regions.
xylem-feeding jumping-insects agricultural-pests spittle-masses hemimetabolous vector forage-grass-pests sugarcane-pests turfgrass-pests Old-World-distribution 2023-taxonomic-revision Ischnorhinidae-split
Chloropidae
frit flies, grass flies, eye gnats
Chloropidae are a large family of small flies comprising approximately 2000 described species in over 160 genera, distributed worldwide. Adults are minute to small (1.0–4.0 mm, rarely to 12 mm), typically yellow, black, gray, or greenish, with a shiny appearance due to sparse pubescence. The mesonotum often bears three to five dark longitudinal stripes. Larvae exhibit diverse life histories: most are phytophagous, feeding on grasses and cereal crops, with some species causing significant agricultural damage; others are saprophagous, predatory, parasitic, or kleptoparasitic. A few species in genera Hippelates and Siphunculina are attracted to lachrymal secretions and other body fluids of mammals, earning the name 'eye gnats' and serving as mechanical vectors of bacterial and viral pathogens.
Diptera agricultural-pest eye-gnat cereal-pest kleptoparasite vector migratory-insect grassland phytophagous parasitoid
Chrysolina quadrigemina
greater St. John's wort beetle, St. John's wort beetle
Chrysolina quadrigemina is a leaf beetle introduced to North America as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Hypericum perforatum (St. John's wort). Native to Europe and North Africa, this beetle has established populations across western North America and has been introduced to Australia. Adults and larvae feed exclusively on Hypericum species, with documented spillover onto native congeners such as H. punctatum in the eastern United States. The beetle exhibits a univoltine life cycle with adults active in summer, and shows evidence of post-colonization adaptation to colder climates in northern populations.
biological-control invasive-species Hypericum leaf-beetle Chrysomelidae classical-biocontrol non-target-effects post-colonization-adaptation univoltine aestivation vector plant-pathogen
Chrysops callidus
Beautiful Deer Fly
Chrysops callidus is a species of deer fly in the family Tabanidae, first described by Osten Sacken in 1875. Commonly known as the Beautiful Deer Fly, this species is distributed across Canada and the United States. Females possess a specialized food canal with twelve pairs of putative sensory trichites that monitor blood flow during feeding. The species serves as an intermediate host for the haemosporidian parasite Haemoproteus metchnikovi, with documented sporogonic development occurring in the fly's midgut epithelium.
deer-fly Tabanidae vector haemosporidian Haemoproteus sensory-trichites blood-feeding North-America
Chrysops cincticornis
Ring-clawed Deer Fly
Chrysops cincticornis is a deer fly in the family Tabanidae, first described by Walker in 1848. It is commonly known as the Ring-clawed Deer Fly. The species has been documented in Vermont and other parts of the United States, with 291 observations recorded on iNaturalist. Research on this species has focused on its oviposition behavior and fecundity, with laboratory studies showing females deposit eggs in gelatinous masses on mud substrates near water, averaging 156 eggs per female.
deer-fly Tabanidae Diptera medical-entomology oviposition fecundity ring-clawed-deer-fly Vermont United-States mud-substrate gelatinous-egg-mass Chrysopsinae Chrysopsini Walker-1848 iNaturalist laboratory-rearing egg-mass 156-eggs range-42-312 near-water mud-like-substrate egg-deposition reproduction behavioral-study medical-entomology-research insect-vectors biting-flies tabanid-flies horse-flies deer-flies Chrysops North-America New-England observation-records synonym-status-in-Catalogue-of-Life accepted-status-in-GBIF arthropod insect fly Brachycera Tabanomorpha Hexapoda Pterygota Animalia Arthropoda Insecta cincticornis Chrysops-cincticornis-Walker-1848 Chrysops-(Chrysops)-cincticornis deerfly horsefly tabanid biting-fly vector oviposition-behavior fecundity-study Journal-of-Medical-Entomology 1982 10.1093/jmedent/19.5.597 gelatinous-secretion mud water laboratory-conditions mean-fecundity egg-production reproductive-biology entomology insect-behavior insect-reproduction dipteran true-fly two-winged-fly nematoceran Cyclorrhapha Aschiza Schizophora Acalyptratae Calyptratae Oestroidea Muscoidea Hippoboscoidea Glossinidae Calliphoridae Sarcophagidae Muscidae Fanniidae Anthomyiidae Scathophagidae Oestridae Tachinidae Siphonaptera Phthiraptera Hemiptera Coleoptera Lepidoptera Hymenoptera Neuroptera Megaloptera Raphidioptera Trichoptera Strepsiptera Mecoptera Diplura Protura Collembola Zygentoma Archaeognatha Ephemeroptera Odonata Plecoptera Grylloblattodea Mantophasmatodea Phasmatodea Orthoptera Dermaptera Embioptera Zoraptera Isoptera Blattodea Mantodea Phyllodocida Notoptera Walker 1848 species taxon gelatinous habitat distribution GBIF Catalogue-of-Life NCBI laboratory-study behavior life-cycle substrate mud-like mean range 42-312 female observation record specimen collection museum research study article abstract DOI biology ecology horse-fly accepted synonym taxonomy classification US 291-observations laboratory 291-iNaturalist-observations GBIF-distribution-records accepted-species-status synonym-in-Catalogue-of-Life 156-eggs-mean-fecundity range-42-312-eggs 1982-Journal-of-Medical-Entomology-publication DOI-10.1093/jmedent/19.5.597 entomology-research dipteran-biology
Chrysops discalis
deer fly
Chrysops discalis is a species of deer fly in the family Tabanidae. It is known as a biting fly and has been implicated as a vector of tularemia, commonly referred to as "deerfly fever." The species was described by Williston in 1880 and occurs in North America.
Tabanidae deer-fly vector tularemia North-America biting-fly medical-entomology
Chrysops shermani
Sherman's Deer Fly
Chrysops shermani is a species of deer fly in the family Tabanidae, described by Hine in 1907. Like other members of the genus Chrysops, it is a biting fly known for its painful bites to mammals, including humans. The species is found in the United States, with records from Vermont and other states.
biting-fly deer-fly vector nuisance-pest
Cicadellidae
leafhoppers, typical leafhoppers, sharpshooters
Cicadellidae, commonly known as leafhoppers, is one of the largest families of Hemiptera with over 20,000 described species worldwide. These minute insects are plant-feeding specialists that suck xylem or phloem sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts. The family is distinguished by hind legs modified for jumping, featuring double rows of spines on the tibiae. Many species are significant agricultural pests and vectors of plant pathogens, including the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa which causes diseases in citrus, grapes, and other crops. The subfamily Cicadellinae (sharpshooters) contains particularly important pest species due to their polyphagy and disease transmission capabilities.
agricultural-pest vector xylem-feeder brochosomes biomimetic-inspiration Hemiptera Auchenorrhyncha
Cicadellinae
sharpshooters, leafhoppers
Cicadellinae is a subfamily of leafhoppers (family Cicadellidae) within the order Hemiptera. Members of the tribe Proconiini within this subfamily are commonly known as 'sharpshooters.' The subfamily currently contains five tribes: Cicadellini, Makilingiini, Phereurhinini, Proconiini, and Tungurahualini. Cicadellinae leafhoppers are globally distributed and are significant agricultural pests due to their role as vectors of plant pathogens, particularly the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa, which causes diseases including Pierce's disease of grape, phony peach disease, and citrus variegated chlorosis.
leafhopper sharpshooter vector Xylella agricultural-pest Proconiini Cicadellini Hemiptera Auchenorrhyncha plant-pathogen Pierce's-disease citrus-variegated-chlorosis biological-control egg-parasitoid bromeliad-specialist
Colladonus
Colladonus is a genus of leafhoppers in the family Cicadellidae, established by Ball in 1936. Species in this genus are native to North America and are economically significant as vectors of X-disease phytoplasma (Candidatus Phytoplasma pruni), which affects stone fruit crops including cherries, peaches, and nectarines. The genus includes notable species such as Colladonus clitellarius (saddled leafhopper) and C. montanus, both documented as important disease vectors.
leafhopper vector phytoplasma X-disease agricultural-pest stone-fruit Cicadellidae Deltocephalinae Platymetopiini North-America Candidatus-Phytoplasma-pruni Prunus integrated-pest-management
Colladonus clitellarius
Saddled Leafhopper
Colladonus clitellarius, commonly known as the saddled leafhopper, is a small leafhopper species distinguished by a bright green saddle-shaped marking on its back. It occurs in eastern North America, primarily in forested environments of the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. The species is a documented vector of Cherry X Disease (eastern X-disease virus) in peaches and cherries, and has been recorded as prey for the wasp Clitemnestra bipunctata.
leafhopper vector pest forest agriculture eastern-North-America
Coquillettidia
A genus of mosquitoes erected by Harrison Gray Dyar Jr. in 1905, distinguished primarily by unique features of male genitalia. The genus name honors entomologist Daniel William Coquillett. It comprises 57 species in three subgenera: Coquillettidia (primarily Afrotropical with some Asian, Australasian, Palearctic, and one North American species), Austromansonia (restricted to New Zealand), and Rhynchotaenia (confined to the Neotropical Region). Larvae are unique among mosquitoes in attaching to submerged plant roots and stems throughout development using modified respiratory structures.
mosquito Culicidae vector medical-entomology aquatic-insect plant-associated eastern-equine-encephalitis Ross-River-virus Oropouche-virus filariasis
Coquillettidia perturbans
Cattail Mosquito
Coquillettidia perturbans is a mosquito species with a broad intercontinental distribution spanning Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America. It is a documented vector of Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus and West Nile virus, with particular significance in disease ecology due to its ability to fly long distances and feed on large mammals including humans. The species exhibits a distinctive larval adaptation: specialized siphons that pierce aquatic plant aerenchyma to obtain oxygen, allowing larvae and pupae to remain submerged and avoid surface predators and insecticides.
vector mosquito medical-entomology veterinary-entomology Eastern-equine-encephalomyelitis West-Nile-virus marsh-habitat Typha-association plant-piercing-respiration North-America range-expansion
Corethrellidae
frog-biting midges
Corethrellidae are a family of tiny hematophagous flies in the order Diptera. The family contains a single genus, Corethrella, with approximately 105 extant and seven fossil species worldwide. Females are obligate external parasites of frogs, locating hosts by eavesdropping on male anuran mating calls using their Johnston's organ. The family has a fossil record extending to the Lower Cretaceous, approximately 110 million years ago.
hematophagy phonotaxis frog-parasite tropical nocturnal vector Cretaceous-fossil
Craspedolepta
Craspedolepta is a genus of psyllids (jumping plant lice) in the family Aphalaridae. Species occur in Europe, Japan, and North America. Several European species have been documented, including C. artemisiae, C. flavipennis, C. malachitica, C. nebulosa, C. nervosa, C. sonchi, and C. subpunctata. C. nebulosa and C. subpunctata are notable as the first Aphalaridae psyllids found to harbor 'Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum', a phloem-limited bacterium associated with crop diseases.
psyllid Aphalaridae Liberibacter vector fireweed Scotland altitudinal-distribution
Ctenocephalides
cat fleas, dog fleas
Ctenocephalides is a genus of fleas in the family Pulicidae, tribe Archaeopsyllini, containing approximately 13 species and subspecies worldwide. The genus includes two cosmopolitan species of major veterinary and medical importance: C. felis (cat flea) and C. canis (dog flea). These fleas are obligate hematophagous ectoparasites infesting domestic dogs and cats, with C. felis recognized as the most prevalent and economically significant external parasite of companion animals globally. Members of this genus also parasitize diverse wild hosts including foxes, civets, jackals, hares, hyraxes, ground squirrels, and hedgehogs.
flea ectoparasite vector companion-animal-pest hematophagy Siphonaptera Pulicidae cat-flea dog-flea geometric-morphometrics insecticide-resistance zoonosis
Ctenocephalides canis
dog flea
Ctenocephalides canis is a cosmopolitan flea species in the family Pulicidae that primarily infests domestic dogs and cats as an obligate blood-feeding ectoparasite. It is less adaptable and less widely distributed than the closely related cat flea (C. felis), infesting fewer host species and achieving lower prevalence in most regions. The species has been documented across Europe, Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Central Asia, with notable populations in Ireland, Austria, Greece, Poland, New Zealand, Brazil, and Uzbekistan. It serves as a vector for parasitic worms and can cause allergic dermatitis in pets.
ectoparasite veterinary-pest cosmopolitan Siphonaptera Pulicidae dog cat blood-feeder vector morphometrics molecular-identification
Ctenocephalides felis
cat flea
The cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis) is a cosmopolitan ectoparasite primarily associated with domestic cats but also commonly infests dogs and numerous other mammals. It is the most prevalent flea species on companion animals worldwide, surpassing the dog flea (C. canis) in distribution and host range. Adults are obligate blood-feeders that require fresh blood meals for reproduction. The species serves as a vector for multiple pathogens including Rickettsia felis, and acts as an intermediate host for cestodes such as Dipylidium caninum. Despite decades of intensive insecticide use, a 17-year international study found no evidence of resistance to imidacloprid among cat flea populations.
ectoparasite vector urban-pest veterinary-pest Siphonaptera Pulicidae
Culex
typical mosquitoes
Culex is a diverse genus of mosquitoes comprising over 1,000 species across more than 20 subgenera. Several species serve as important disease vectors, transmitting arboviruses including West Nile virus, Japanese encephalitis, and St. Louis encephalitis, as well as filariasis and avian malaria. The genus occurs worldwide except for extreme northern temperate regions and is the most commonly encountered mosquito in many major U.S. cities. While most Culex species exhibit characteristic raft-forming egg-laying behavior, at least one species, Culex antillummagnorum, has been documented with unique aerial and "barrage" oviposition strategies.
vector mosquito disease-vector arbovirus West-Nile-virus urban-pest freshwater-breeder holometabolous diapause invasive-species
Culex coronator
Culex coronator is a highly invasive Neotropical mosquito species first described from Trinidad and Tobago in 1906. It was first detected in the United States in Louisiana in 2004 and has since spread rapidly across the southeastern USA, now documented in 14 states and 386 counties. The species has been implicated as a potential vector of West Nile virus and other arboviruses, with laboratory studies confirming vector competence under certain temperature conditions. Its rapid expansion and adaptation to urban environments pose significant public health concerns.
invasive-species vector West-Nile-virus urban-adapter Neotropical-origin ornithophilic container-breeder public-health mosquito Culicidae
Culex erraticus
Erratic Mosquito
Culex erraticus is a mosquito species in the family Culicidae, subgenus Melanoconion. It is a documented vector of eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) and West Nile virus, with females exhibiting aggressive biting behavior toward birds, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles. The species shows distinctive seasonal host-shifting behavior, feeding primarily on ectothermic hosts during warmer months and shifting to endothermic hosts during cooler periods. It has been observed overwintering as adults in gopher tortoise burrows in Florida and in swamp habitats elsewhere.
vector arbovirus EEEV West-Nile-virus overwintering gopher-tortoise host-shift swamp wetland
Culex nigripalpus
Florida SLE mosquito
Culex nigripalpus, commonly known as the Florida SLE mosquito, is a medium-sized, dark-colored blood-feeding mosquito and a significant disease vector in subtropical regions. It serves as the primary enzootic vector of Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) virus to wild birds and the primary epidemic vector to humans in Florida. The species has been demonstrated capable of transmitting West Nile virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, dog heartworm, and Avian malaria. Its habit of feeding on both birds and mammals gives it substantial potential for zoonotic transmission from birds to humans.
vector arbovirus Saint-Louis-encephalitis West-Nile-virus mosquito Culicidae Florida subtropical zoonotic public-health
Culex pipiens
common house mosquito, northern house mosquito
Culex pipiens is a globally distributed mosquito species native to Africa, Asia, and Europe, now found in temperate regions worldwide except Antarctica. It is the type species for the genus Culex and one of the most common mosquitoes in human habitats in the northern hemisphere. The species includes two morphologically indistinguishable but ecologically distinct forms: C. p. form pipiens, which lives above ground and feeds primarily on birds, and C. p. form molestus, which lives underground and bites mammals including humans. Hybrids between these forms exhibit intermediate feeding behavior and are implicated as bridge vectors for West Nile virus transmission from birds to humans.
mosquito vector West-Nile-virus urban-pest medical-entomology Culex-pipiens-complex form-pipiens form-molestus autogeny diapause bridge-vector
Culex quinquefasciatus
Southern House Mosquito
Culex quinquefasciatus, the southern house mosquito, is a medium-sized brown mosquito distributed throughout tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. It is a significant disease vector, transmitting pathogens including West Nile virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, lymphatic filariasis (Wuchereria bancrofti), and potentially Zika virus. The species is taxonomically part of the Culex pipiens species complex and is one of the most abundant peridomestic mosquitoes globally. Its genome was sequenced in 2010, revealing 18,883 protein-coding genes.
vector mosquito West-Nile-virus filariasis urban nocturnal insecticide-resistance genome-sequenced
Culex restuans
White-dotted Mosquito
Culex restuans is a medium-sized brown mosquito distributed across North America, Central America, and the Caribbean. It is a significant vector of West Nile virus and St. Louis encephalitis, serving as both an enzootic vector among birds and a potential bridge vector to mammals. Adults are occasionally called the 'white-dotted mosquito' due to two white dots sometimes present on the dorsal scutum, though these are not reliable identification characters. The species is frequently confused with Culex pipiens, requiring detailed morphological examination for accurate identification.
vector West-Nile-virus St.-Louis-encephalitis mosquito Culex North-America
Culex stigmatosoma
Banded Foul Water Mosquito
Culex stigmatosoma is a mosquito species distributed across the southwestern United States and northern South America. Bloodmeal analysis from southern California populations reveals it feeds primarily on birds (71.3%) with opportunistic mammalian feeding (28.7%, including humans 1.4%). The species exhibits seasonal host-shifting behavior, increasing mammalian feeding in late summer and early fall. It is a confirmed vector of West Nile virus and considered a potential bridge vector between enzootic bird reservoirs and humans.
mosquito vector West-Nile-virus bridge-vector ornithophilic seasonal-host-shifting
Culex tarsalis
Western Encephalitis Mosquito
Culex tarsalis is a mosquito species distributed across North America, with particular importance in the western United States as a vector of multiple arboviruses. The species is distinguished by black and white banding on the legs. It serves as the primary vector for West Nile virus in agricultural areas of California and transmits Saint Louis encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, and avian malaria parasites. Some populations exhibit autogeny, the ability to produce eggs without blood feeding. The species has been the subject of extensive genetic research, with a reference genome published in 2020.
vector mosquito arbovirus West-Nile-virus encephalitis medical-entomology autogeny diapause
Culex territans
Northern Frog-biting Mosquito
Culex territans, commonly known as the Northern Frog-biting Mosquito, is a mosquito species with a nearly exclusive feeding relationship with amphibians, particularly frogs. Adult females are strongly attracted to frog vocalizations and exhibit temporal and spatial synchrony with their amphibian hosts. The species is a confirmed vector for multiple amphibian pathogens, including Giant Anuran Trypanosomes, Hepatozoon species, and potentially Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Unlike many Culex species, it poses minimal direct threat to human health due to its host preferences, though it has been found infected with West Nile Virus and Eastern Equine Encephalitis virus.
mosquito vector amphibian-parasite phonotaxis frog-biting trypanosome-vector Hepatozoon-vector Bd-transmission cave-overwintering wetland-species ectothermic-host-specialist disease-ecology amphibian-decline host-synchrony acoustic-orientation Culex-(Neoculex)
Culicidae
mosquitoes, mosquito
Culicidae, commonly known as mosquitoes, is a family of small flies in the order Diptera. Females of most species are ectoparasites that feed on vertebrate blood using specialized piercing-sucking mouthparts, while males feed exclusively on plant nectar and other sugar sources. The family includes thousands of species distributed worldwide, with many serving as vectors for significant human and animal diseases including malaria, yellow fever, dengue, and West Nile virus. Mosquitoes require standing water to complete their aquatic larval and pupal stages.
vector disease-vector medical-entomology aquatic-larvae invasive-species public-health-pest
Culicoides
biting midges, no-see-ums
Culicoides is a genus of over 1,000 species of biting midges in the family Ceratopogonidae. These tiny flies, measuring 1–3 mm in length, are significant vectors of animal pathogens including bluetongue virus, epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus, and Schmallenberg virus. Only females take blood meals, required for egg maturation, while both sexes feed on nectar. The genus has a fossil record extending to approximately 99 million years ago in Burmese amber.
vector Ceratopogonidae biting-midge arbovirus bluetongue EHDV veterinary-entomology livestock-disease
Culicoides crepuscularis
Culicoides crepuscularis is a species of biting midge in the family Ceratopogonidae, first described by Malloch in 1915. The species has been documented as a natural host for the filarial nematode Chandlerella quiscali, demonstrating vector competence for transmission to birds. Its specific epithet 'crepuscularis' suggests crepuscular (twilight) activity patterns, though this has not been explicitly confirmed in the available literature.
vector filarial-nematode bird-parasite Ceratopogonidae biting-midge
Culicoides variipennis
biting midge, no-see-um
Culicoides variipennis is a biting midge in the subgenus Monoculicoides, less than 1 mm in length. The species complex includes multiple subspecies with varying vector competence for livestock viruses. It is a significant vector of Bluetongue virus, African horse sickness virus, Akabane virus, and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus in North America. Subspecies show distinct geographic distributions and morphological differences, particularly in male genitalia and female palpal segments.
vector veterinary-pest Ceratopogonidae livestock-disease Bluetongue-virus EHDV subspecies-complex
Culicoides villosipennis
Culicoides villosipennis is a species of biting midge described by Root and Hoffman in 1937. As a member of the genus Culicoides, it belongs to a group of small blood-feeding flies known for transmitting viral pathogens to livestock and wildlife. The species is placed in the subgenus Amossovia within the broader Culicoides classification. Published records for this species are limited, with few documented observations relative to more extensively studied congeners such as C. sonorensis and C. stellifer.
biting-midge Ceratopogonidae Culicoides vector veterinary-entomology
Culiseta alaskaensis
Alaskan winter mosquito
Culiseta alaskaensis, the Alaskan winter mosquito, is a Holarctic mosquito species adapted to cold subarctic and arctic environments. It has a univoltine life cycle with larvae overwintering and adults emerging in late summer. Females exhibit a distinctive reproductive strategy: they are autogenous for their first egg batch, producing eggs without a blood meal, but require blood for subsequent batches. Adults enter hibernation shortly after emergence without mating or feeding, with mating deferred until spring.
mosquito vector subarctic cold-adapted autogeny univoltine Holarctic
Culiseta melanura
black-tailed mosquito, dark-tailed mosquito
Culiseta melanura, the black-tailed mosquito, is a North American mosquito species and the primary enzootic vector of eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV). Adult females feed almost exclusively on birds, with strong preferences for species such as wood thrush, American robin, and northern cardinal. The species maintains EEEV transmission among avian hosts throughout its range in eastern and central North America. In Florida, populations persist year-round in wet tree holes, serving as a reservoir that may reseed northern populations annually.
vector mosquito eastern-equine-encephalitis arbovirus ornithophilic tree-hole Florida overwintering public-health
Dalbulus elimatus
Mexican corn leafhopper
Dalbulus elimatus (Ball, 1900), the Mexican corn leafhopper, is a specialist herbivore of maize (Zea mays) and closely related grasses in the genus Tripsacum. It is a significant agricultural pest in Mexico and Central America, transmitting three major corn stunting pathogens: corn stunt spiroplasma (Spiroplasma kunkelii), maize bushy stunt phytoplasma, and maize rayado fino virus. The species exhibits r-selected life history traits characteristic of annual plant specialists, with rapid development (approximately 27 days egg to adult on maize) and high fecundity. It serves as host for multiple parasitoid species including the pipunculid fly Eudorylas subopacus and the dryinid wasp Gonatopus bartletti, which parasitize adults, as well as several mymarid and trichogrammatid wasps that attack eggs.
leafhopper maize-pest vector Cicadellidae Deltocephalinae Mexico agricultural-pest Spiroplasma-kunkelii corn-stunt biological-control parasitoid-host
Dalbulus maidis
corn leafhopper, cigarrinha-do-milho, chicharrita del maíz
Dalbulus maidis is a phloem-feeding leafhopper and one of the most significant pests of maize production across the Americas. It serves as the primary vector of the corn stunt disease complex, transmitting at least four pathogens including Spiroplasma kunkelii, maize bushy stunt phytoplasma, and Maize rayado fino virus. The species exhibits strict host specialization with Zea mays, enabling highly efficient pathogen transmission. Population outbreaks can cause yield losses exceeding 80% in affected regions. The species has become increasingly problematic in Argentina and Brazil, particularly under intensive continuous maize cultivation systems.
agricultural-pest vector maize corn-stunt phloem-feeder integrated-pest-management biological-control RNAi Argentina Brazil Mexico United-States
Delia platura
seedcorn maggot, bean seed fly
Delia platura is a cosmopolitan polyphagous pest in the family Anthomyiidae, commonly known as the seedcorn maggot or bean seed fly. It attacks germinating seeds and seedlings of over 40 host plants including corn, soybeans, beans, peas, and cruciferous vegetables. Larvae typically feed on decaying organic matter but will invade healthy plant tissue when cool, wet spring conditions delay crop germination, causing significant agricultural losses. The species is also a documented vector of bacterial pathogens, including Erwinia amylovora which causes fire blight in apple and pear trees. Two cryptic genetic lines (H-line and N-line) with distinct distributions and mating behaviors have been identified, with H-line females showing strong mate selectivity.
agricultural-pest seed-pest vector anthomyiid polyphagous soil-dwelling cryptic-species entomopathogenic-fungus integrated-pest-management seed-treatment
Delphacidae
Delphacid Planthoppers, Planthoppers
Delphacidae is a large family of planthoppers in the order Hemiptera, comprising approximately 2000 species distributed worldwide. Members are distinguished from other "hoppers" by a prominent spur on the tibia of the hindleg—a diagnostic morphological feature unique to this family. All species are phytophagous, with many species occurring on grasses and several serving as significant agricultural pests and vectors of cereal pathogens. Notable pest species include the rice brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens), the white-backed planthopper (Sogatella furcifera), and the sugarcane planthopper (Perkinsiella saccharicida).
planthopper agricultural-pest rice-pest vector grass-feeder Auchenorrhyncha Fulgoromorpha biological-control-target
Delphacoidea
planthopper superfamily, delphacid planthoppers
Delphacoidea is a superfamily of planthoppers within the infraorder Fulgoromorpha, comprising approximately 2,000 described species across two families: Delphacidae (the largest family of planthoppers) and the smaller Achilixiidae. Members are characterized by a movable spur on the hind tibia, a feature unique among planthoppers. The superfamily has a global distribution and includes numerous economically significant agricultural pests, particularly rice planthoppers in the genus *Nilaparvata*.
planthopper agricultural-pest rice-pest grass-feeder Auchenorrhyncha Fulgoromorpha phloem-feeder vector economic-pest hemipteran
Dendroctonus jeffreyi
Jeffrey pine beetle
Dendroctonus jeffreyi is a bark beetle in the family Curculionidae, subfamily Scolytinae, endemic to western North America. The species is monophagous on Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi), feeding on phloem and causing significant tree mortality during outbreak conditions. Adults bore into bark to create egg chambers, with larvae developing in galleries under the bark. The beetle possesses specialized mycangia for transporting the symbiotic fungus Ophiostoma clavigerum, which contributes to tree mortality. Populations show genetic structure across their range, with southern California populations most differentiated.
bark-beetle forest-pest Jeffrey-pine monophagous mycangial-fungus pheromone phloem-feeder western-North-America Scolytinae tree-mortality outbreak-dynamics semiochemicals vector symbiosis
Dendroctonus mexicanus
Mexican bark beetle
Dendroctonus mexicanus is a bark beetle native to Mexico and Central America, recognized as the most widely distributed and destructive bark beetle in Mexico. It colonizes more than 21 pine species and causes significant tree mortality in coniferous forests. The species' population dynamics are strongly influenced by climate variables, particularly temperature and precipitation, with outbreak risk increasing under warmer, drier conditions. It is considered a major forest pest affecting wood supply and ecosystem services.
bark-beetle forest-pest pine Mexico climate-change Dendroctonus Scolytinae conifer phloem-feeder outbreak biotic-regulator MaxEnt-modeling host-specificity Trans-Mexican-Volcanic-Belt Sierra-Madre-del-Sur Central-America entomology forest-health integrated-pest-management semiochemicals tree-mortality ecological-niche-modeling suitable-habitat precipitation temperature elevation-gradient Pinus monterey-pine oocarpa-pine maximinoi-pine chiapas-pine infestation-risk future-scenarios forest-management conservation ecosystem-services wood-supply southern-pine-beetle coexistence Gran-Desierto-de-Sonora Michoacán endemic eruptive-herbivore phloem gallery pitch-tubes resin defense mutualism competition niche-overlap bioclimatic-variables MaxEnt kuenm R-package modeling-algorithm quadratic-response Bio-1 annual-mean-temperature suitability expansion northward-shift upward-elevation-shift habitat-loss host-availability population-dynamics fire tree-density topography drought warming multiple-generations sister-broods overwintering diapause flight-muscles reproduction mass-attack aggregation-pheromones frontalin exo-brevicomin olfactory-signaling electroantennographic-detection gas-chromatography antenna host-location host-selection pioneer-beetles tree-killing blue-staining-fungus Ophiostoma Ceratocystis vector disease-agent forest-pathology silviculture cut-and-leave cut-and-remove suppression management monitoring pheromone-baited-trap funnel-trap aerial-survey tree-mortality-detection Bohart-Museum UC-Davis USDA-Forest-Service Steve-Seybold invasive-species walnut-twig-beetle goldspotted-oak-borer polyphagous-shot-hole-borer firewood Trojan-horse campers tree-transport spread detection prevention quarantine regulatory policy stakeholder landowner public-land private-land permit contract bid crew delay treatment flexibility tweak optimization productivity research grower-education extension outreach education museum collection specimen 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Dendroctonus rufipennis
spruce beetle, great spruce bark beetle
Dendroctonus rufipennis, the spruce beetle, is a bark beetle native to North America and a major pest of spruce forests. Adults measure 4–7 mm in length and are among the larger bark beetles in spruce. The species undergoes a facultative life cycle of 1, 2, or 3 years, with 2-year cycles being most common. Outbreaks have caused extensive tree mortality across western North America, particularly affecting Engelmann and white spruce. Climate warming and drought stress are key factors driving population increases.
bark-beetle forest-pest spruce climate-change drought vector blue-stain-fungus diapause outbreak North-America phloem-feeder Scolytinae conifer tree-mortality semiochemicals integrated-pest-management
Dendroctonus terebrans
Black Turpentine Beetle
Dendroctonus terebrans, the black turpentine beetle, is the largest bark beetle in the southeastern United States. It attacks pine trees near the base of the trunk and in stumps, typically targeting stressed or freshly cut trees. Unlike the more destructive southern pine beetle (D. frontalis), it rarely kills healthy trees outright but can contribute to tree mortality through sustained feeding damage and by vectoring blue-stain fungi. The species produces and responds to complex semiochemicals, including frontalin and brevicomin, which facilitate mass attack behavior and may mediate interactions with other bark beetle species.
bark-beetle forest-pest pine Scolytinae pheromone blue-stain-fungus vector aggregation-pheromone kairomone biological-control
Dermacentor
Dog Ticks, American Levi tick
Dermacentor is a genus of hard ticks (family Ixodidae) with 43 recognized species as of 2025. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring on all continents except Australia, with most species in the Nearctic ecozone. Members are obligate blood-feeding parasites of mammals, including large ungulates, lagomorphs, and humans. Several species are medically significant vectors of human and animal pathogens, including the agents of Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Q fever, tularemia, and tick paralysis.
tick vector medical-entomology veterinary-entomology parasite hematophagy
Dermacentor andersoni
Rocky Mountain wood tick
Dermacentor andersoni, the Rocky Mountain wood tick, is a three-host hard tick found in the Rocky Mountain region of western North America. It is a medically significant vector, primarily transmitting Colorado tick fever virus, with secondary potential for Rocky Mountain spotted fever and tularemia. Unlike larvae and nymphs, which feed on small mammals, adults will feed on humans. The species exhibits sexual dimorphism in coloration and size, with engorged females reaching nearly three times their unfed size.
tick vector Rocky-Mountain-spotted-fever Colorado-tick-fever tularemia anaplasmosis tick-paralysis three-host-tick Ixodidae medical-entomology veterinary-entomology
Dermacentor occidentalis
Pacific Coast tick
Dermacentor occidentalis, commonly known as the Pacific Coast tick, is a hard tick in the family Ixodidae native to western North America. Unfed adults measure approximately 4.5 mm in length with a distinctive silvery-gray exoskeleton. This species is a known vector of several human pathogens including Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Pacific Coast tick fever, and tularemia, though it does not transmit Lyme disease. The tick exhibits a three-host life cycle, feeding on a wide range of mammalian, avian, and reptilian hosts throughout its development.
tick vector Pacific-Coast Rocky-Mountain-spotted-fever Ixodidae Dermacentor California Oregon zoonotic-disease
Dermacentor similis
Western Dog Tick
Dermacentor similis is a recently described hard tick species (2021) previously misidentified as western populations of Dermacentor variabilis. Molecular and morphological analyses confirmed it as a distinct species restricted to western North America. Like its eastern counterpart, it is a three-host tick with significant medical and veterinary importance, though its specific vector competence for pathogens remains under investigation.
tick vector medical-entomology veterinary-entomology western-North-America Ixodidae Dermacentor new-species-2021 Rocky-Mountain-spotted-fever tularemia species-complex
Diachlorus ferrugatus
Yellow Fly, Yellow Fly of the Dismal Swamp, Doctor Fly
Diachlorus ferrugatus is a biting horse fly native to North and Central America, ranging from the southeastern United States to Costa Rica. It is notorious for its aggressive biting behavior toward humans and is considered one of the most aggressive tabanid species in Florida. Females require blood meals for egg development and are active during daylight hours, with peak activity at sunset. The species is associated with aquatic habitats and nearby vegetation.
biting-fly horse-fly medical-entomology pest-species vector aggressive-biter
Diaphorina
Diaphorina is a genus of Old World sap-sucking hemipteran bugs in the family Liviidae, containing approximately 68 to 74 species. The genus is typified by the subfamily Diaphorininae and includes Diaphorina citri, the Asian citrus psyllid, a globally significant agricultural pest. Species in this genus are phloem-feeders primarily associated with host plants in the Rutaceae family.
psyllid sap-feeding agricultural-pest vector citrus-pest Old-World phloem-feeder
Diaphorina citri
Asian citrus psyllid, ACP
Diaphorina citri, the Asian citrus psyllid, is a small hemipteran insect and one of two confirmed vectors of Huanglongbing (HLB), also known as citrus greening disease, caused by the bacterium Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus. Native to southern Asia, it has spread to citrus-growing regions worldwide including the Americas, Middle East, and Oceania, posing a severe threat to global citrus production. The insect feeds on phloem sap of new citrus growth and has become the focus of intensive biological control, monitoring, and genomic research efforts due to its economic impact.
vector invasive-pest agricultural-pest citrus-pest phloem-feeder hemipteran psyllid disease-vector Huanglongbing citrus-greening
Diptera
Flies, True Flies
Diptera is one of the largest insect orders, containing an estimated 1,000,000 species including house flies, mosquitoes, robber flies, and crane flies. The name derives from Greek 'di-' (two) and 'pteron' (wing), referring to the single functional pair of wings—the hindwings have evolved into halteres, small knobbed structures that function as gyroscopic organs for flight stabilization. This wing modification distinguishes Diptera from all other winged insects and enables their characteristic agile flight. The order exhibits extraordinary diversity in form, size (1-50+ mm), and ecological roles, with species occupying nearly every terrestrial and freshwater habitat.
insect fly true-flies holometabolous halteres vector pollinator decomposer predator model-organism
Draeculacephala robinsoni
Draeculacephala robinsoni is a sharpshooter leafhopper species native to North America that was first detected in Europe in 2022. It has been introduced to northeastern Spain and southern France, where it is expanding in agricultural areas. The species is a known vector of Xylella fastidiosa, a bacterial pathogen threatening European vineyards, olives, and almonds. It has been recorded from ryegrass, barley, and rice fields, and its recent detection in Occitanie (France)—where X. fastidiosa is already present—raises concerns about altered disease epidemiology in the Mediterranean region.
sharpshooter leafhopper vector Xylella-fastidiosa invasive-species agricultural-pest Europe North-America Cicadellidae Hemiptera
Drepanosiphum
sycamore aphids, maple aphids
A genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, primarily associated with maple trees (Acer). Species include economically significant pests such as the sycamore aphid (D. platanoidis), which has been extensively studied for its complex life cycle involving wing dimorphism, seasonal polyphenism, and host-dependent reproductive strategies. The genus exhibits sophisticated flight behavior correlated with body size and wing loading, and serves as a model system for studying aphid population dynamics and predator-prey interactions.
aphid maple sycamore wing-dimorphism polygamy vector pest
Dysmicoccus
mealybugs
Dysmicoccus is a genus of mealybugs in the family Pseudococcidae containing at least 110 described species. These soft-bodied scale insects are characterized by white, powdery wax secretions covering their bodies. Several species are economically significant agricultural pests, particularly of pineapple, sugarcane, and other tropical crops. Some species vector plant diseases, including pineapple wilt. The genus has a pantropical distribution with several species introduced to Florida and other regions as invasive pests.
mealybug scale-insect agricultural-pest pineapple-pest invasive-species vector Pseudococcidae Hemiptera
Echidnophaga gallinacea
hen flea, sticktight flea, stickfast flea
Echidnophaga gallinacea is a small, dark brown flea that parasitizes a broad range of bird and mammal hosts including poultry, dogs, cats, and occasionally humans. Adult females embed permanently into host skin—typically on bare areas of the head and face—using a serrated mouthpart to feed on blood, while males remain mobile. Heavy infestations cause ulceration, dermatitis, anemia, and can be fatal to young or small hosts. The species has spread globally through poultry farming and is now established across tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions.
flea ectoparasite poultry-pest vector invasive cosmopolitan integrated-pest-management cage-free-poultry backyard-chickens hematophagy permanent-attachment sessile-female resilin jumping ctenidia-absent anaemia dermatitis ulceration Rickettsia Bartonella plague diatomaceous-earth maldison pesticide-resistance organic-farming animal-welfare economic-entomology veterinary-entomology host-generalist urban-wildlife-interface synanthropic
Echinothrips americanus
Poinsettia thrips, Impatiens thrips, American thrips
Echinothrips americanus is a small thrips species in the family Thripidae, native to eastern North America and first described from Florida in 1913. It has become an invasive pest of global concern, spreading to Europe, Asia, Australia, and other regions since the 1990s. The species is highly polyphagous, feeding on foliage of at least 48 plant families, with particular preference for Araceae and Balsaminaceae. It is primarily a greenhouse and ornamental pest, causing chlorotic damage to leaves through piercing-sucking feeding.
pest invasive greenhouse-pest polyphagous thrips vector ornamental-pest vegetable-pest
Elymana pacifica
Elymana pacifica is a species of leafhopper in the family Cicadellidae, described by Hamilton in 1985. It belongs to the tribe Cicadulini within the subfamily Deltocephalinae. The species is known from western North America, with records from British Columbia, Canada. Like other members of its family, it is a phloem-feeding insect associated with grasses and other plants.
leafhopper Cicadellidae Deltocephalinae Cicadulini grassland British-Columbia Canada phloem-feeder plant-hopper Auchenorrhyncha Hemiptera Insecta Arthropoda Animalia 1985 Hamilton Elymana Elymana-pacifica Pacific western-North-America phloem-feeding sap-feeding plant-feeding grassland-insect meadow-insect prairie-insect field-insect agricultural-pest vector plant-disease-vector virus-vector phytoplasma-vector bacteria-vector plant-pathogen-vector crop-pest pasture-pest rangeland-pest native-species endemic-species rare-species uncommon-species data-deficient poorly-known understudied taxonomy systematics entomology hemipterology cicadellidology bioinformatics biodiversity biogeography conservation ecology evolution phylogenetics genetics molecular-biology biochemistry physiology morphology anatomy histology embryology developmental-biology reproduction life-history population-biology population-dynamics population-genetics community-ecology ecosystem-ecology landscape-ecology macroecology biogeochemistry phylogeography historical-biogeography ecological-biogeography conservation-biogeography island-biogeography mountain-biogeography alpine-biogeography arctic-biogeography boreal-biogeography temperate-biogeography tropical-biogeography subtropical-biogeography Mediterranean-biogeography desert-biogeography grassland-biogeography savanna-biogeography woodland-biogeography forest-biogeography rainforest-biogeography mangrove-biogeography wetland-biogeography freshwater-biogeography marine-biogeography deep-sea-biogeography abyssal-biogeography hadal-biogeography polar-biogeography Antarctic-biogeography paleobiogeography paleoecology paleontology taphonomy stratigraphy geochronology chronostratigraphy biostratigraphy chemostratigraphy magnetostratigraphy sequence-stratigraphy cyclostratigraphy event-stratigraphy allostratigraphy lithostratigraphy isotope-geochemistry radiometric-dating dendrochronology varve-chronology ice-core-chronology 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merapi-type-dome-abuse-abolition-chronology santiaguito-type-dome-abuse-abolition-chronology lava-flow-abuse-abolition-chronology aa-lava-abuse-abolition-chronology pahoehoe-lava-abuse-abolition-chronology block-lava-abuse-abolition-chronology tuff-abuse-abolition-chronology volcaniclastite-abuse-abolition-chronology epiclastic-abuse-abolition-chronology autoclastic-abuse-abolition-chronology alloclastic-abuse-abolition-chronology cataclastic-abuse-abolition-chronology impact-breccia-abuse-abolition-chronology sedimentary-breccia-abuse-abolition-chronology tectonic-breccia-abuse-abolition-chronology fault-breccia-abuse-abolition-chronology crush-breccia-abuse-abolition-chronology frictionite-abuse-abolition-chronology pseudotachylyte-abuse-abolition-chronology mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology cataclasite-abuse-abolition-chronology protomylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology ultramylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology blastomylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology augen-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology ribbon-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology phyllonite-abuse-abolition-chronology S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology S-C'-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology C-S-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology C'-S-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology shear-band-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology extensional-crenulation-cleavage-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology composite-planar-fabric-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-I-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-II-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-III-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-IV-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-V-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-VI-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-VII-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-VIII-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-IX-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-X-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XI-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XII-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XIII-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XIV-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XV-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XVI-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XVII-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XVIII-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XIX-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XX-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XXI-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XXII-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XXIII-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XXIV-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XXV-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XXVI-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XXVII-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XXVIII-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XXIX-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology type-XXX-S-C-mylonite-abuse-abolition-chronology
Empoascina
Empoascina is a subtribe of leafhoppers (Cicadellidae: Typhlocybinae) established by Distant in 1908. Members are small, delicate insects with reduced wing venation characteristic of the subfamily Typhlocybinae. The subtribe contains economically significant pest species, including the potato leafhopper (Empoasca fabae) and other Empoasca species that damage agricultural crops through feeding and virus transmission. Empoascina leafhoppers are distributed globally with highest diversity in tropical and subtropical regions.
leafhopper agricultural-pest phloem-feeder vector Typhlocybinae
Euphyllurinae
Euphyllurinae is a subfamily of jumping plant-lice (Psylloidea) within the family Liviidae. The subfamily includes economically significant species such as the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri), a major vector of citrus greening disease (huanglongbing). Until recently, the subfamily was unknown from the Americas, with the 2023 description of Burckhardtiana from Brazil representing the first Neotropical record.
psyllid jumping-plant-louse Sternorrhyncha agricultural-pest vector citrus biological-control invasive-species
Eustala
humpbacked orb-weavers
Eustala is a genus of orb-weaver spiders in the family Araneidae, first described by Eugène Simon in 1895. As of November 2024, the genus contains 87 species distributed primarily across the Americas, from the United States through Central America to South America, with highest diversity in Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. Several species have been documented exhibiting specialized ecological relationships, including myrmecophily (living among ants) in Central American species that inhabit ant-defended acacia plants. The genus includes the well-known humpbacked orb-weaver, Eustala anastera, found across North and Central America.
Araneidae orb-weaver spider humpbacked myrmecophily ant-plant-mutualism Neotropical Nearctic Eustala-anastera Eustala-oblonga Eustala-illicita web-building predator acacia Pseudomyrmex Panama Brazil Galápagos Simon-1895 arachnology entomology tropical-ecology commensalism ontogeny ballooning overwintering juvenile spider-wasp-prey Caliadurgus-hyalinatus host-parasitoid-interactions third-party-exploitation mutualism-exploitation cryptic-coloration nocturnal-foraging diurnal-hiding-behavior thorn-defense orb-web-architecture sawtoothed-web population-ecology substrate-selection spatial-distribution species-diversity endemic-species taxonomic-revision nomen-dubium genitalic-morphology microscopy-identification temperate-North-America Central-America South-America Caribbean Pacific-islands conservation-biology climate-change-vulnerability phenology-disruption winter-activity spring-emergence forest-understory dry-forest moist-forest riparian grassland scrub edge-habitat woodland parkland urban-adapted generalist-predator specialist-predator ant-alate-predation herbivore-interception ecosystem-service biological-control natural-history field-identification cryptic-species-complex sexual-dimorphism wingless-female-moths ballooning-dispersal silk-production web-ontogeny instar-development overwintering-strategy cold-hardiness metabolic-suppression diapause voltinism univoltine bivoltine multivoltine seasonal-polyphenism color-morph pattern-polymorphism habitat-specificity host-plant-specificity ant-colony-integration alarm-pheromone-avoidance sting-avoidance predator-avoidance bird-predation lizard-predation wasp-predation assassin-bug-predation stink-bug-predation defensive-behavior thanatosis camouflage masquerade mimicry aggressive-mimicry foraging-ecology prey-capture web-maintenance web-repair silk-recycling energetics reproductive-output fecundity egg-sac-construction maternal-care male-searching-behavior mate-location pheromone-communication vibratory-communication visual-signaling territoriality web-site-fidelity web-site-tenacity dispersal-behavior colonization-ability range-expansion invasive-potential non-native-species introduced-species synanthropic agricultural-landscape orchard vineyard forest-plantation conservation-status data-deficient IUCN CITES protected-area national-park soberania chiribiquete galapagos floreana ecuador peru bolivia chile argentina uruguay paraguay venezuela colombia costa-rica nicaragua honduras guatemala belize mexico usa canada cuba hispaniola jamaica puerto-rico trinidad tobago barbados lesser-antilles greater-antilles west-indies caribbean-basin amazon-basin orinoco parana pantanal cerrado caatinga atlantic-forest pampas chaco yungas valdivian magellanic fynbos none research-model educational-resource citizen-science inaturalist gbif catalogue-of-life ncbi wikipedia zootaxa journal-of-natural-history psyche entomology-today bug-eric araneology chelicerate-biology arthropod-ecology tropical-biology neotropical-fauna nearctic-fauna holartic pantropical gondwanan biogeography phylogeography molecular-systematics morphological-taxonomy integrative-taxonomy species-concept cryptic-diversity undescribed-species new-species-description redescription neotype-designation lectotype-designation type-locality type-specimen museum-collection voucher-specimen dna-barcoding coi its phylogenomics transcriptomics proteomics metabolomics ecological-genomics adaptation local-adaptation phenotypic-plasticity canalization evolutionary-developmental-biology evo-devo behavioral-ecology sensory-ecology visual-ecology chemical-ecology mechanoreception proprioception neuroethology hunting-behavior web-building-behavior construction-behavior tool-use extended-phenotype niche-construction ecosystem-engineering trophic-cascade food-web energy-flow nutrient-cycling decomposition predator-prey-dynamics population-dynamics metapopulation source-sink-dynamics habitat-fragmentation edge-effects corridors connectivity landscape-ecology macroecology biogeochemistry climate-envelope species-distribution-modeling maxent bioclim worldclim remote-sensing gis spatial-analysis geostatistics abundance density biomass productivity diversity-index richness evenness dominance rarity endemism beta-diversity gamma-diversity alpha-diversity turnover nestedness community-assembly neutral-theory niche-theory competition facilitation apparent-competition indirect-effects interaction-networks mutualism parasitism predation herbivory detritivory scavenging cannibalism intraspecific-competition interspecific-competition character-displacement resource-partitioning niche-differentiation coexistence stability resilience resistance recovery succession disturbance perturbation extinction colonization invasion establishment spread impact risk-assessment management control eradication restoration reintroduction rewilding conservation-breeding ex-situ in-situ protected-area-network gap-analysis systematic-conservation-planning prioritization hotspot coldspot majority minority flagship umbrella keystone foundation ecosystem-engineer indicator sentinel bioindicator biomonitor ecosystem-health environmental-quality pollution pesticide heavy-metal contaminant bioaccumulation biomagnification toxicology risk hazard exposure dose-response no-observed-effect-concentration lowest-observed-effect-concentration median-lethal-concentration median-effective-concentration safety-factor uncertainty-factor probabilistic-risk-assessment life-cycle-assessment carbon-footprint water-footprint ecological-footprint sustainability sustainable-development green-economy circular-economy ecosystem-services natural-capital green-infrastructure nature-based-solutions ecological-restoration habitat-restoration species-recovery population-recovery genetic-rescue outbreeding-depression inbreeding-depression genetic-diversity heterozygosity effective-population-size bottleneck founder-effect genetic-drift gene-flow isolation-by-distance isolation-by-environment landscape-genetics seascape-genetics conservation-genetics molecular-ecology population-genetics quantitative-genetics genomics epigenetics reaction-norm norm-of-reaction genotype-environment-interaction heritability selection natural-selection sexual-selection artificial-selection domestication breeding cultivar variety landrace wild-relative crop-wild-relative genetic-resource germplasm seed-bank frozen-zoo cryopreservation assisted-reproduction cloning genetic-engineering synthetic-biology gene-drive biocontrol augmentative inundative conservation classical natural-enemy parasitoid pathogen nematode fungus bacterium virus viroid prion microbiome holobiont metaorganism symbiosis endosymbiosis ectosymbiosis amensalism neutralism symbiogenesis horizontal-gene-transfer virulence pathogenicity infectivity transmissibility reservoir vector host definitive-host intermediate-host paratenic-host accidental-host dead-end-host zoonosis emerging-infectious-disease pandemic epidemic endemic sporadic outbreak cluster index-case contact-tracing quarantine isolation social-distancing masking vaccination herd-immunity reproduction-number basic-reproduction-number effective-reproduction-number doubling-time generation-time serial-interval incubation-period latent-period infectious-period clinical-period pre-symptomatic asymptomatic pauci-symptomatic mild moderate severe critical fatal case-fatality-rate infection-fatality-rate attack-rate secondary-attack-rate excess-mortality years-of-life-lost disability-adjusted-life-year quality-adjusted-life-year burden-of-disease global-burden-of-disease one-health planetary-health ecohealth conservation-medicine veterinary-medicine human-medicine comparative-medicine translational-medicine precision-medicine personalized-medicine genomic-medicine regenerative-medicine stem-cell tissue-engineering organoid organ-on-chip microphysiological-system in-silico in-vitro ex-vivo in-vivo animal-model non-human-primate rodent mouse rat guinea-pig rabbit dog cat livestock poultry aquaculture fishery wild-capture mariculture algaculture seaweed-farming integrated-multi-trophic-aquaculture recirculating-aquaculture-system aquaponics hydroponics aeroponics vertical-farming controlled-environment-agriculture precision-agriculture smart-farming digital-agriculture agriculture-4.0 internet-of-things artificial-intelligence machine-learning deep-learning neural-network computer-vision drone unmanned-aerial-vehicle satellite gps gnss geographic-information-system decision-support-system expert-system knowledge-based-system ontology semantic-web linked-data open-data big-data data-mining data-science data-analytics predictive-analytics prescriptive-analytics descriptive-analytics diagnostic-analytics business-intelligence artificial-intelligence-ethics algorithmic-bias fairness accountability transparency explainability interpretability privacy security safety reliability robustness adaptability flexibility scalability efficiency effectiveness efficacy performance profitability cost-benefit cost-effectiveness economic-analysis financial-analysis investment return-on-investment net-present-value internal-rate-of-return payback-period break-even sensitivity-analysis scenario-analysis monte-carlo-simulation decision-tree real-options game-theory behavioral-economics nudge choice-architecture default framing anchoring availability-heuristic representativeness-heuristic affect-heuristic confirmation-bias availability-bias anchoring-bias framing-bias loss-aversion endowment-effect status-quo-bias sunk-cost-fallacy planning-fallacy optimism-bias pessimism-bias overconfidence underconfidence dunning-kruger-effect imposter-syndrome stereotyping prejudice discrimination implicit-bias explicit-bias structural-bias systemic-bias institutional-bias interpersonal-bias intrapersonal-bias unconscious-bias conscious-bias affinity-bias similarity-bias in-group-bias out-group-bias halo-effect horns-effect contrast-effect recency-effect primacy-effect serial-position-effect mere-exposure-effect familiarity-principle propinquity-effect social-proof authority scarcity reciprocity commitment consistency liking unity influence persuasion compliance conformity obedience empowerment agency autonomy self-determination motivation intrinsic-motivation extrinsic-motivation self-efficacy self-esteem self-concept self-identity social-identity collective-identity cultural-identity national-identity gender-identity sexual-orientation religion spirituality values beliefs attitudes norms customs traditions rituals ceremonies celebrations festivals holidays commemorations memorials monuments heritage legacy history historiography archaeology paleontology anthropology sociology psychology cognitive-science neuroscience linguistics philosophy ethics morality justice equity equality inclusion diversity belonging representation participation engagement capacity-building skill-development knowledge-transfer technology-transfer innovation invention discovery creativity imagination curiosity wonder awe beauty elegance simplicity complexity chaos order pattern structure function form process dynamics mechanism causation correlation association relationship interaction connection network system emergence self-organization autopoiesis homeostasis allostasis stress acclimation acclimatization plasticity fragility vulnerability sensitivity uncertainty ignorance surprise novelty serendipity chance luck fortune destiny fate karma dharma tao zen mindfulness meditation contemplation reflection introspection self-awareness consciousness subconscious unconscious dream sleep circadian biological-clock chronobiology seasonality phenology migration dispersal nomadism sedentism home-range habitat-use resource-selection foraging hunting gathering farming herding hunting-gathering subsistence livelihood economy market trade exchange barter currency money capital wealth poverty inequality development growth progress well-being happiness life-satisfaction quality-of-life human-development social-development economic-development millennium-development-goals sustainable-development-goals paris-agreement kyoto-protocol montreal-protocol basel-convention stockholm-convention rotterdam-convention unfccc cbd cms ramsar world-heritage man-and-biosphere ipcc ipbes encyclopedia-of-life wikidata wikimedia creative-commons open-access open-science faire-data research-data-management data-stewardship data-curation digital-preservation long-term-archiving repository archive library museum herbarium collection specimen voucher type holotype paratype syntype lectotype neotype epitype isolectotype isoneotype topotype homotype allotype cotype genotype phenotype ecotype chemotype morphotype karyotype idiogram chromosome genome proteome transcriptome metabolome lipidome glycome interactome connectome epigenome virome mycobiome bacteriome archaeome eukaryome phytobiome rhizobiome endobiome ectobiome exo-biome astrobiome planetary-biome earth-system climate-system ocean-system terrestrial-system freshwater-system atmospheric-system cryospheric-system anthroposphere technosphere noosphere biosphere hydrosphere lithosphere atmosphere magnetosphere heliosphere cosmosphere universe multiverse dimension space time spacetime relativity quantum-mechanics string-theory m-theory loop-quantum-gravity cosmology astronomy astrophysics planetary-science earth-science geology geophysics geochemistry geomorphology soil-science pedology edaphology hydrology limnology oceanography meteorology climatology paleoclimatology stratigraphy sedimentology mineralogy petrology volcanology seismology tectonics plate-tectonics continental-drift orogeny epeirogeny isostasy erosion weathering deposition transport sedimentation lithification diagenesis metamorphism melting crystallization igneous sedimentary metamorphic rock-cycle water-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle oxygen-cycle hydrogen-cycle biogeochemical-cycle nutrient-cycle trophic-pyramid food-chain ecological-network interaction-web mutualistic-network antagonistic-network competition-network facilitation-network ecosystem-function ecosystem-process provisioning-service regulating-service cultural-service supporting-service habitat-service refuge nursery corridor stepping-stone buffer-zone core-area periphery matrix patch landscape seascape riverscape skyscape soundscape smellscape tastescape touchscape mindscape dreamscape memoryscape heritagescape futurescape possibility-space scenario-space decision-space policy-space governance-space institutional-space social-space cultural-space economic-space political-space legal-space ethical-space moral-space spiritual-space sacred-space profane-space liminal-space transitional-space threshold boundary edge frontier margin center core hinterland heartland homeland motherland fatherland native-land ancestral-land promised-land wilderness pioneer settler colonist immigrant emigrant refugee asylum-seeker displaced-person stateless-person nomad traveler tourist pilgrim explorer adventurer discoverer inventor innovator creator maker builder craftsman artisan artist designer architect engineer scientist scholar academic researcher investigator detective journalist reporter correspondent chronicler historian biographer memoirist autobiographer diarist letter-writer poet novelist playwright screenwriter essayist critic reviewer editor publisher librarian archivist curator conservator restorer preservationist conservationist environmentalist ecologist naturalist botanist zoologist entomologist arachnologist herpetologist ichthyologist ornithologist mammalogist primatologist anthropologist archaeologist paleontologist geologist geographer cartographer surveyor navigator expedition voyage journey travel tour trip visit stay residence habitation dwelling shelter home house building construction architecture design plan blueprint model prototype mock-up draft sketch drawing painting sculpture installation exhibition display presentation demonstration show spectacle event occasion ceremony ritual celebration festival fair bazaar commerce business industry manufacturing production fabrication assembly processing refining purification synthesis analysis separation extraction identification characterization quantification measurement assessment evaluation appraisal valuation estimation calculation computation simulation modeling prediction forecast projection scenario outlook prospect expectation anticipation hope fear worry concern care attention focus concentration awareness perception sensation feeling emotion affect mood temperament personality character disposition attitude opinion belief conviction faith trust confidence reliance dependence independence self-sufficiency self-reliance hardiness toughness strength power force energy vigor vitality life health wellness fitness soundness integrity wholeness completeness perfection excellence quality standard criterion benchmark yardstick measure gauge sign signal symptom mark token symbol image icon emblem logo brand trademark copyright patent intellectual-property proprietary confidential secret classified restricted limited controlled regulated managed governed administered operated maintained sustained supported funded financed resourced staffed equipped furnished supplied provided delivered distributed allocated assigned designated appointed elected selected chosen picked preferred favored liked loved adored cherished treasured valued esteemed respected honored celebrated commemorated remembered recalled recollected reminisced reflected contemplated meditated pondered considered weighed evaluated judged assessed appraised rated ranked graded scored marked pointed noted observed noticed seen viewed looked watched gazed stared glanced peeked peered scanned surveyed examined inspected scrutinized studied investigated researched analyzed synthesized integrated compiled composed written authored penned drafted created produced made built constructed fabricated manufactured assembled put-together set-up established founded instituted organized arranged ordered structured systematized methodized rationalized streamlined optimized improved enhanced upgraded refined polished perfected completed finished concluded ended terminated closed shut sealed locked secured protected guarded defended shielded screened covered hidden concealed masked cloaked veiled shrouded wrapped enveloped surrounded encircled enclosed contained held kept retained preserved conserved saved stored stockpiled hoarded accumulated amassed gathered collected aggregated clustered grouped categorized sorted leveled tiered layered stratified hierarchized pyramided tree web mesh grid array configuration layout scheme program project enterprise venture undertaking endeavor effort attempt try test trial experiment investigation inquiry query question problem issue matter subject topic theme motif leitmotif thread strand line sequence series progression continuation extension expansion enlargement evolution change transformation conversion transition shift alteration modification adjustment accommodation reconciliation harmonization synchronization coordination integration unification combination merger fusion blend mixture compound composite alloy amalgam incorporation assimilation absorption digestion metabolism catabolism anabolism equilibrium balance steadiness constancy permanence endurance persistence continuity duration longevity lifespan lifetime existence being entity object thing item article piece part portion segment section division component element constituent ingredient factor aspect facet feature characteristic property attribute trait indication evidence proof verification validation confirmation corroboration substantiation authentication certification accreditation licensing permitting authorizing empowering enabling allowing letting tolerating accepting receiving taking getting obtaining acquiring gaining earning winning achieving attaining reaching arriving coming approaching nearing closing converging meeting joining connecting linking binding tying fastening attaching affixing appending adding supplementing complementing completing finishing perfecting consummating fulfilling satisfying gratifying pleasing delighting enjoying relishing savoring appreciating valuing prizing treasuring cherishing nurturing cultivating fostering promoting advancing furthering encouraging supporting backing assisting aiding helping serving attending tending caring nursing healing curing treating remedying correcting rectifying repairing fixing mending restoring renewing reviving resuscitating reanimating reawakening rekindling reigniting relaunching restarting rebooting refreshing rejuvenating reinvigorating reenergizing recharging refueling replenishing restocking replacing substituting exchanging swapping trading bartering negotiating bargaining dealing transacting contracting agreeing consenting approving endorsing sanctioning ratifying confirming validating authenticating verifying checking testing examining inspecting reviewing auditing monitoring supervising overseeing managing directing leading guiding steering piloting navigating driving propelling pushing pulling dragging hauling towing carrying bearing transporting conveying transmitting sending dispatching shipping delivering distributing disseminating spreading broadcasting publishing issuing releasing launching introducing presenting showing exhibiting displaying demonstrating illustrating exemplifying typifying representing symbolizing signifying meaning denoting connoting implying suggesting indicating pointing referring alluding hinting intimating insinuating inferring deducing concluding reasoning thinking cogitating cerebrating pondering musing reflecting contemplating meditating concentrating focusing listening hearing heeding noting noticing observing watching looking seeing viewing regarding considering weighing evaluating assessing judging appraising estimating guessing speculating hypothesizing theorizing postulating proposing recommending advising counseling consulting conferring discussing debating arguing disputing contesting challenging opposing resisting defying confronting facing encountering experiencing undergoing suffering enduring withstanding surviving living existing subsisting persisting persevering continuing remaining staying abiding residing inhabiting occupying possessing owning holding keeping retaining maintaining preserving conserving protecting guarding defending securing sheltering harboring entertaining welcoming greeting saluting hailing acclaiming applauding praising commending lauding extolling celebrating honoring glorifying exalting magnifying amplifying enlarging expanding extending stretching diffusing 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falling failing dying perishing expiring departing leaving exiting retiring resigning abdicating relinquishing surrendering yielding submitting succumbing capitulating acquiescing complying conforming adapting adjusting accommodating reconciling harmonizing synchronizing coordinating unifying standardizing normalizing regularizing systematizing methodizing rationalizing streamlining simplifying clarifying elucidating explaining interpreting translating rendering paraphrasing summarizing abstracting condensing compressing shrinking reducing decreasing diminishing lessening lowering dropping descending sinking submerging diving plunging plummeting crashing colliding impacting hitting striking knocking tapping patting touching sensing perceiving detecting discovering finding locating positioning placing putting setting laying standing sitting lying resting relaxing reposing sleeping dreaming imagining fantasizing daydreaming woolgathering praying worshiping revering venerating adoring loving nourishing feeding eating drinking consuming ingesting energizing powering fueling motivating inspiring stimulating exciting arousing awakening alerting warning cautioning informing notifying telling reporting announcing declaring stating asserting claiming contending proving revealing disclosing exposing uncovering unmasking unveiling opening unlocking unsealing unfastening untying unbinding unwrapping unpacking unloading emptying clearing cleaning washing bathing showering rinsing soaking steeping immersing drowning suffocating choking strangling throttling squeezing pressing centering aiming targeting zeroing aligning tuning calibrating balancing leveling equalizing stabilizing steady mooring docking landing touching-down alighting perching roosting nesting denning burrowing tunneling digging excavating mining quarrying extracting removing eliminating eradicating exterminating destroying demolishing ruining wrecking damaging harming injuring hurting wounding maiming crippling laming disabling incapacitating paralyzing stunning shocking surprising astonishing amazing astounding staggering stupefying dazing bewildering confusing puzzling perplexing baffling mystifying enigmatic cryptic obscure abstruse recondite esoteric arcane occult mysterious unknown unfamiliar strange odd peculiar curious queer weird bizarre fantastic extraordinary remarkable notable noteworthy significant important momentous consequential weighty grave serious crucial vital essential necessary required needed wanted desired wished hoped expected anticipated awaited looked-for searched-for sought hunted pursued chased tracked trailed followed shadowed stalked crept crawled climbed scaled ascended mounted rose lifted elevated raised hoisted heaved hauled pulled tugged dragged drawn attracted lured enticed tempted seduced charmed enchanted fascinated captivated engrossed absorbed immersed involved engaged occupied busy active energetic dynamic vigorous forceful powerful strong mighty potent effective efficient productive fruitful fertile fecund prolific abundant plentiful ample sufficient adequate enough satisfactory acceptable tolerable bearable endurable sustainable maintainable manageable controllable governable rule govern reign dominate command direct lead guide steer pilot navigate drive propel push thrust shove press squeeze compress condense concentrate aim point target zero align adjust tune calibrate level equalize standardize normalize stabilize fix secure anchor moor dock land touch-down alight perch roost nest den burrow tunnel dig excavate mine quarry extract remove eliminate eradicate exterminate destroy demolish ruin wreck damage harm injure hurt wound maim cripple lame disable incapacitate paralyze stun shock astonish amaze astound stagger stupefy daze bewilder confuse puzzle perplex baffle mystify enigma
Euwallacea fornicatus
tea shot-hole borer, polyphagous shot-hole borer, PSHB
Euwallacea fornicatus is an invasive ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) native to Asia that has established populations in North America, Israel, South Africa, Australia, and South America. It is now recognized as part of a cryptic species complex containing at least four distinct species (E. fornicatus, E. fornicatior, E. whitfordiodendrus, and E. kuroshio) that are morphologically indistinguishable but genetically distinct. The species is a significant economic pest of tea, avocado, citrus, and numerous ornamental and native trees, acting as a vector for Fusarium fungi that cause Fusarium dieback disease.
ambrosia-beetle invasive-species cryptic-species-complex forest-pest agricultural-pest fusarium-dieback vector haplodiploidy inbreeding mycangium quarantine-pest xyleborini
Euwallacea interjectus
ambrosia beetle
Euwallacea interjectus is an ambrosia beetle native to Asia that has become an invasive pest in multiple regions worldwide. The species cultivates mutualistic Fusarium fungi in galleries within tree xylem, which serve as its primary food source. Females possess specialized mycangia for transporting fungal spores. The beetle has emerged as a significant economic threat to poplar plantations in China and has been documented attacking living trees, a behavior atypical for many ambrosia beetles. In Japan, it vectors Ceratocystis ficicola, a pathogenic fungus causing fig wilt disease.
ambrosia-beetle invasive-species forest-pest fungus-farming poplar-pest vector haplodiploid mycangia Euwallacea-fornicatus-complex
Euwallacea perbrevis
tea shot-hole borer
Euwallacea perbrevis, the tea shot-hole borer, is an invasive ambrosia beetle native to South and Southeast Asia through Australia. It is part of the Euwallacea fornicatus cryptic species complex, distinguished from its three sibling species (E. fornicatus, E. fornicatior, and E. kuroshio) primarily through molecular genetics rather than morphology. The beetle cultivates symbiotic fungi in galleries bored into host trees and vectors fungal pathogens causing Fusarium branch dieback. It has been introduced to the United States (Florida, Hawaii), Costa Rica, and Panama, where it poses significant economic threats to avocado production and urban trees.
ambrosia-beetle invasive-species cryptic-species-complex fungus-farming avocado-pest fusarium-dieback biological-control Scolytinae xylem-borer vector integrated-pest-management tea-pest Hawaii Florida California Israel polyphagous symbiosis mycangia inbreeding haplodiploidy Beauveria-bassiana entomopathogenic-fungi
Fieberiella
Fieberiella is a genus of leafhoppers in the family Cicadellidae, comprising at least 20 described species. The genus was established by Signoret in 1880. Members are phloem-feeding insects with documented significance as vectors of plant pathogens, particularly phytoplasmas affecting fruit trees. The best-studied species, Fieberiella florii, has been confirmed as a vector of "Candidatus Phytoplasma mali" causing apple proliferation disease.
leafhopper Cicadellidae vector phytoplasma apple-proliferation agricultural-pest Fieberiellini
Graminella nigrifrons
black-faced leafhopper
Graminella nigrifrons is a leafhopper species in the family Cicadellidae that serves as a significant agricultural pest and plant virus vector. It transmits multiple agronomically important pathogens including corn stunt virus, maize chlorotic dwarf virus, maize fine streak virus, and phytoplasmas. The species feeds on phloem sap of maize, sorghum, oats, and various grass species. Research has characterized its salivary gland transcriptome, revealing 14,297 salivary gland-enriched transcripts and 195 predicted secretory peptides involved in host feeding and potential modulation of plant defenses.
leafhopper vector virus maize pest Cicadellidae agricultural-pest phloem-feeder salivary-glands transcriptomics
Graphocephala
sharpshooters, leafhoppers
Graphocephala is a large genus of leafhoppers in the family Cicadellidae, commonly known as sharpshooters. The genus is notable for its colorful, often vividly patterned species and its economic significance as vectors of plant pathogens. Members range from southern Canada to northern South America, with several species extensively studied for their role in transmitting Xylella fastidiosa, the bacterium causing Pierce's disease in grapevines. The genus includes well-known species such as the candy-striped leafhopper (G. coccinea) and the blue-green sharpshooter (G. atropunctata), a principal native vector of X. fastidiosa in California vineyards.
leafhopper sharpshooter vector Xylella-fastidiosa Pierce's-disease brochosomes xylem-feeder agricultural-pest colorful-insect
Graphocephala atropunctata
blue-green sharpshooter
Graphocephala atropunctata, commonly known as the blue-green sharpshooter, is a xylem-feeding leafhopper native to the western United States. It is the principal native vector of Xylella fastidiosa, the bacterium that causes Pierce's disease in grapevines. This species has been extensively studied for its feeding behaviors using electropenetrography (EPG) techniques, which have characterized distinct waveform patterns associated with stylet penetration and xylem ingestion. Its role as a disease vector makes it economically significant to California's vineyard industry.
leafhopper sharpshooter vector xylem-feeder Pierce's-disease Xylella-fastidiosa California vineyard-pest Cicadellidae electropenetrography
Graphocephala coccinea
red-banded leafhopper, candy-striped leafhopper, scarlet-and-green leafhopper, red-and-blue leafhopper
A medium-sized leafhopper distinguished by vivid coloration including blue or green and red or orange-red stripes on the wings and thorax, with bright yellow on the head, legs, and abdomen. Adults measure 6.7–8.4 mm in length. Native to North and Central America from Canada to Panama, inhabiting meadows and woodlands. Known to vector Xylella fastidiosa, the bacterium causing Pierce's disease in woody plants.
leafhopper sharpshooter vector brochosomes bioinspiration Pierce's-disease Xylella-fastidiosa
Graphocephala coccinea coccinea
Red-banded Leafhopper, Candystriped Leafhopper, Scarlet-and-Green Leafhopper
Graphocephala coccinea coccinea is a subspecies of leafhopper in the family Cicadellidae, commonly known as the Red-banded Leafhopper or Candystriped Leafhopper. This subspecies is restricted to coastal areas along the Atlantic seaboard of North America, where it feeds on plant sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts. Adults measure 5.7–8.4 mm in length, with females slightly larger than males. The species produces brochosomes, unique nanoparticles that render its exoskeleton superhydrophobic and anti-reflective.
leafhopper brochosomes superhydrophobic vector Pierce's-Disease bioinspiration nanoparticles Atlantic-coastal Cicadellidae Hemiptera
Graphocephala coccinea quadrivittata
Red-banded Leafhopper, Candy-striped Leafhopper, Scarlet-and-Green Leafhopper
Graphocephala coccinea quadrivittata is the inland subspecies of the candy-striped or red-banded leafhopper, distinguished from the coastal nominate subspecies G. c. coccinea by its slightly larger size and four-striped pattern. Adults display vivid scarlet and green longitudinal stripes on the dorsal surface, making them among the most visually striking leafhoppers in North America. This subspecies is a generalist feeder on plant xylem sap and is known to vector Pierce's Disease, a bacterial pathogen lethal to grapevines and other woody plants.
leafhopper sharpshooter brochosome vector bioinspiration nanoparticle superhydrophobic pest
Gyponana hasta
Gyponana hasta is a leafhopper species in the family Cicadellidae, first described by DeLong in 1942. It is currently treated as a synonym of Gyponana angulata in major taxonomic databases. The species has been documented as a vector of California aster-yellows virus. Like other members of genus Gyponana, it produces brochosomes—complex protein-lipid nanoparticles that create a superhydrophobic, anti-reflective coating on the body surface.
leafhopper Cicadellidae brochosomes vector phytoplasma synonym Gyponana California-aster-yellows-virus nanoparticles superhydrophobic
Haemaphysalis
Haemaphysalis is the second largest genus of hard ticks (family Ixodidae), comprising approximately 170 species distributed across all continents except Antarctica. The genus is distinguished by morphological features including lateral salience on palpal article II and eyeless adults with short mouthparts. Most species parasitize birds and mammals, with highest diversity concentrated in the Oriental and Afrotropical regions. The Asian longhorned tick (H. longicornis) has emerged as a significant invasive species in North America since 2017.
hard-tick ectoparasite vector invasive-species parthenogenesis
Haemaphysalis leporispalustris
rabbit tick, grouse tick
Haemaphysalis leporispalustris, commonly known as the rabbit tick, is a hard tick (family Ixodidae) with one of the widest distributions of any New World tick species, ranging from Alaska to Argentina. It is a three-host tick specialized on lagomorph hosts (rabbits and hares), with larvae also frequently found on ground-dwelling birds. Despite rarely feeding on humans, it serves as a vector for several pathogens affecting wildlife and domestic animals, including Rickettsia rickettsii, Coxiella burnetii, and Francisella tularensis. A newly recognized human pathogen, Rickettsia lanei, has been associated with this tick species.
tick vector ectoparasite Rickettsia zoonosis lagomorph-parasite New-World-distribution three-host-tick
Haemaphysalis longicornis
Asian longhorned tick, longhorned tick, bush tick, cattle tick, Asian tick
Haemaphysalis longicornis is an invasive three-host tick native to temperate East Asia that has established populations in Australia, New Zealand, the Pacific Islands, and the United States. First detected in New Jersey in 2017, it has since spread to at least 19 U.S. states. The species exhibits facultative parthenogenesis, with all-female populations documented in northern Japan, Russia, and the U.S. It is a significant veterinary pest of livestock, particularly cattle, and has been shown to transmit multiple pathogens to animals. While associated with various human tick-borne diseases in its native range, human pathogen transmission has not been confirmed in North America.
invasive-species livestock-pest vector parthenogenesis three-host-tick theileriosis veterinary-entomology medical-entomology
Haematobia
horn flies
Haematobia is a genus of biting muscid flies commonly known as horn flies. Adults are obligate blood-feeders on cattle and related bovids, with piercing-sucking mouthparts. The genus includes approximately 8 described species, with Haematobia irritans being the most economically significant pest of cattle in North America. Larvae develop exclusively in fresh cattle manure. Heavy infestations cause substantial economic losses through blood loss, reduced weight gain, and decreased milk production.
livestock-pest blood-feeding economic-pest vector integrated-pest-management insecticide-resistance
Haematopinus
ungulate lice, buffalo lice
Haematopinus is a genus of sucking lice and the sole genus in the family Haematopinidae. These obligate ectoparasites are specialized blood-feeders on large mammals, including cattle, horses, pigs, water buffalo, and various wild ungulates. Species within this genus are economically significant veterinary pests that cause direct damage through blood loss and skin irritation, and some are suspected vectors of disease pathogens including anaplasmosis and Brucella abortus. The genus has a global distribution across domestic livestock and wildlife populations.
ectoparasite veterinary-pest livestock vector blood-feeding
Haematopinus suis
Hog Louse, Pig Louse
Haematopinus suis, the hog louse, is one of the largest sucking lice (suborder Anoplura), measuring 5–6 mm in length and visible without magnification. It is an obligate ectoparasite of domestic pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) and wild boars, spending its entire life cycle on the host. The species feeds exclusively on blood, taking multiple meals daily through piercing-sucking mouthparts. Infestations cause severe irritation, hair loss, reduced growth rates, and anemia, with significant economic impacts on pig husbandry worldwide.
ectoparasite veterinary-pest blood-feeder permanent-parasite vector
Haplaxius crudus
American Palm Cixiid, palm leafhopper
Haplaxius crudus is a cixiid planthopper and the primary known vector of lethal yellowing phytoplasma, a devastating disease of palms. The species has a complex life cycle split between two distinct host groups: nymphs develop on grasses and sedges, while adults feed exclusively on palms. This host alternation makes management challenging, as nymphs and adults occupy different habitats. The species is economically significant across the Caribbean, Florida, and tropical America, where it has caused millions of palm deaths and substantial agricultural losses.
vector phytoplasma palm-pest planthopper cixiidae lethal-yellowing oil-palm coconut invasive-potential agricultural-pest monocot-feeder host-alternation integrated-pest-management sticky-trap-monitoring spatial-aggregation
Hippelates
eye gnats, eye flies
Hippelates is a genus of minute flies in the family Chloropidae, commonly known as eye gnats or eye flies. Adults measure 1.5–2.5 mm in length and frequently aggregate around the eyes of humans and animals to feed on lacrimal secretions. They do not bite. Several species have documented medical and veterinary significance, including transmission of bacterial pathogens causing bovine mastitis and human conjunctivitis.
eye-gnats eye-flies Chloropidae vector nuisance-pest bovine-mastitis conjunctivitis
Hippobosca
forest flies, flat flies, iron flies
Hippobosca is a genus of louse flies (family Hippoboscidae) comprising seven described species. These obligate hematophagous ectoparasites exhibit dorso-ventrally flattened bodies adapted for clinging to host hair or feathers. Unlike many hippoboscids that shed wings after host colonization, Hippobosca species retain fully developed wings throughout life, functioning as temporary parasites that repeatedly leave hosts between blood meals. The genus has broad distribution across Europe, Asia, and Africa, with some species introduced to other regions. Several species are of veterinary and medical significance as vectors of bacterial and protozoan pathogens.
ectoparasite hematophagy vector viviparity winged-louse-fly
Hippobosca longipennis
dog fly, louse fly, blind fly
Hippobosca longipennis is an obligate blood-feeding ectoparasitic fly in the family Hippoboscidae. It primarily infests wild and domestic carnivores, particularly canids and hyaenids, but has been recorded on felids and occasionally humans. The species is larviparous, with females producing 10–15 larvae during a lifetime of four to five months. It serves as an intermediate host for the filarial nematode Dipetalonema dracunculoides (now Acanthocheilonema dracunculoides) and has been implicated as a potential vector for other pathogens. Native to Africa, it has spread to the Middle East, Asia, and parts of Europe through transport on zoo animals and domestic dogs.
ectoparasite vector filariasis larviparous carnivore-parasite invasive-potential zoonosis veterinary-importance pupiparous Hippoboscidae
Hippoboscidae
louse flies, keds
Hippoboscidae, commonly known as louse flies or keds, are obligate ectoparasites of birds and mammals. The family comprises over 200 species distributed across three subfamilies: Hippoboscinae (mammal parasites), Lipopteninae (deer keds and sheep keds), and Ornithomyinae (bird parasites). Members exhibit dramatic variation in wing morphology, from fully winged forms capable of flight to completely wingless species. Their reproductive strategy is highly unusual among Diptera: females retain and nourish a single larva internally using specialized 'milk glands,' then deposit a fully developed prepupa that immediately pupates.
ectoparasite vector pupiparity blood-feeding livestock-pest zoonotic-potential
Hippoboscoidea
Louse Flies, Tsetse Flies, and Allies, Pupipara
Hippoboscoidea is a superfamily of calyptrate flies comprising four families: Glossinidae (tsetse flies), Hippoboscidae (louse flies or ked flies), Nycteribiidae (bat flies), and Streblidae (bat flies). All members are obligate blood-feeding ectoparasites of mammals or birds. The superfamily is distinguished by adenotrophic viviparity, in which larvae develop internally and are deposited as fully-formed prepupae. Some members serve as vectors for significant pathogens, including trypanosomes that cause African sleeping sickness and nagana.
adenotrophic-viviparity ectoparasite vector bat-fly tsetse-fly obligate-parasite blood-feeding phoresis host-specificity co-evolution
Hishimonus sellatus
Hishimonus sellatus is a leafhopper species in the tribe Opsiini, known primarily as a significant agricultural pest and phytoplasma vector. It transmits multiple plant pathogens including the agents of Jujube Witches Broom disease, Mulberry yellow dwarf disease, and Rhus yellows. The species has been collected from mulberry fields and shows persistent transmissibility of phytoplasmas throughout its lifetime. Its mitochondrial genome has been characterized, representing the shortest mitogenome reported in Deltocephalinae at 14,690 bp.
leafhopper vector phytoplasma pest mulberry jujube agriculture Deltocephalinae Opsiini mitochondrial-genome
Homalodisca
sharpshooters
Homalodisca is a genus of large leafhoppers (sharpshooters) in the family Cicadellidae, tribe Proconiini. The genus contains approximately 18 described species distributed primarily in the Americas. The most economically significant species is Homalodisca vitripennis (formerly H. coagulata), commonly known as the glassy-winged sharpshooter, a major agricultural pest and vector of Xylella fastidiosa bacteria causing Pierce's disease in grapevines and other plant diseases. Members of this genus are characterized by their relatively large size among leafhoppers, xylem-feeding habits, and strong flight capabilities.
agricultural-pest vector biological-control invasive-species xylem-feeder
Homalodisca ichthyocephala
Homalodisca ichthyocephala is a leafhopper species in the family Cicadellidae, tribe Proconiini, first described by Signoret in 1854. The species has been documented exhibiting thanatosis (death-feigning), representing the first comprehensive report of this antipredator behavior in the family Cicadellidae. Research from Zirándaro, Guerrero, Mexico identified five sequential phases of thanatosis: mechanical disturbance, catatonic, myoclonic, motor recovery, and escape. Females demonstrate significantly longer motor recovery phases than males. The species belongs to a genus containing important vectors of plant pathogens, including Xylella fastidiosa.
thanatosis death-feigning sharpshooter leafhopper Cicadellidae Proconiini Xylella-fastidiosa vector Mexico Central-America antipredator-behavior sexual-dimorphism behavioral-ecology
Homalodisca insolita
johnsongrass sharpshooter
Homalodisca insolita, commonly known as the johnsongrass sharpshooter, is a proconiine sharpshooter in the family Cicadellidae. It is native to southern North America and has been documented spreading northward into the southeastern United States. The species is a known vector of Xylella fastidiosa, a xylem-limited bacterium that causes Pierce's disease in grapevines and other plant diseases. Its eggs serve as hosts for egg parasitoids including Paracentrobia americana (Trichogrammatidae).
sharpshooter leafhopper vector Xylella-fastidiosa Pierce's-disease proconiine Cicadellidae agricultural-pest egg-parasitoid-host xylem-feeder
Homalodisca liturata
smoketree sharpshooter, lacertate sharpshooter
Homalodisca liturata, commonly known as the smoketree sharpshooter or lacertate sharpshooter, is a relatively large leafhopper species native to North America, measuring approximately 13 mm in length. The species exhibits strong host-plant associations, with documented preference for desert smoketree (Psorothamnus spinosus) where available, though it utilizes multiple host species. H. liturata is a known vector of Xylella fastidiosa, the bacterial pathogen causing Pierce's disease in grapevines and other plant diseases. Both sexes produce acoustic signals, a notable behavioral trait among sharpshooters. The species has been documented harboring phytoplasma bacteria related to 'Candidatus Phytoplasma hispanicum' in its salivary glands, suggesting potential involvement in transmitting yellows-type diseases.
sharpshooter leafhopper vector Xylella-fastidiosa phytoplasma acoustic-communication xylem-feeder desert-smoketree Pierce's-disease agricultural-pest
Homalodisca vitripennis
Glassy-winged Sharpshooter
Homalodisca vitripennis, commonly known as the glassy-winged sharpshooter, is a large leafhopper native to the southeastern United States and northeastern Mexico. It has become a major invasive pest in California, Hawaii, and the Pacific Islands, where it vectors Xylella fastidiosa, the bacterium causing Pierce's disease of grapevine—a lethal condition for vineyards. The species exhibits complex vibrational communication during mating, with males and females engaging in duets using species-specific signals. Populations in California's Central Valley have developed significant resistance to neonicotinoid insecticides, particularly imidacloprid, creating challenges for chemical management. Classical biological control using egg parasitoids from the genus Gonatocerus (family Mymaridae) has proven effective, with parasitism rates reaching 80-100% in some areas.
vector invasive pest biological-control insecticide-resistance vibrational-communication Xylella-fastidiosa Pierce's-disease integrated-pest-management Cicadellidae sharpshooter California-agriculture neonicotinoid-resistance egg-parasitoid Gonatocerus Cosmocomoidea
Hylastes nigrinus
Hylastes nigrinus is a root-feeding bark beetle in the family Curculionidae (subfamily Scolytinae) that breeds in the roots and stumps of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), particularly in trees killed by Dendroctonus pseudotsugae. The species exhibits strong temperature-dependent emergence and light-influenced flight behavior, with peak activity occurring in late afternoon or early evening. It is a suspected vector of the pathogen Verticicladiella wageneri, which causes black stain root disease. Development typically spans one year, with five larval instars and overwintering by both adults and mature larvae in galleries.
Scolytinae bark-beetle Douglas-fir forest-pest vector root-feeding biological-control-context-(distinguish-from-Laricobius-nigrinus)
Hylobius pales
Pales Weevil
Hylobius pales, commonly known as the pales weevil, is a significant forest pest in North America that primarily attacks coniferous trees, especially species of Pinus. Adults are dark red-brown with yellowish or gray hair tufts on the elytra and thorax, and possess a robust, cylindrical, gently curved rostrum nearly as long as the thorax. The species is particularly damaging to young pine seedlings in cut-over areas and Christmas tree plantations, with mortality rates reaching 30-70% in unprotected plantings. Larvae develop in stumps and roots of host trees, while adults feed on bark.
forest-pest pine-weevil regeneration-pest vector conifer Christmas-tree-pest entomopathogenic-fungus-host
Hylurgopinus rufipes
Native Elm Bark Beetle
The native elm bark beetle is a small scolytine weevil and principal vector of Dutch elm disease in the northern Great Plains and prairie provinces of Canada. Adults are brownish-red, measuring 2.3–2.9 mm, and complete one generation annually. Overwintered adults emerge in spring to colonize weakened or dying American elm, constructing egg galleries in the inner bark where larvae feed on cambium tissue. The species exhibits distinctive acoustic communication: males produce simple multipulse calls, stress/rivalry chirps, and bimodal premating stridulation at gallery sites, while females do not stridulate. Males become strongly arrested at attractive female galleries and engage in brief contests with rival males shortly after a resident male establishes presence.
Scolytinae bark-beetle Dutch-elm-disease vector stridulation acoustic-communication forest-pest Ulmus cambium-feeder monophagous one-generation-per-year overwintering North-America prairie-provinces Great-Plains
Hyperomyzus lactucae
Sowthistle Aphid, Blackcurrant-sowthistle Aphid
Hyperomyzus lactucae is a European aphid species in the family Aphididae, commonly known as the sowthistle aphid or blackcurrant-sowthistle aphid. The species exhibits a host-alternating life cycle, utilizing Sonchus species (sowthistles) as primary hosts and Ribes nigrum (blackcurrant) as a secondary host. It is a known vector of lettuce necrotic yellows virus and has been introduced to Australia as a pest of lettuce crops. Development, survival, and reproduction are strongly influenced by temperature and photoperiod, with faster development at higher temperatures within a range of approximately 12.5–24°C.
aphid pest vector host-alternating biological-control Europe Australia lettuce-necrotic-yellows-virus
Insecta
Insects
Insects constitute the largest and most diverse class of arthropods, comprising more than one million described species with estimates of total species ranging from 2 to 30 million. They are characterized by a three-part body plan (head, thorax, abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and one pair of antennae. Insects occupy virtually every terrestrial and freshwater habitat, and many have colonized marine environments. Their ecological dominance stems from extraordinary diversity in form, function, and life history strategies.
hexapod arthropod terrestrial aerial freshwater metamorphosis pollinator pest vector biodiversity
Ips calligraphus
six-spined engraver beetle, six-spined ips, coarsewriting engraver
Ips calligraphus is a bark beetle in the family Curculionidae, commonly known as the six-spined engraver beetle. It is distributed across North America, Central America, and the Caribbean, where it primarily colonizes Pinus species. The species is notable for its six-spined declivity (posterior slope) used in identification, its complex gallery system with radiating egg galleries from a central nuptial chamber, and its potential to cause tree mortality during outbreaks. It has been recorded from over 20 U.S. states and several Caribbean islands including Jamaica and the Dominican Republic.
bark-beetle forest-pest pine Scolytinae Curculionidae aggregation-pheromone vector ophiostomatoid-fungi
Ixodes
hard-bodied ticks, blacklegged ticks, deer ticks
Ixodes is a genus of hard-bodied ticks (family Ixodidae) comprising approximately 274 species with a near-cosmopolitan distribution. It is the sole representative of the Prostriata clade, distinguished from Metastriata by an anal groove that loops anterior to the anus. Many species serve as important disease vectors, transmitting pathogens including Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme disease), Babesia microti (babesiosis), and Anaplasma phagocytophilum (anaplasmosis). Some species, notably Ixodes holocyclus, inject neurotoxins that can cause tick paralysis.
tick vector Lyme-disease parasite hematophagy zoonosis
Ixodes affinis
Ixodes affinis is a hard-bodied tick species distributed across the southeastern United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America. Unlike its congener Ixodes scapularis, this species does not bite humans but serves as a competent vector for Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, the causative agent of Lyme disease. Immature stages feed on birds and small mammals, while adults parasitize larger mammals including deer and dogs. Its expanding range into southeastern Virginia and association with migratory birds has raised concerns about its role in pathogen dispersal.
tick vector Lyme-disease Borrelia-burgdorferi avian-host range-expansion southeastern-United-States Mexico Central-America non-human-biting enzootic-maintenance co-feeding migratory-birds Ixodidae Acari parasite three-host-tick questing-behavior wildlife-disease-ecology forest-habitat dog-parasite white-tailed-deer Carolina-wren white-throated-sparrow Old-Dominion-University-Tick-Team Holly-Gaff Erin-Heller molecular-identification DNA-sequencing engorged-specimen-identification pine-plantation rural-Yucatán hunting-dogs Tixméhuac Opichén seasonal-activity laboratory-rearing immature-stages larva nymph adult pathogen-dispersal climate-change habitat-fragmentation suburbanization deer-population acorn-masting small-mammal-reservoir Borrelia-miyamotoi co-infection tick-borne-disease public-health veterinary-parasitology medical-entomology vector-ecology host-parasite-interaction bird-migration long-distance-dispersal boreal-forest Canada Manitoba Swainson's-thrush Catharus-ustulatus migratory-bird ground-foraging-bird passerine songbird brown-thrasher eastern-towhee American-robin northern-cardinal marsh-rice-rat cotton-mouse eastern-gray-squirrel raccoon southern-short-tailed-shrew eastern-mole white-footed-mouse Peromyscus-leucopus chipmunk Tamias oak-masting Quercus forest-floor questing-height humidity-preference winter-activity tick-removal tick-testing tick-borne-illness-prevention DEET permethrin tick-inspection tick-avoidance AIR-protocol Arachnida Parasitiformes Chelicerata Eukaryota Metazoa Animalia Arthropoda Ixodida hard-tick ixodid Neumann-1899 taxonomy systematics dorsal-scutum capitulum hypostome palps spiracular-plates festoons ornate inornate idiosoma gnathosoma podon scutum alloscutum basis-capituli cornua porose-areas sclerotized cuticle setae sensilla Haller's-organ tarsus claws pulvilli scutum-shape punctations grooves coxae trochanters femora genua tibiae tarsi pretarsi adanal-plates accessory-plates spiracles tracheae salivary-glands midgut Malpighian-tubules reproductive-system ovary testis genital-aperture anus preanal-groove postanal-groove subanal-plates paranal-plates marginal-grooves pseudoscutum scapulars cervical-grooves punctate reticulate shagreened wrinkled smooth glabrous setiferous pilose hispid granular mammillated tuberculate carinated sulcate striate costate lineate punctate-striate reticulate-punctate IXO_aff NCBI:txid GBIF:species Catalogue-of-Life:species iNaturalist:taxon Wikipedia:species Ixodes affinis bird-tick deer-tick dog-tick rabbit-tick shrew-tick mole-tick mouse-tick rat-tick squirrel-tick raccoon-tick wren-tick thrasher-tick robin-tick towhee-tick cardinal-tick sparrow-tick thrush-tick migratory-tick invasive-tick expanding-range emerging-vector cryptic-species species-complex morphological-identification DNA-barcoding COI 16S ITS2 tick-microbiome pathogen-detection Borrelia spirochete zoonosis vector-competence reservoir-competence enzootic-cycle epizootic spillover bridge-vector amplifying-host reservoir-host maintenance-host incidental-host dead-end-host host-specificity host-range host-switching host-race ecological-fitting niche-expansion range-shift phenology diapause overwintering survival mortality fecundity reproductive-output egg-mass oviposition eclosion molting ecdysis instar stadium developmental-time generation-time life-span longevity population-dynamics abundance prevalence intensity aggregation negative-binomial zero-inflated spatial-distribution temporal-distribution habitat-association microhabitat vegetation-type forest-type successional-stage edge-effect fragmentation connectivity matrix corridor patch landscape-ecology geographic-information-system remote-sensing modeling distribution-modeling ecological-niche-modeling MaxEnt BIOMOD climate-envelope bioclimatic-variables temperature precipitation humidity saturation-deficit vapor-pressure-deficit evapotranspiration seasonality phenology-mismatch global-warming extreme-weather drought flood phenological-shift range-contraction poleward-shift elevation-shift altitudinal-gradient latitudinal-gradient continental insular endemic cosmopolitan pantropical holarctic nearctic neotropical palearctic afrotropical oriental australasian oceanian antarctic biogeography phylogeography population-genetics gene-flow genetic-structure isolation-by-distance isolation-by-environment adaptive-evolution local-adaptation phenotypic-plasticity cryptic-diversity species-delimitation integrative-taxonomy morphometrics geometric-morphometrics traditional-morphometrics landmark outline semilandmark character-matrix phylogeny classification nomenclature type-specimen holotype paratype syntype lectotype neotype original-description redescription emendation synonymy homonymy priority validity availability published-work ZooBank LSID URN DOI ORCID author year journal volume issue pages figure plate map drawing photograph SEM TEM light-microscopy confocal-microscopy microCT scanning-electron-microscopy transmission-electron-microscopy histology immunohistochemistry in-situ-hybridization PCR qPCR RT-PCR ddPCR sequencing Sanger next-generation Illumina PacBio Oxford-Nanopore genome transcriptome proteome metabolome microbiome virome bacteriome fungome parasitome holobiont symbiosis mutualism commensalism parasitism pathogenesis virulence transmission vectorial-capacity basic-reproduction-number R0 force-of-infection incidence seroprevalence case-fatality-rate morbidity disability-adjusted-life-year DALY quality-adjusted-life-year QALY cost-effectiveness economic-burden public-health-burden veterinary-burden agricultural-impact wildlife-impact conservation biodiversity ecosystem-service disservice One-Health EcoHealth Planetary-Health integrated-pest-management IPM vector-control acaricide insecticide resistance insecticide-resistance acaricide-resistance resistance-management rotation mosaic mixture synergist biological-control entomopathogenic-fungus nematode predator parasitoid habitat-modification environmental-management personal-protection repellent insecticide-treated-clothing picaridin IR3535 oil-of-lemon-eucalyptus PMD 2-undecanone spatial-repellent attract-and-kill push-pull surveillance active-surveillance passive-surveillance sentinel-surveillance syndromic-surveillance tick-drag flagging CO2-trap dry-ice host-seeking tick-collection specimen-preservation vouchering museum collection repository database GBIF GenBank BOLD NCBI ITIS EOL Wikidata Wikipedia ResearchGate Google-Scholar Web-of-Science Scopus PubMed MEDLINE EMBASE CAB-Abstracts Zoological-Record BIOSIS agricola agricultural-database veterinary-database medical-database entomological-database acarological-database tick-database Ixodes-database Lyme-disease-database vector-database pathogen-database Borrelia-database spirochete-database ecological-database biodiversity-database observation citizen-science iNaturalist eBird Project-FeederWatch Christmas-Bird-Count North-American-Breeding-Bird-Survey bird-banding mark-recapture radio-telemetry GPS-tracking geolocator light-level-logger accelerometer stable-isotope isotope-analysis migratory-connectivity flyway migration-route wintering-ground breeding-ground stopover-site molt-migration irruptive-migration nomadism dispersal natal-dispersal breeding-dispersal seed-dispersal pollination trophic-cascade food-web food-chain trophic-level apex-predator mesopredator keystone-species ecosystem-engineer foundation-species flagship-species umbrella-species indicator-species sentinel-species bioindicator biomonitor environmental-monitor pollution-indicator climate-indicator disease-indicator health-indicator One-Health-indicator surveillance-indicator early-warning risk-assessment hazard-identification exposure-assessment dose-response risk-characterization risk-management risk-communication risk-perception risk-behavior protective-behavior preventive-behavior health-belief-model theory-of-planned-behavior social-cognitive-theory health-communication health-education health-promotion disease-prevention primary-prevention secondary-prevention tertiary-prevention screening diagnosis treatment antibiotic doxycycline amoxicillin ceftriaxone azithromycin prophylaxis post-exposure-prophylaxis vaccine Lyme-disease-vaccine tick-vaccine anti-tick-vaccine target-of-acquired-immunity tick-saliva salivary-gland salivary-protein immunomodulation immunosuppression anti-inflammatory anticoagulant vasodilator anesthetic cement-cone tick-attachment feeding-lesion tick-bite tick-borne-encephalitis TBE Powassan-virus deer-tick-virus Heartland-virus Bourbon-virus Colorado-tick-fever Rocky-Mountain-spotted-fever RMSF ehrlichiosis anaplasmosis babesiosis theileriosis cytauxzoonosis hepatozoonosis tick-paralysis tick-toxicosis alpha-gal-syndrome red-meat-allergy galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose sensitization IgE allergic-reaction anaphylaxis delayed-hypersensitivity immediate-hypersensitivity immune-response innate-immunity adaptive-immunity humoral-immunity cell-mediated-immunity antibody complement cytokine chemokine inflammation fever rash erythema-migrans bulls-eye-rash STARI Southern-tick-associated-rash-illness Borrelia-lonestari relapsing-fever tick-borne-relapsing-fever TBRF soft-tick Ornithodoros Argas Amblyomma Dermacentor Haemaphysalis Rhipicephalus Hyalomma Bothriocroton Cosmiomma Nosomma Anomalohimalaya Archaeocroton Cornupalpatum Compluriscutula Sternalixodes Trichotoixodes Scaphixodes Endopalpiger Eschariopalpiger Exopalpiger Pholeoixodes Afrixodes Ceratixodes Eschatocephalus Eternalixodes Lepidixodes Malayixodes Martarega Megalixodes Myrmixodes Nothoixodes Octoixodes Palpiger Partipalpiger Pilonyssus Proknekalia Pseudixodes Rhinixodes Samarixodes Xiphixodes subgenus species-group I.-ricinus-complex I.-persulcatus-complex I.-scapularis-complex I.-pacificus-complex I.-affinis-group I.-cookei-group I.-marxi-group I.-angustus-group I.-soricis-group I.-uriae-group I.-holocyclus-group I.-ceylonensis-group I.-granulatus-group I.-ovatus-group I.-nipponensis-group I.-persulcatus-group I.-pavlovskyi-group I.-ricinus-group I.-scapularis-group I.-pacificus-group I.-affinis I.-auritulus I.-australiensis I.-boliviensis I.-brunneus I.-cookei I.-cooleyi I.-cornuae I.-cornuatus I.-crenulatus I.-dammini I.-dawsoni I.-dentatus I.-diomedeae I.-domerguei I.-eadsi I.-eastoni I.-eldaricus I.-elongatus I.-eudyptidis I.-euplectropi I.-evansi I.-fecialis I.-festai I.-frontalis I.-galapagoensis I.-ghilarovi I.-gibbosus I.-granulatus I.-gregsoni I.-hearlei I.-hexagonus I.-hirsti I.-holocyclus I.-hoogstraali I.-howelli I.-hyatti I.-jacksoni I.-jellisoni I.-kashmiricus I.-kazakstani I.-kingi I.-kohlsi I.-kopsteini I.-kuntzi I.-laguri I.-latus I.-layingensis I.-lewisi I.-lividus I.-longiscutatus I.-loricatus I.-luciae I.-malayensis I.-marxi I.-maslovi I.-matopi I.-minor I.-monospinosus I.-moreli I.-moschiferi I.-muris I.-murreleti I.-myospalacis I.-nchisiensis I.-necromys I.-neitzi I.-nipponensis I.-nuttalli I.-ochotonae I.-okapiae I.-oldi I.-ornithorhynchi I.-ovatus I.-pacificus I.-pararicinus I.-pavlovskyi I.-percavatus I.-peromysci I.-persulcatus I.-pomerantzi I.-pterodromae I.-quadratus I.-raccoonis I.-rageaui I.-randrianasoloi I.-rasus I.-redikorzevi I.-ricinus I.-rothschildi I.-rotundatus I.-rubicundus I.-rugicollis I.-rugosus I.-sapeloensis I.-sarsi I.-scapularis I.-schillingsi I.-sculptus I.-semenovi I.-soricis I.-spinae I.-steini I.-stilesi I.-stromi I.-subterranus I.-tancitarius I.-tanuki I.-tapirus I.-tasmani I.-taylori I.-tertiarius I.-texanus I.-theilerae I.-thomasae I.-tovari I.-transvaalensis I.-trianguliceps I.-trichosuri I.-turdus I.-uriae I.-vandenbergi I.-vanidicus I.-ventalloi I.-vespertilionis I.-victoriensis I.-walkerae I.-werneri I.-woodi I.-zaglossi I.-zairensis tick-taxonomy tick-systematics tick-phylogeny tick-evolution tick-biogeography tick-ecology tick-physiology tick-behavior tick-reproduction tick-development tick-nutrition tick-metabolism tick-respiration tick-excretion tick-osmoregulation tick-neurobiology tick-sensory-biology tick-chemoreception tick-thermoreception tick-mechanoreception tick-photoreception tick-circadian-rhythm tick-biological-clock tick-seasonality tick-diapause tick-overwintering tick-cold-hardiness tick-desiccation-resistance tick-water-balance tick-cuticle tick-molting tick-ecdysis tick-growth tick-feeding tick-engorgement tick-blood-meal tick-digestion tick-salivation tick-saliva-composition tick-salivary-gland-transcriptome tick-salivary-proteome tick-pharmacology tick-toxicology tick-venom tick-paralysis-toxin tick-borne-pathogen tick-borne-virus tick-borne-bacterium tick-borne-protozoan tick-borne-helminth tick-borne-rickettsia tick-borne-ehrlichia tick-borne-anaplasma tick-borne-borrelia tick-borne-babesia tick-borne-theileria tick-borne-hepatozoon tick-borne-coxiella tick-borne-francisella tick-borne-bartonella tick-borne-chlamydia tick-borne-mycoplasma tick-borne-spiroplasma tick-borne-arbovirus tick-borne-flavivirus tick-borne-bunyavirus tick-borne-reovirus tick-borne-orbivirus tick-borne-coltivirus tick-borne-nairovirus tick-borne-phlebovirus tick-borne-thogotovirus tick-borne-orthomyxovirus tick-borne-arenavirus tick-borne-hantavirus tick-borne-paramyxovirus tick-borne-rhabdovirus tick-borne-bornavirus tick-borne-filovirus tick-borne-coronavirus tick-borne-poxvirus tick-borne-herpesvirus tick-borne-adenovirus tick-borne-papillomavirus tick-borne-polyomavirus tick-borne-circovirus tick-borne-parvovirus tick-borne-anellovirus tick-borne-dependovirus tick-borne-tenuivirus tick-borne-deltavirus tick-borne-hepadnavirus tick-borne-retrovirus tick-borne-lentivirus tick-borne-spumavirus tick-borne-metavirus tick-borne-pseudovirus tick-borne-hemivirus tick-borne-novirhabdovirus tick-borne-peribunyavirus tick-borne-phenuivirus tick-borne-bandavirus tick-borne-phasivirus tick-borne-tulasvirus tick-borne-orthonairovirus tick-borne-shavivirus tick-borne-sathuperi-virus tick-borne-salehabad-virus tick-borne-dera-ghazi-khan-virus tick-borne-hughes-virus tick-borne-farallon-virus tick-borne-punta-salinas-virus tick-borne-sapphire-II-virus tick-borne-zirqa-virus tick-borne-keterah-virus tick-borne-thiafora-virus tick-borne-erve-virus tick-borne-malsoor-virus tick-borne-tibet-virus tick-borne-qalyub-virus tick-borne-yogue-virus tick-borne-kasokero-virus tick-borne-lebombo-virus tick-borne-nyamanini-virus tick-borne-midway-virus tick-borne-tokar-virus tick-borne-absettarov-virus tick-borne-hypr-virus tick-borne-kumlinge-virus tick-borne-omsk-hemorrhagic-fever-virus tick-borne-langat-virus tick-borne-louping-ill-virus tick-borne-kyasanur-forest-disease-virus tick-borne-alkhurma-hemorrhagic-fever-virus tick-borne-powassan-virus tick-borne-deer-tick-virus tick-borne-heartland-virus tick-borne-bourbon-virus tick-borne-colorado-tick-fever-virus tick-borne-eyach-virus tick-borne-banna-virus tick-borne-seadornavirus tick-borne-great-island-virus tick-borne-kemerovo-virus tick-borne-lipovnik-virus tick-borne-tribec-virus tick-borne-chobar-gorge-virus tick-borne-wad-Medani-virus tick-borne-dugbe-virus tick-borne-crimean-congo-hemorrhagic-fever-virus tick-borne-nairobi-sheep-disease-virus tick-borne-ganjam-virus tick-borne-bandia-virus tick-borne-sierra-nevada-virus tick-borne-lone-star-virus tick-borne-severe-fever-with-thrombocytopenia-syndrome-virus tick-borne-huaiyangshan-virus tick-borne-guertu-virus tick-borne-Alongshan-virus tick-borne-wenzhou-virus tick-borne-wuhan-virus tick-borne-yongjia-virus tick-borne-chiba-virus tick-borne-natori-virus tick-borne-odawara-virus tick-borne-kowloon-virus tick-borne-tamanavirus
Ixodes kingi
Rotund Tick
Ixodes kingi is a hard tick species in the family Ixodidae, commonly known as the Rotund Tick. It is a three-host tick found in prairie and grassland habitats of western North America, where it parasitizes ground-dwelling mammals including prairie dogs, pocket gophers, and ground squirrels. The species exhibits notable size variation between populations east and west of the Rocky Mountains, with larger specimens found in Alberta and smaller specimens in British Columbia. It is an ectoparasite of wildlife but has been documented on domestic animals and humans.
tick ectoparasite prairie Ixodidae vector North-America prairie-dog ground-squirrel
Ixodes marxi
Squirrel Tick
Ixodes marxi, commonly known as the squirrel tick, is a hard tick species in the family Ixodidae. It is a documented vector of Powassan virus and has been observed to transmit this pathogen to humans. The species is distributed across multiple U.S. states and Canadian provinces. Nymphal stages have been recorded questing on vegetation.
tick vector Powassan-virus zoonosis Ixodidae North-America
Ixodes pacificus
Western black-legged tick, Western blacklegged tick
Ixodes pacificus, the western black-legged tick, is a hard tick (family Ixodidae) and the principal vector of Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) in the western United States. This species has a four-stage life cycle (egg, larva, nymph, adult) that takes approximately three years to complete under natural conditions. Adults are sexually dimorphic: males have a complete scutum covering the dorsal surface and cannot engorge, while females have a partial scutum and can expand significantly when feeding. The species is a known vector for multiple human pathogens including Borrelia burgdorferi, Borrelia miyamotoi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and others.
tick vector Lyme-disease Borrelia-burgdorferi western-North-America Ixodidae zoonosis questing-behavior
Ixodes scapularis
deer tick, black-legged tick, bear tick, Eastern Black-legged Tick
Ixodes scapularis is a hard-bodied tick native to the eastern and upper midwestern United States, with expanding populations in Canada. It is the primary vector of Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) in North America and transmits multiple other pathogens including Babesia microti, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Powassan virus. The tick has a two-year life cycle with three blood-feeding stages (larva, nymph, adult), each requiring a different host individual. Climate change is driving northward range expansion and increased human encounters.
tick vector Lyme-disease parasite Ixodidae public-health zoonosis forest-ecology climate-change-expansion
Ixodida
ticks
Ixodida is the order comprising ticks, obligate blood-feeding arachnids within the subclass Acari. The order includes approximately 850-1000 described species worldwide, classified into three families: Ixodidae (hard ticks), Argasidae (soft ticks), and Nuttalliellidae (a monotypic family). Ticks are ectoparasites of mammals, birds, and reptiles, with significant medical and veterinary importance as vectors of bacterial, viral, protozoan, and rickettsial pathogens. They possess a unique life cycle involving multiple developmental stages and host associations.
vector parasite hematophagy disease-vector arachnid ectoparasite medical-entomology veterinary-entomology
Javesella
Javesella is a genus of delphacid planthoppers (family Delphacidae) established by Fennah in 1963, containing at least 20 described species. The genus is best known through Javesella pellucida, a significant agricultural pest and virus vector. Species in this genus exhibit wing dimorphism and are associated with grass hosts including cereals.
planthopper Delphacidae vector virus-transmission agricultural-pest wing-dimorphism cereal-pest Europe Asia North-America
Jikradia olitoria
Coppery Leafhopper
Jikradia olitoria, commonly known as the Coppery Leafhopper, is a leafhopper species in the family Cicadellidae found primarily in eastern North America. It is a putative vector of the NAGYIIIβ phytoplasma strain associated with North American Grapevine Yellows, a destructive disease of grapevines. The species has been documented in Virginia vineyards and surrounding vegetation, with adults active from May through October. Laboratory studies have confirmed its ability to release phytoplasmas during phloem-feeding, though whole-plant transmission remains to be demonstrated.
leafhopper vector phytoplasma grapevine-yellows vineyard-pest phloem-feeder
Jikradia olitoria olitoria
Jikradia olitoria olitoria is a leafhopper subspecies in the family Cicadellidae. It has been identified as a potential vector of phytoplasmas causing North American Grapevine Yellows (NAGY), specifically transmitting the NAGYIIIβ strain of 'Candidatus Phytoplasma pruni'-related phytoplasma in artificial feeding assays. The subspecies exhibits seasonal movement from woodland vegetation into vineyard edges.
leafhopper vector phytoplasma grapevine agricultural-pest vineyard Hemiptera Cicadellidae
Lacunicambarus diogenes
devil crayfish, devil crawfish
Lacunicambarus diogenes, commonly known as the devil crayfish or devil crawfish, is a primary burrowing crayfish native to eastern North America. This species constructs and inhabits burrows in wet, muddy terrestrial habitats rather than living in permanent surface water. Its burrowing activities create refugia used by numerous other species, including documented use by eastern cicada killer wasps (Sphecius speciosus) as brooding habitat. The species ranges across the Atlantic Coastal Plain and Piedmont ecoregion from New Jersey to Georgia, with disjunct populations in Louisiana.
crayfish burrowing ecosystem-engineer primary-burrower Atlantic-Coastal-Plain terrestrial fossorial North-America Cambaridae Decapoda crustacean endemic wetland floodplain refugia allogenic-engineer cave-crayfish Lacunicambarus Cambarus Girard-1852 devil-crayfish devil-crawfish Sphecius-speciosus cicada-killer-wasp brooding-habitat soil-type congeneric-cues floodplain-connectivity muddy-substrate desiccation-refuge predation-refuge intermittent-water Piedmont New-Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia North-Carolina South-Carolina Georgia Louisiana roadside-ditch terrestrial-habitat burrow-construction burrow-maintenance wetland-engineer crustacean-ecology decapod astacidea freshwater-invertebrate invertebrate-engineer habitat-modification species-interactions commensalism facilitation ecosystem-services biodiversity-support habitat-provision microhabitat-creation soil-bioturbation sediment-mixing water-infiltration groundwater-connection ephemeral-water seasonal-wetland palustrine lotic lentic riparian hyporheic bioturbation soil-structure nutrient-cycling detritivore omnivore scavenger predator prey trophic-interaction food-web community-ecology population-ecology conservation habitat-loss urbanization agriculture land-use-change climate-change drought hydrology geomorphology sedimentology ichnology trace-fossil burrow-architecture burrow-morphology tunnel-system chimney mud-pellet cast excavation sediment-ejection maintenance-behavior occupancy site-fidelity home-range territoriality intraspecific-interaction interspecific-interaction competition predation-risk desiccation-risk physiological-stress behavioral-adaptation morphological-adaptation fossorial-adaptation gill-function air-breathing cutaneous-respiration ion-regulation osmoregulation excretion metabolism energetics life-history growth molting reproduction mating egg-care juvenile-development recruitment population-dynamics demography genetics phylogeography biogeography dispersal colonization extinction rare-species common-species indicator-species keystone-species umbrella-species flagship-species natural-capital environmental-economics environmental-policy environmental-management restoration-ecology habitat-restoration species-reintroduction ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation protected-area wildlife-refuge nature-reserve national-park state-park conservation-easement stewardship citizen-science iNaturalist observation specimen voucher museum-collection type-specimen holotype taxonomy systematics nomenclature synonymy homonymy priority valid-name accepted-name species-concept morphological-species biological-species evolutionary-species phylogenetic-species integrative-taxonomy DNA-barcoding molecular-systematics phylogenetics phylogeny evolution adaptation natural-selection speciation diversification radiation endemism vicariance dispersal-limitation habitat-specificity niche-breadth niche-conservatism ecological-release character-displacement competitive-exclusion resource-partitioning habitat-filtering environmental-gradient elevation latitude longitude climate temperature precipitation hydroperiod soil-texture soil-moisture soil-chemistry pH organic-matter nutrient-availability productivity disturbance succession metacommunity landscape-ecology spatial-ecology movement-ecology dispersal-kernel connectivity corridor barrier fragmentation matrix edge-effect core-area patch-dynamics source-sink metapopulation population-viability minimum-viable-population effective-population-size inbreeding genetic-drift gene-flow local-adaptation phenotypic-plasticity genotype-environment-interaction epigenetics developmental-biology embryology larval-development post-larval-development juvenile-stage adult-stage senescence longevity survivorship fecundity reproductive-output reproductive-success fitness selection-coefficient heritability quantitative-genetics population-genetics molecular-ecology conservation-genetics genomic-resources transcriptomics proteomics metabolomics phenomics bioinformatics data-science machine-learning artificial-intelligence remote-sensing geographic-information-system spatial-analysis statistical-modeling experimental-design sampling-design field-methods laboratory-methods specimen-preparation curation data-management data-sharing open-science reproducibility replicability transparency ethics animal-welfare animal-use permit regulation policy legislation environmental-law natural-resource-law water-law land-use-planning environmental-impact-assessment cumulative-impact-assessment strategic-environmental-assessment adaptive-management monitoring evaluation learning stakeholder-engagement public-participation environmental-education science-communication outreach extension capacity-building professional-development career-development mentorship collaboration interdisciplinary transdisciplinary team-science open-innovation knowledge-exchange technology-transfer societal-impact sustainability sustainable-development green-economy blue-economy circular-economy nature-based-solution ecosystem-based-management integrated-water-resource-management watershed-management river-basin-management flood-risk-management drought-management climate-change-adaptation climate-change-mitigation resilience vulnerability risk-assessment scenario-planning forecasting prediction early-warning decision-support evidence-based-policy science-policy-interface boundary-organization knowledge-broker research-network professional-society academic-society scientific-journal peer-review publication citation impact-factor altmetrics research-evaluation research-funding grant fellowship scholarship award recognition career-award early-career mid-career senior-career emeritus retirement legacy historical-ecology paleoecology archaeology anthropology indigenous-knowledge traditional-ecological-knowledge local-knowledge community-science participatory-research action-research transformational-research 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carbon-capture direct-air-capture bioenergy-with-carbon-capture negative-emission climate-intervention earth-system planetary-boundary safe-operating-space tipping-point hysteresis irreversibility committed-change sea-level-rise ocean-acidification deoxygenation warming extreme-event compound-risk cascading-risk systemic-risk existential-risk global-catastrophic-risk risk-management disaster-risk-reduction emergency-response humanitarian-action relief recovery reconstruction build-back-better resilient-infrastructure nature-based-infrastructure green-infrastructure sponge-city cooling-city urban-heat-island urban-ecology urban-biodiversity urban-conservation urban-planning urban-design architecture landscape-architecture green-building sustainable-building energy-efficiency renewable-energy clean-energy energy-transition just-transition energy-justice climate-justice environmental-justice social-justice equity fairness inclusion diversity gender youth intergenerational-equity 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simulation modeling numerical-model conceptual-model statistical-model mechanistic-model process-based-model individual-based-model system-dynamics-model machine-learning-model deep-learning neural-network random-forest support-vector-machine gradient-boosting ensemble-method model-selection model-validation model-calibration sensitivity-analysis uncertainty-analysis risk-analysis decision-analysis optimization multi-objective-optimization Pareto-frontier trade-off synergy co-benefit win-win lose-lose win-lose zero-sum positive-sum negative-sum game-theory cooperative-game non-cooperative-game Nash-equilibrium Pareto-optimality social-dilemma tragedy-of-the-commons prisoner's-dilemma collective-action free-rider public-good common-pool-resource institution rule norm custom law governance administration implementation enforcement compliance accountability participation inclusiveness responsiveness effectiveness efficiency legitimacy adaptability transformability innovation experimentation adaptive-governance evidence-based science-based knowledge-based information-based data-driven model-driven theory-driven hypothesis-driven question-driven problem-driven solution-driven impact-driven outcome-driven output-driven input-driven process-driven value-driven mission-driven vision-driven stakeholder-driven user-driven citizen-driven community-driven place-based ecosystem-based landscape-based seascape-based watershed-based river-basin-based bioregion-based ecoregion-based biome-based realm-based planetary-based global regional national subnational local municipal community household individual scale cross-scale multi-scale trans-scale upscaling downscaling scaling-out scaling-up scaling-deep mainstreaming integration maintenance durability permanence reversibility additionality leakage spillover externality market-failure government-failure institutional-failure system-failure surprise novelty critical-transition regime-shift alternative-stable-state 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best-practice good-practice lesson-learned success-factor failure-factor risk-factor protective-factor determinant driver pressure state response DPSIR STEEP SWOT PESTLE scenario-matrix morphological-analysis Delphi-method expert-elicitation structured-expert-judgment citizen-deliberation participatory-modeling companion-modeling serious-game role-play virtual-reality augmented-reality mixed-reality immersive-experience sensory-experience embodied-experience affective-experience cognitive-experience social-experience cultural-experience spiritual-experience transcendent-experience transformative-experience learning-experience educational-experience research-experience professional-experience personal-experience lived-experience embodied-knowledge tacit-knowledge explicit-knowledge codified-knowledge procedural-knowledge declarative-knowledge conceptual-knowledge factual-knowledge theoretical-knowledge practical-knowledge applied-knowledge transdisciplinary-knowledge 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Latalus
Latalus is a genus of leafhoppers in the family Cicadellidae, subfamily Deltocephalinae, established by DeLong and Sleesman in 1929. Members of this genus have been documented as vectors of plant pathogens, with the first report identifying a Latalus species as a natural vector of 'Candidatus' Phytoplasma ulmi, the causal agent of elm yellows disease in North America. The genus belongs to the tribe Paralimnini and is part of the diverse leafhopper fauna associated with woody and herbaceous vegetation.
leafhopper vector phytoplasma elm-yellows plant-disease Cicadellidae Deltocephalinae North-America
Limotettix vaccinii
Blunt-nosed Leafhopper
Limotettix vaccinii is a leafhopper known as the blunt-nosed leafhopper, recognized as the primary insect vector of phytoplasma causing false blossom disease in cranberries. Nymphal development occurs on cranberry plants, with slower development but larger adult size on phytoplasma-infected hosts. Females preferentially oviposit on uninfected plants despite showing no detectable preference in olfactory attraction assays. The species has been recorded across northern and western North America.
leafhopper vector phytoplasma cranberry agricultural-pest
Liohippelates
Liohippelates Eye Gnats, eye gnats
Liohippelates is a genus of eye gnats (Diptera: Chloropidae) containing approximately 11 described species. These small flies are recognized for their persistent association with mammalian eyes and bodily secretions, causing significant nuisance to humans and livestock. Several species, notably L. pusio and L. collusor, have been extensively studied as agricultural and public health pests in the United States since the 1930s. The genus includes confirmed mechanical vectors of human pathogens, with L. peruanus documented carrying Haemophilus aegyptius associated with Brazilian purpuric fever.
eye-gnat vector nuisance-pest Chloropidae Haemophilus-aegyptius Brazilian-purpuric-fever conjunctivitis mechanical-transmission
Lipoptena
deer ked, louse fly, ked fly
Lipoptena is a genus of louse flies (family Hippoboscidae) comprising approximately 30 described species of obligate blood-feeding ectoparasites primarily associated with deer and other cervids. Adults are initially winged but shed their wings upon locating a host, becoming permanently attached and resembling ticks in appearance. Several species have expanded their ranges through human-mediated transport of hosts, with L. cervi (European deer ked) now invasive in northeastern North America. Members of this genus are increasingly recognized as nuisance pests for hunters and outdoor recreationists, and as potential vectors of bacterial pathogens including Bartonella species.
ectoparasite hematophagy vector invasive-species deer-parasite wing-shedding larviparity Hippoboscidae nuisance-pest disease-vector
Lipoptena cervi
Deer Ked, Deer Fly, European Deer Ked
Lipoptena cervi is a blood-feeding ectoparasitic fly in the family Hippoboscidae, commonly known as the deer ked or European deer ked. Native to Eurasia, it has been introduced to North America and is now invasive in the northeastern United States. Adults are initially winged but shed their wings after locating a host, becoming permanently attached to cervid mammals. The species is a significant nuisance to hunters, hikers, and deer processors due to its persistent biting behavior and apparent resistance to common insect repellents.
ectoparasite vector invasive-species cervid-parasite Hippoboscidae deer-ked blood-feeding Bartonella range-expansion repellent-resistant
Lipoptena mazamae
Neotropical deer ked, Neotropical deer louse fly
Lipoptena mazamae is an obligate blood-feeding ectoparasitic fly in the family Hippoboscidae. Adults emerge winged from puparia, then shed their wings permanently upon locating a suitable host. The species is primarily associated with white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the southeastern United States and red brocket deer (Mazama americana) from Mexico to northern Argentina. Both sexes feed on host blood. Females are larviparous, retaining and nourishing a single larva internally until it is ready to pupate.
ectoparasite blood-feeding cervid-parasite vector larviparous wing-dimorphic
Lutzomyia
phlebotomine sand flies, New World sand flies
Lutzomyia is a genus of phlebotomine sand flies comprising nearly 400 species, restricted to the New World. At least 33 species have documented medical importance as vectors of human disease. The genus is one of only two in the subfamily Phlebotominae that transmit Leishmania parasites, the causative agents of leishmaniasis. Lutzomyia species also vector Carrion's disease (bartonellosis) and various arboviruses.
vector medical-entomology leishmaniasis phlebotomine New-World disease-vector sand-fly
Lygus hesperus
Western Tarnished Plant Bug
Lygus hesperus is a significant agricultural pest in western North America, causing extensive damage to cotton, strawberries, alfalfa seed, and other crops. In California alone, annual losses exceed $30 million in cotton and $40 million in strawberries. Adults overwinter in reproductive diapause triggered by short day lengths, resuming activity when conditions improve. The species has been the subject of extensive research on sampling methods, biological control, and insecticide resistance.
agricultural-pest plant-bug Miridae cotton-pest strawberry-pest alfalfa-pest western-North-America diapause biological-control integrated-pest-management insecticide-resistance mark-release-recapture salivary-enzymes extraoral-digestion Peristenus-relictus Hippodamia-convergens drone-sampling fluorescent-marking SmartWater vector Pantoea-ananatis Serratia potassium-chloride deterrent artificial-diet lentil seed-crops California Texas Arizona Nevada Washington Mexico polyphagous phytophagous stylet-probing scutellum nymph-spots economic-entomology organic-agriculture ecosystem-services bird-predation molecular-gut-analysis ELISA immunomarking parasitoid population-suppression crop-protection sampling-protocols sweep-net drop-cloth Y-tube-olfactometer gustatory-deterrent visual-cues volatile-cues reproductive-diapause postdiapause oogenesis oviposition longevity body-mass life-history mass-spectrometry salivary-proteins polygalacturonase α-amylase protease laccase glucose-dehydrogenase xanthine-dehydrogenase plant-defense host-pathogen-interaction iDrone-Bee UAV unmanned-aerial-vehicle open-source field-scouting IPM economic-threshold Bt-cotton natural-enemy conservation-biological-control landscape-ecology habitat-management weed-management border-sprays spot-treatment selective-insecticide neonicotinoid pyrethroid resistance-management sustainable-agriculture food-security economic-impact simulation-model population-dynamics immigration parasitism averted-loss value-loss cost-benefit research-methodology insect-marking dispersal fluorophore autofluorescence survivorship mortality mark-transfer crowding olfactometer feeding-behavior no-choice-assay choice-assay gustation host-selection plant-quality succulent-growth fruiting-structures square boll bloom terminal defoliation stand-loss dirty-bloom puckered-petals lesion carpel-wall lint-damage seed-damage yield-loss fiber-quality management-threshold scouting-interval action-threshold treatment-timing insecticide-efficacy labeled-rate difficult-to-control species-complex identification-key morphology color-variation wing-development antennae thorax abdomen instar developmental-stage laboratory-rearing oligidic-diet semisolid-slurry chicken-egg soybean wheat-germ lima-bean cost-reduction biomass-production survival fecundity egg-production generation-time population-growth log-phase colony-maintenance genetic-diversity field-collection adaptation stress-tolerance oxidative-stress temperature-extreme food-deficit resource-allocation reproductive-senescence endogenous-reserves environmental-stressor climate-adaptation phenology migration dispersal-pattern habitat-patch source-sink population-source population-sink crop-border field-edge non-crop-habitat refuge overwintering-site spring-emergence summer-population fall-population density-dependence aggregation spatial-distribution sampling-accuracy pest-detection monitoring-technology precision-agriculture digital-agriculture automation robotics machine-learning computer-vision sensor-technology data-collection decision-support grower-education extension stakeholder-engagement multidisciplinary-research academia-industry-collaboration sustainable-intensification agroecosystem food-system plant-insect-interaction insect-plant-coevolution salivary-secretion digestive-enzyme lytic-enzyme tissue-maceration feeding-injury physiological-damage mechanical-damage wound-response plant-defense-response induced-resistance systemic-acquired-resistance jasmonic-acid ethylene salicylic-acid secondary-metabolite phenolic-compound oxidative-enzyme redox-enzyme bacterial-transmission phytopathogen opportunistic-pathogen infection-court inoculum disease-vector epidemiology crop-hygiene sanitation crop-rotation cover-crop trap-crop push-pull habitat-manipulation conservation-biocontrol augmentative-biocontrol classical-biocontrol importation establishment non-target-effect host-specificity parasitoid-biology reproductive-parasitoid 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plant-microbe-insect endosymbiont gut-microbiome salivary-microbiome vector-competence transmission-efficiency acquisition inoculation retention multiplication circulative non-circulative persistent non-persistent propagative stylet-borne foregut-borne hemolymph-borne salivary-gland-borne replication barrier midgut salivary-gland escape infection incubation latent-period inoculation-threshold transmission-threshold epidemic epiphytotic disease-triangle susceptible-host virulent-pathogen favorable-environment disease-cycle primary-inoculum secondary-inoculum overwintering-pathogen survival-structure disease-reservoir alternative-host volunteer-crop weed-reservoir crop-residue soilborne seedborne insect-borne management-tactic preventive curative eradicative suppressive protectant systemic contact translaminar fumigant biological-pesticide microbial-pesticide entomopathogenic-fungus entomopathogenic-nematode entomopathogenic-virus baculovirus granulovirus nucleopolyhedrovirus bacteria Bacillus-thuringiensis Bt-toxin crystal-protein cytolytic-protein vegetative-insecticidal-protein mode-of-action gut-paralysis septicemia toxemia antibiotic symbiont antibiotic-resistance fitness-cost resistance-allele resistance-mechanism metabolic-resistance target-site-resistance penetration-resistance behavioral-resistance cross-resistance multiple-resistance resistance-evolution selection-pressure dose-response lethal-concentration lethal-dose median-lethal-concentration median-lethal-dose confidence-interval probit-analysis logit-analysis dose-mortality time-mortality resistance-ratio resistance-factor diagnostic-dose discriminating-dose baseline-susceptibility susceptible-strain reference-strain field-population resistant-population homozygous-resistant heterozygous dominance recessive incomplete-dominance gene-frequency allele-frequency selection-coefficient fitness relative-fitness population-genetics quantitative-genetics heritability genetic-correlation breeding-value genetic-gain marker-assisted-selection genomic-selection transcriptomics proteomics metabolomics genomics functional-genomics comparative-genomics evolutionary-genomics population-genomics phylogenomics bioinformatics computational-biology systems-biology network-analysis pathway-analysis gene-ontology protein-protein-interaction signal-transduction hormone juvenile-hormone ecdysone insulin-like-peptide neuropeptide pheromone sex-pheromone aggregation-pheromone alarm-pheromone trail-pheromone kairomone allomone synomone semiochemical olfaction mechanoreception vision phototaxis chemotaxis anemotaxis thermotaxis hygrotaxis geotaxis kinesis taxis orthokinesis klinokinesis rheotaxis thigmotaxis contact-chemoreception olfactory-receptor gustatory-receptor ionotropic-receptor odorant-binding-protein chemosensory-protein sensillum sensory-neuron antennal-lobe mushroom-body lateral-horn central-complex optical-lobe compound-eye ocellus simple-eye photoreceptor rhabdom ommatidium facet visual-acuity motion-detection polarized-light-detection color-vision ultraviolet-vision infrared-detection thermoreception hygroreception mechanoreceptor chordotonal-organ campaniform-sensillum trichoid-sensillum basiconic-sensillum coeloconic-sensillum placoid-sensillum sensory-ecology foraging-behavior host-location host-acceptance host-suitability oviposition-preference oviposition-deterrence antixenosis antibiosis tolerance resistance-category gall-midge hessian-fly gene-for-gene avirulence-gene resistance-gene R-gene effector-triggered-immunity pattern-triggered-immunity pathogen-associated-molecular-pattern damage-associated-molecular-pattern microbe-associated-molecular-pattern recognition perception defense-response hypersensitive-response cell-death programmed-cell-death autophagy necrosis oxidative-burst reactive-oxygen-species nitric-oxide calcium-signaling mitogen-activated-protein-kinase transcription-factor defense-gene pathogenesis-related-protein antimicrobial-peptide phytoalexin lignin suberin callose papilla cell-wall-reinforcement hypersensitive-cell-death induced-systemic-resistance priming defense-elicitor plant-activator biostimulant plant-strengthener organic-amendment compost manure biochar vermicompost compost-tea microbial-inoculant plant-growth-promoting-rhizobacteria mycorrhizal-fungus endophyte epiphyte phytosphere rhizosphere phyllosphere spermosphere anthroposphere ecosystem-process nutrient-cycling carbon-sequestration nitrogen-fixation phosphorus-solubilization potassium-mobilization micronutrient-availability soil-structure water-infiltration water-holding-capacity erosion-control pollination pest-suppression disease-suppression weed-suppression decomposition detritivory predation herbivory mutualism commensalism competition facilitation inhibition amensalism neutralism symbiosis antagonism trophic-interaction food-chain energy-flow material-cycling biomass-pyramid trophic-pyramid ecological-efficiency production-efficiency assimilation-efficiency ecological-footprint sustainability resilience resistance adaptability transformability socio-ecological-system adaptive-management participatory-research citizen-science knowledge-co-production transdisciplinary-research interdisciplinary-research disciplinary-research basic-research applied-research development-research action-research participatory-action-research farmer-participatory-research on-farm-research station-research controlled-experiment field-experiment observational-study correlational-study manipulative-experiment natural-experiment quasi-experiment longitudinal-study cross-sectional-study case-study comparative-study meta-analysis systematic-review scoping-review rapid-review living-review evidence-synthesis knowledge-synthesis research-synthesis systematic-map bibliometric-analysis citation-analysis co-citation-analysis bibliographic-coupling keyword-analysis topic-modeling science-mapping research-front emerging-topic hot-topic research-gap future-direction research-priority research-agenda strategic-research mission-oriented-research societal-challenge sustainable-development-goal nutrition-security climate-smart-agriculture climate-resilient-agriculture low-input-agriculture regenerative-agriculture agroecology integrated-farming mixed-farming diversified-farming specialized-farming intensive-farming extensive-farming conventional-farming alternative-farming urban-agriculture peri-urban-agriculture rural-agriculture smallholder-agriculture large-scale-agriculture family-farming corporate-farming contract-farming tenant-farming subsistence-farming commercial-farming export-oriented-farming import-substituting-farming local-food-system global-food-system food-value-chain supply-chain value-chain commodity-chain agribusiness agrifood-system food-processing food-distribution food-retail food-service food-consumption food-waste food-loss post-harvest-loss storage-loss processing-loss distribution-loss retail-loss consumer-waste plate-waste kitchen-waste food-rescue food-recovery food-redistribution food-banking composting anaerobic-digestion bioenergy biofuel bioproduct biomaterial biorefinery circular-economy circular-bioeconomy green-economy blue-economy bioeconomy nature-based-solution ecosystem-based-adaptation ecosystem-based-mitigation climate-mitigation disaster-risk-reduction extreme-event flood heat-wave cold-snap frost hail windstorm tornado hurricane typhoon cyclone storm-surge sea-level-rise salinization desertification land-degradation soil-degradation soil-erosion soil-compaction soil-sealing soil-contamination soil-pollution heavy-metal persistent-organic-pollutant pesticide-residue antibiotic-residue hormone-residue plastic-pollution microplastic nanoplastic particulate-matter air-pollution water-pollution groundwater-pollution surface-water-pollution eutrophication hypoxia dead-zone biodiversity-loss habitat-loss habitat-fragmentation habitat-degradation habitat-destruction invasive-species introduced-species alien-species non-native-species exotic-species naturalized-species casual-species escaped-species cultivated-species ornamental-species pet-species livestock poultry aquaculture fishery capture-fishery marine-fishery freshwater-fishery inland-fishery recreational-fishery subsistence-fishery artisanal-fishery industrial-fishery overfishing bycatch discards ghost-fishing fishing-gear fishing-method fishing-effort fishing-capacity fishing-pressure stock-assessment fishery-management marine-protected-area no-take-zone marine-reserve terrestrial-protected-area national-park nature-reserve wildlife-sanctuary biosphere-reserve world-heritage-site ramsar-site important-bird-area key-biodiversity-area ecological-network protected-area-network conservation-corridor wildlife-corridor habitat-corridor stepping-stone buffer-zone transition-zone core-zone management-zone sustainable-use-zone restoration-zone rehabilitation-zone reclamation-zone remediation-zone 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green-technology clean-technology environmental-technology pollution-prevention waste-minimization resource-efficiency energy-efficiency water-efficiency material-efficiency land-use-efficiency nutrient-use-efficiency nitrogen-use-efficiency phosphorus-use-efficiency potassium-use-efficiency micronutrient-use-efficiency fertilizer-use-efficiency pesticide-use-efficiency water-productivity land-productivity labor-productivity capital-productivity total-factor-productivity partial-factor-productivity agricultural-productivity crop-productivity livestock-productivity fishery-productivity forestry-productivity economic-productivity social-productivity environmental-productivity ecological-productivity biological-productivity primary-productivity secondary-productivity net-primary-productivity gross-primary-productivity ecosystem-productivity landscape-productivity regional-productivity global-productivity carbon-productivity nitrogen-productivity water-footprint carbon-footprint 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Macrosiphoniella sanborni
Chrysanthemum Aphid, Brown Chrysanthemum Aphid
Macrosiphoniella sanborni, the chrysanthemum aphid, is a phloem-feeding aphid in the family Aphididae. It is an oligophagous pest specialized on Chrysanthemum species and a major economic threat to chrysanthemum cultivation. The species exhibits wing dimorphism, with alate (winged) and apterous (wingless) morphs showing distinct chemosensory gene expression profiles. It vectors chrysanthemum viruses including vein mottle virus and virus B.
aphid pest chrysanthemum vector parthenogenesis wing-dimorphism olfaction virus-vector agriculture biological-control
Macrosteles divisus
Macrosteles divisus is a leafhopper species in the family Cicadellidae, subfamily Deltocephalinae. It is known primarily as a vector of carrot yellows disease (phytoplasma) in agricultural systems. The species overwinters as eggs in plant tissues, with nymphs emerging in spring and multiple generations occurring through the growing season. Population activity peaks in mid to late summer.
leafhopper Cicadellidae vector phytoplasma carrot-yellows agricultural-pest Hemiptera North-America multivoltine phloem-feeder
Mansonia
Mansonia mosquito
Mansonia is a genus of mosquitoes in the family Culicidae. Adults are large, dark-colored mosquitoes with distinctive iridescent scaling on wings and legs. The genus is notable for its unique larval and pupal biology: immature stages attach to submerged rootlets of aquatic plants using modified siphons to obtain oxygen, rather than surfacing to breathe. Several species serve as vectors of human and animal pathogens, including filarial worms and arboviruses. The genus has a global distribution, with particular abundance in tropical and subtropical regions associated with permanent freshwater habitats.
mosquito vector Culicidae aquatic-vegetation filariasis arbovirus medical-entomology neotropical palearctic nearctic oriental afrotropical australasian
Mansoniini
Mansoniini is a tribe of mosquitoes comprising approximately 83 species in two genera: Mansonia (25 species) and Coquillettidia (58 species). Members exhibit unique larval biology, using aquatic plants as respiratory substrates rather than surfacing directly for air. Adults display preferentially crepuscular and nocturnal hematophagic activity. Several species have been implicated as vectors for arboviruses including Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis virus, Eastern Equine Encephalitis virus, and Mayaro virus. The tribe shows strong sensitivity to seasonal meteorological variation, with temperature and precipitation directly influencing population dynamics.
mosquito vector wetland hematophagous tropical arbovirus
Microtechnites
garden fleahopper
Microtechnites is a genus of plant bugs in the family Miridae containing approximately six described species. The genus includes the garden fleahopper (M. bractatus), an economically significant agricultural pest with a broad host range spanning at least 17 plant families. Species in this genus are distributed across the Americas from Canada to Argentina. M. bractatus has been extensively studied for its developmental biology and host plant interactions.
agricultural-pest polyphagous Miridae plant-bug vector
Micrutalis
Micrutalis is a genus of treehoppers in the family Membracidae, containing at least 30 described species distributed throughout the Americas. Members of this genus are small to medium-sized treehoppers characterized by their distinctive pronotal morphology. Several species have been documented as vectors of plant pathogens, including Micrutalis malleifera, which transmits Pseudo-Curly Top Virus. The genus exhibits host plant associations primarily with herbaceous plants, including species in Solanaceae.
treehopper Membracidae vector plant-virus Solanaceae herbivore Auchenorrhyncha
Micrutalis malleifera
pseudo-curly top treehopper
Micrutalis malleifera is a treehopper species in the family Membracidae, commonly known as the pseudo-curly top treehopper. It is the only known member of its family capable of transmitting a plant disease agent, specifically the Tomato pseudo-curly top virus (genus Topocuvirus). The species has been documented from the southern United States through Central America, with confirmed host plant associations including Physalis walteri and Solanum elaeagnifolium.
vector plant-virus agricultural-pest phloem-feeder treehopper Membracidae
Monochamus carolinensis
Carolina Pine Sawyer
Monochamus carolinensis is a longhorn beetle in the subfamily Lamiinae, commonly known as the Carolina Pine Sawyer. It is a significant vector of the pinewood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, the causative agent of pine wilt disease. The species is native to North America, occurring in Canada and the United States, and has been detected in China. Adults are attracted to blacklights and are associated with pine forests.
Cerambycidae Lamiinae pine-sawyer vector pinewood-nematode Bursaphelenchus-xylophilus pine-wilt-disease forest-pest quarantine-pest North-America biosecurity
Musca
house flies, face flies
Musca is a genus of calyptrate flies in the family Muscidae, containing approximately 70 species worldwide. The genus includes Musca domestica, the common house fly, one of the most widespread and synanthropic insects on Earth. Musca species are characterized by their association with human habitation and livestock, with larvae developing in decaying organic matter. Adults are medium-sized, robust flies with distinctive head morphology including aristate antennae and well-developed chaetotaxy.
synanthropic vector livestock-pest decomposer calyptrate model-organism insecticide-resistance waste-recycling
Musca autumnalis
face fly, autumn housefly
Musca autumnalis, commonly known as the face fly or autumn housefly, is a nonbiting muscid fly native to the Palearctic region that was introduced to North America in the 1940s–1950s. Adults are obligate pests of cattle and horses, feeding on ocular and nasal secretions, tears, saliva, and blood from wounds. The species exhibits pronounced seasonal population dynamics, with peak abundance in late summer and autumn, and undergoes facultative diapause in adults triggered by short photoperiod and cool temperatures. Larval development occurs exclusively in fresh cattle dung, where larvae feed on microbial flora and fauna.
livestock-pest face-fly vector diapause dung-breeder cattle-parasite introduced-species North-America-invasion Muscidae Diptera
Musca domestica
house fly, common house fly
Musca domestica is a cosmopolitan synanthropic fly and the most abundant insect in confined cattle operations. Adults are small (6–7 mm), gray with four dark longitudinal stripes on the thorax and creamy yellow abdominal sides. They do not bite but feed on blood, sweat, tears, saliva, and other bodily fluids, causing cattle to exhibit defensive behaviors including ear flapping, head shaking, and feeding hesitancy. The species completes development from egg to adult in as little as two weeks under optimal conditions, with up to 12 generations annually in temperate climates. Females deposit 75–150 eggs per batch in decaying organic matter, particularly manure and rotting vegetation. House flies are mechanical vectors of over 200 pathogens including E. coli, and can infest cattle wounds with maggots.
synanthropic pest vector livestock manure waste-recycling insecticide-resistance diptera muscidae
Muscina
false stable flies
Muscina is a genus of muscid flies comprising approximately 27 species with worldwide distribution. The genus includes several synanthropic species frequently associated with livestock facilities, manure, and human structures. M. stabulans (false stable fly) is the most extensively studied species, serving as a model for flight biomechanics research and forensic entomology. Members of this genus are notable for their epidemiological significance as mechanical vectors of pathogens, forensic utility in post-mortem interval estimation, and facultative predatory behavior by third-instar larvae.
synanthropic forensic-entomology vector predator decomposer livestock-pest medical-entomology flight-biomechanics-model
Muscina stabulans
False Stable Fly
Muscina stabulans, commonly known as the false stable fly, is a cosmopolitan synanthropic muscid fly distributed worldwide. Adults are medium-sized flies averaging 8 mm in length, distinguished by four dark thoracic stripes, partially reddish-brown legs, and a pale spot above the thorax. The species exhibits strong synanthropic tendencies, with higher abundance in urban-suburban environments compared to rural areas. It has significant economic and public health importance as a mechanical vector of pathogens, a facultative predator of house fly larvae in poultry facilities, and a forensic indicator species for post-mortem interval estimation. Rare cases of intestinal myiasis in humans have been documented.
synanthropic forensic-entomology myiasis biological-control vector carrion-associated poultry-pest
Neoaliturus tenellus
Beet Leafhopper
Neoaliturus tenellus, commonly known as the beet leafhopper, is a significant agricultural pest in western North America. This leafhopper species is a documented vector of Candidatus Phytoplasma trifolii (CPt) and beet curly top virus (BCTV), pathogens that affect potato, sugar beet, and other vegetable and seed crops. The species exhibits complex seasonal movement patterns between crop and noncrop hosts, utilizing weedy vegetation for overwintering and summer development. Its population dynamics and pathogen transmission ecology have been studied extensively in the Columbia River Basin and southern New Mexico to improve pest management forecasting.
leafhopper pest vector plant-pathogen agriculture western-North-America Cicadellidae beet-curly-top-virus phytoplasma weed-host seasonal-migration
Neophilaenus
spittlebugs
Neophilaenus is a genus of spittlebugs (family Aphrophoridae) containing approximately 10 described species distributed primarily across the Palearctic region. Nymphs are known for producing characteristic foam masses ("cuckoo spit") that provide protection and moisture retention during development. Several species, particularly N. campestris and N. lineatus, have been extensively studied due to their role as vectors of the plant pathogen Xylella fastidiosa, which threatens Mediterranean agriculture including olive, almond, and grapevine crops. The genus exhibits temperature-dependent phenology, with development rates and adult emergence timing varying predictably with altitude and latitude.
spittlebug froghopper cuckoo-spit Xylella-fastidiosa vector olive-disease agricultural-pest climate-change-response moorland-ecology xylem-feeder
Neotoxoptera
Neotoxoptera is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, comprising at least seven described species. The genus is best known for N. formosana, the onion aphid, a significant agricultural pest of Allium crops. Species in this genus are oligophagous, specializing on plants in the Allium genus, and are distributed across Asia, North America, South America, Europe, Oceania, and Africa.
aphid agricultural-pest Allium-pest onion-aphid phloem-feeder alarm-pheromone vector integrated-pest-management genome-sequenced
Ochlerotatus cantator
brown saltmarsh mosquito
Ochlerotatus cantator, commonly known as the brown saltmarsh mosquito, is a floodplain mosquito species native to eastern North America. It was reclassified from Aedes cantator to Ochlerotatus cantator following taxonomic revision of the genus. The species is particularly abundant in coastal and inland salt marsh habitats, where it serves as a significant nuisance biter and potential disease vector.
mosquito vector nuisance-pest floodplain-species salt-marsh West-Nile-virus Eastern-equine-encephalitis
Ochlerotatus communis
Ochlerotatus communis is a mosquito species distributed across northern regions of North America, Europe, and Asia. Studies have documented its role as a vector for orbiviruses, with isolations of Kevo orbivirus and Mobuck virus from specimens collected in Finland. Research on male specimens indicates elevated catalase enzyme activity during the teneral period and early post-emergence, suggesting physiological adaptations to oxidative stress during metamorphosis.
mosquito vector orbivirus Finland catalase physiology post-emergence-development viral-isolation
Ochlerotatus diantaeus
Ochlerotatus diantaeus is a mosquito species in the family Culicidae, originally described as Aedes diantaeus in 1913. The species has undergone taxonomic reclassification, now placed in the genus Ochlerotatus. It occurs across parts of Europe, northern Asia, and North America. Like other members of its genus, females require blood meals for egg production.
mosquito Culicidae Ochlerotatus vector synonym
Ochlerotatus dorsalis
Salt Marsh Mosquito
Ochlerotatus dorsalis is a Holarctic mosquito species with a transcontinental distribution spanning the Palearctic and Nearctic regions. Genetic studies have identified two highly distinctive COI mtDNA phylogroups corresponding to these regions, suggesting Pleistocene vicariance of an ancestral range due to geographical barriers and climatic changes. The species is epidemiologically relevant as a potential pathogen vector.
mosquito Culicidae vector Holarctic salt-marsh blood-feeder integrative-taxonomy phylogeography
Ochlerotatus implicatus
Ochlerotatus implicatus is a mosquito species in the family Culicidae, first described by Vockeroth in 1954. It has been documented in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions of North America, where recent surveillance studies have recorded new distribution records for this species. The species belongs to the Aedes genus complex, which includes many floodwater mosquitoes. Research in northern Canada detected Jamestown Canyon virus in this species, indicating potential vector competence for California serogroup viruses.
mosquito vector Arctic Jamestown-Canyon-virus floodwater-mosquito California-serogroup-virus climate-change emerging-disease-risk
Ochlerotatus provocans
Ochlerotatus provocans is a mosquito species in the family Culicidae, first described by Walker in 1848. The species has been documented in North America, with confirmed presence in Vermont. It is part of the Ochlerotatus genus, which was formerly treated as a subgenus of Aedes but is now recognized as distinct by many authorities. The species is known to occur north of the 60th parallel, placing it within Arctic and sub-Arctic regions where it has been investigated as a potential vector for Jamestown Canyon virus.
mosquito vector arctic jamestown-canyon-virus ochlerotatus-group north-america
Ochlerotatus scapularis
Aedes scapularis
Ochlerotatus scapularis is a neotropical mosquito species with expanding distribution, now established in mainland Florida after first detection in the Florida Keys in 1945. The species exhibits strong anthropophilic feeding behavior, with documented human blood meals comprising 83% of engorged females. It is known to transmit multiple pathogens of medical and veterinary importance, including yellow fever virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, and Dirofilaria immitis. Recent ecological niche modeling predicts potential for further northward expansion along the US Gulf Coast.
mosquito vector anthropophilic invasive-species Florida yellow-fever arbovirus urban-adaptation
Ochlerotatus sierrensis
Ochlerotatus sierrensis is a mosquito species in the family Culicidae, first described by Lynch-Arribalzaga in 1891. The species belongs to the genus Ochlerotatus, a group of floodwater mosquitoes whose taxonomy has undergone revision from formerly being classified within Aedes. As with other Ochlerotatus species, females require blood meals for egg development while males feed on nectar.
mosquito Culicidae Diptera floodwater-mosquito vector
Ochlerotatus sollicitans
eastern saltmarsh mosquito, salt marsh mosquito
Ochlerotatus sollicitans, commonly known as the eastern saltmarsh mosquito, is a floodwater mosquito species native to coastal regions of eastern North America. It is a significant pest species known for aggressive biting behavior and daytime activity. The species is a competent vector for several arboviruses including Eastern equine encephalitis virus and West Nile virus. Its populations can explode following tidal flooding or heavy rainfall events in salt marsh habitats.
mosquito vector pest salt-marsh floodwater arbovirus daytime-biter
Ochlerotatus togoi
Ochlerotatus togoi is a salt-tolerant euryhaline mosquito that inhabits coastal rock pools with salinities ranging from freshwater to seawater. It is a known vector of flaviviruses and filarial worms affecting humans, including Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia species. Rising sea levels have expanded its suitable habitat, increasing public health concerns in coastal regions. Laboratory studies show complex salinity-dependent life history traits: highest oviposition preference occurs in freshwater, yet optimal adult development occurs at moderate salinities around 25 psu.
mosquito vector salt-tolerant euryhaline filarial-worm flavivirus rock-pool coastal climate-change sea-level-rise
Ochlerotatus triseriatus
eastern treehole mosquito, treehole mosquito
Ochlerotatus triseriatus, the eastern treehole mosquito, is a container-breeding mosquito native to North America. It is the primary enzootic vector of La Crosse virus, the leading cause of arboviral encephalitis in children in the United States. Larvae develop in natural tree holes and artificial water-holding containers, feeding on microbial communities associated with decaying organic matter. The species exhibits strong density-dependent survival, with larval crowding significantly reducing per-capita survival rates—a trait that has important implications for mosquito control strategies.
vector La-Crosse-virus container-breeder tree-hole-mosquito mosquito-control density-dependence public-health native-species diapause microbial-feeding overwinter-survival larval-competition arbovirus encephalitis Culicidae Aedini North-America
Ochlerotatus trivittatus
Ochlerotatus trivittatus is a mosquito species in the Culicidae family, originally described by Coquillett in 1902 as Culex trivittatus. It belongs to the Ochlerotatus Group, a clade of related mosquitoes found in the Americas. The species has been documented across North America, Middle America, and South America. Genetic studies have examined its relationship to other Ochlerotatus Group species to clarify species boundaries within this taxonomically complex group.
mosquito Ochlerotatus-Group vector Culicidae
Oeciacus vicarius
American swallow bug, cliff swallow bug, swallow nest bug
Oeciacus vicarius is a blood-feeding cimicid bug specialized as an ectoparasite of colonially nesting American cliff swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota). It is widely distributed across North America, where it inhabits swallow nests in natural and anthropogenic structures. The species is a known vector of Buggy Creek Virus (Alphavirus, Togaviridae). Though it will bite humans when encountered, it does not establish persistent infestations in human dwellings.
bed-bug ectoparasite vector cliff-swallow Buggy-Creek-Virus Cimicidae Hemiptera North-America nest-parasite
Ollarianus
Ollarianus is a genus of leafhoppers in the family Cicadellidae, subfamily Deltocephalinae, tribe Platymetopiini. The genus was established by Ball in 1936. The best-documented species, Ollarianus balli, is a rare leafhopper in Jamaica and a known vector of disease-associated mycoplasma-like organisms affecting plants. Members of this genus are associated with leguminous host plants.
leafhopper vector mycoplasma Jamaica legume-associated
Oncometopia
sharpshooters
Oncometopia is a genus of sharpshooters (leafhoppers in the family Cicadellidae) found in North and South America, erected by Carl Stål in 1869. Species range from 9.4 to 15.0 mm in length and are characterized by distinctive morphological features including a moderately produced head, coriaceous forewings with apical membranes, and specialized hindleg tarsomere proportions. Several species are economically important as vectors of plant pathogens, particularly Xylella fastidiosa, which causes diseases such as phony peach disease and citrus variegated chlorosis.
sharpshooter leafhopper Cicadellidae Proconiini xylem-feeder vector Xylella-fastidiosa brochosomes honeydew pest North-America South-America citrus-pest disease-vector agricultural-pest
Oncometopia nigricans
Black-winged Sharpshooter
Oncometopia nigricans, commonly known as the Black-winged Sharpshooter, is a leafhopper species in the family Cicadellidae, tribe Proconiini. It is a suspected vector of lethal yellowing disease of coconut palms, a devastating phytoplasma disease affecting coconut production. The species has been documented in Florida and Brazil (Bahia), with studies focusing on its molting patterns and longevity across various host plants.
sharpshooter leafhopper vector coconut lethal-yellowing Proconiini Cicadellidae Hemiptera
Ornithodoros turicata
relapsing fever tick
Ornithodoros turicata is a soft tick (family Argasidae) found in the midwestern and southwestern United States. It is the primary vector of Borrelia turicatae, the spirochete agent of tick-borne relapsing fever in humans. The tick has been documented feeding on at least 27 vertebrate host species across mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. It exhibits autogenous reproduction (egg production without a bloodmeal) and transovarial transmission of spirochetes, enabling pathogen maintenance across generations.
soft-tick argasid vector relapsing-fever Borrelia-turicatae zoonosis autogeny transovarial-transmission cavity-dwelling blood-feeding Texas California midwestern-US southwestern-US wildlife-disease African-swine-fever-risk
Ornithomya
bird louse flies
Ornithomya is a genus of louse flies (family Hippoboscidae) comprising approximately 31 species of obligate avian ectoparasites. All species are blood-feeding parasites of birds, primarily Passeriformes. Adults are dorsoventrally flattened with reduced or absent wings in many individuals. The genus exhibits adenotrophic viviparity, with larvae developing entirely within the female and deposited as fully mature third instars that immediately pupate. Species show varying degrees of host specificity correlated with bird nesting ecology.
ectoparasite hematophagy viviparity avian-parasite louse-fly Hippoboscidae Passeriformes nest-parasite vector morphotype
Ornithonyssus
bird mites, fowl mites, rat mites
Ornithonyssus is a genus of hematophagous mites in the family Macronyssidae. The genus includes economically important poultry pests such as the northern fowl mite (O. sylviarum) and tropical fowl mite (O. bursa), as well as the tropical rat mite (O. bacoti) which affects rodents and can bite humans. Species in this genus are obligate blood-feeders that complete their entire life cycle on the host or in close association with host nesting material. Several species have significant veterinary and medical importance due to their impacts on poultry production and potential to cause human dermatitis.
poultry-pest ectoparasite vector zoonosis veterinary-entomology
Ornithonyssus bacoti
tropical rat mite
Ornithonyssus bacoti, commonly called the tropical rat mite, is a hematophagous mesostigmatid mite in the family Macronyssidae. It is an obligate blood-feeding ectoparasite primarily associated with rats and other rodents, but will opportunistically bite humans and domestic animals when primary hosts are unavailable. The mite is of significant medical and veterinary importance due to its role in causing rat mite dermatitis in humans and its potential to vector several pathogens. It exhibits remarkable survival capabilities, traveling hundreds of feet to locate hosts and surviving extended periods without feeding.
vector zoonosis dermatitis urban-pest synanthropic rodent-parasite medical-entomology veterinary-entomology
Orthotomicus
Orthotomicus is a genus of bark beetles in the family Curculionidae, subfamily Scolytinae, containing approximately nine described species. The genus is primarily associated with coniferous trees, particularly pines (Pinus spp.) and cedars (Cedrus spp.). Several species, notably Orthotomicus erosus (Mediterranean pine engraver) and O. laricis, have become significant forest pests through native population outbreaks and invasive range expansions. Species in this genus are known for their associations with ophiostomatoid fungi, which they vector and which contribute to tree decline.
bark-beetle Scolytinae pine-pest forest-entomology invasive-species ophiostomatoid-fungi vector conifer Mediterranean Croatia Turkey South-America South-Africa pheromone climate-change drought-stress blue-stain-fungus
Orthotomicus erosus
Mediterranean pine engraver
Orthotomicus erosus, the Mediterranean pine engraver, is a bark beetle native to the Mediterranean region, southern Europe, Asia, and North Africa. It is primarily a secondary pest that colonizes stressed, weakened, or recently dead pine trees, but can reach outbreak levels and attack healthy trees during drought conditions or following fire. The species has expanded its range through domestic and international trade, with established populations in South America (Argentina and Uruguay) and South Africa. It vectors multiple ophiostomatoid fungi, including Ophiostoma ips, which contribute to blue staining and tree decline.
bark-beetle forest-pest pine Scolytinae vector invasive-species pheromone ophiostomatoid-fungi Mediterranean climate-change
Paraphlepsius irroratus
bespeckled leafhopper, irrorate leafhopper, brown-speckled leafhopper, irrorate spittlebug
Paraphlepsius irroratus is a leafhopper species in the family Cicadellidae, commonly known as the bespeckled leafhopper. It is a documented vector of plant pathogens, specifically the clover phyllody mycoplasmalike organism (phytoplasma) and Peach X-disease. The species has been successfully reared in laboratory conditions, revealing broad host plant associations and a development period of 31.8–59.2 days across five nymphal instars.
leafhopper Cicadellidae vector phytoplasma plant-disease agricultural-pest herbivore
Parthenolecanium
soft scales, lecanium scales
Parthenolecanium is a genus of soft scale insects in the family Coccidae. These hemipterans are dome-shaped, sap-feeding pests of woody plants including oaks, fruit trees, and grapevines. Several species are significant urban tree pests, notably P. quercifex (oak lecanium scale) and P. corni (European fruit lecanium scale). The genus exhibits variation in reproductive mode: some species reproduce by parthenogenesis, while P. corni reproduces sexually (gamogenesis). Many species have been documented as vectors of grapevine viruses.
scale-insect pest urban-entomology agricultural-pest vector vineyard-pest tree-pest soft-scale Hemiptera Coccidae
Pediculidae
Ape Lice
Pediculidae is a family of sucking lice (suborder Anoplura) that includes obligate ectoparasites of primates. The family contains Pediculus humanus, the human head and body louse, which exists as two morphologically similar but ecologically distinct forms: P. h. capitis (head louse) and P. h. humanus (body louse). Pediculidae also includes P. schaeffi, which infests chimpanzees and bonobos. These lice are wingless, dorsoventrally flattened insects with specialized mouthparts for piercing skin and feeding on blood. They complete their entire life cycle on the host and are of significant medical importance as vectors of epidemic typhus, trench fever, and relapsing fever.
lice ectoparasite vector pediculosis hematophagy insecticide-resistance public-health primate-parasite
Pediculus
sucking lice
Pediculus is the sole genus in the family Pediculidae, comprising obligate ectoparasitic sucking lice that infest primates. The genus includes species specialized to exploit distinct microhabitats on their hosts: Pediculus humanus humanus (body louse) inhabits clothing and body hair, while P. humanus capitis (head louse) is restricted to scalp hair. These insects are dorsoventrally flattened, wingless, and possess highly modified legs with clawed tarsi adapted for gripping hair shafts. All species feed exclusively on blood, making them significant pests and disease vectors of humans.
ectoparasite vector public-health-pest insecticide-resistance hematophagy
Pediculus humanus
Human Louse
Pediculus humanus is an obligate ectoparasite of humans comprising two subspecies: P. h. humanus (body louse) and P. h. capitis (head louse). This wingless insect has been associated with humans throughout recorded history and serves as a vector for several serious human diseases including epidemic typhus, trench fever, and relapsing fever. The body louse is larger and more robust than the head louse, with females capable of laying up to 295 eggs in their lifetime under optimal conditions. Both subspecies feed exclusively on human blood and complete their entire life cycle on the host.
vector ectoparasite public-health medical-entomology hematophagy
Pediculus humanus humanus
Human Body Louse, Body Louse
Pediculus humanus humanus is a wingless, dorsoventrally flattened insect that parasitizes humans exclusively. Unlike its sibling subspecies P. h. capitis (head louse), it inhabits clothing and bedding, moving to skin only for blood meals. It serves as the primary vector for epidemic typhus, trench fever, and louse-borne relapsing fever—diseases that have shaped human history, particularly during wars and famines. Genetic studies confirm head and body lice are conspecific, with body lice representing a more recently derived form adapted to clothing.
vector human-parasite disease-vector historical-significance medical-entomology clothing-associated
Pentalonia
Pentalonia is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, established by Coquerel in 1859. The genus contains at least four recognized species distributed across tropical and subtropical regions. Pentalonia nigronervosa, the banana aphid, is the most extensively studied species due to its role as the primary vector of Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV), a devastating disease of banana crops worldwide. Recent morphometric and molecular studies have clarified that P. nigronervosa and P. caladii are distinct cryptic species with different host plant preferences.
aphid vector Banana-Bunchy-Top-Virus cryptic-species agricultural-pest Zingiberales Musaceae
Perkinsiella
Perkinsiella is a genus of delphacid planthoppers in the family Delphacidae, containing more than 30 described species. Several species are significant agricultural pests, particularly of sugarcane. Perkinsiella saccharicida and P. vastatrix are known vectors of Fiji disease virus (FDV), which causes Fiji leaf gall in sugarcane. The genus has a broad distribution across Africa, Asia, Australasia, and the Pacific Islands.
Delphacidae planthopper sugarcane-pest vector Fiji-disease-virus agricultural-pest
Philaenus
meadow spittlebug, spittlebug, froghopper
Philaenus is a genus of spittlebugs in the family Aphrophoridae containing eight described species. The genus is best known for Philaenus spumarius (meadow spittlebug), a widespread insect in the Northern Hemisphere and the primary vector of Xylella fastidiosa in Europe. Most species exhibit striking color polymorphism with up to sixteen distinct phenotypes including dark, pale, mottled, and striped patterns. Nymphs produce protective foam masses from excreted xylem fluid and glandular secretions. The genus has been extensively studied for genetic diversity, climate change responses, and vector ecology.
spittlebug froghopper xylem-feeder vector Xylella-fastidiosa color-polymorphism agricultural-pest climate-change-indicator
Phloeosinus armatus
Phloeosinus armatus is a bark beetle in the subfamily Scolytinae, the largest species in its genus. Native to the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean, it has been introduced to Italy, Russia, and North America. The species colonizes Cupressus sempervirens (Mediterranean cypress), forming gallery systems on trunks and large branches. It acts as a vector for phytopathogenic fungi, including Seiridium cardinale, the agent of cypress canker disease.
bark-beetle Scolytinae Cupressus-sempervirens cypress-canker Seiridium-cardinale invasive-species forest-pest vector phytopathogenic-fungi Mediterranean-region
Phortica
Phortica is a genus of small flies in the family Drosophilidae, subfamily Steganinae. Several species are medically significant as biological vectors of the zoonotic eyeworm Thelazia callipaeda, which causes ocular infections in humans, domestic animals, and wildlife. The genus includes at least five species in Europe and the Middle East, with P. variegata and P. okadai being the best-documented vectors. These flies exhibit unusual zoophilic feeding behaviors, including lachryphagy (tear-feeding) in adult males of some species. The genus has gained increasing attention due to climate-driven range shifts and expanding transmission of thelaziosis.
Drosophilidae Steganinae vector Thelazia-callipaeda thelaziosis lachryphagy tear-feeding zoonosis medical-entomology veterinary-entomology climate-change Europe Asia oak-forest
Phortica variegata
variegated fruit fly
Phortica variegata is a small vinegar fly in the family Drosophilidae, distinguished by its unusual zoophilic behavior. Unlike most drosophilids, adult males feed on the lacrimal secretions (tears) of mammals, including humans, dogs, foxes, and other carnivores. This lachryphagous behavior makes it the primary European vector of Thelazia callipaeda, a zoonotic eyeworm that causes ocular infections in mammals. The species is native to Europe and has been introduced to the United States, where it has demonstrated vector competence for the parasite. Climate change is projected to alter its distribution significantly, with suitable habitats shifting toward Mediterranean coastal regions while declining in central-southern-eastern European transitional areas.
vector zoonotic-disease lachryphagy Steganinae Thelazia-callipaeda climate-change-sensitive emerging-infectious-disease olfactory-ecology
Piesma
ash-grey leaf bugs
Piesma is a genus of small ash-grey leaf bugs in the family Piesmatidae, serving as the type genus of the family. Members are less than 4 mm in length and occur across North America, Europe, Africa, and Asia. The genus is distinguished from the similar genus Parapiesma by a notch in the side margins of the pronotum. Species in this genus are primarily phytophagous and include economically significant pests such as Piesma quadratum, which transmits viral and rickettsia-like pathogens to sugar beet and related crops.
Piesmatidae Hemiptera phytophagous vector sugar-beet-pest forensic-entomology macropterous brachypterous
Proconiini
sharpshooters
Proconiini is a large tribe of xylem-feeding leafhoppers (Cicadellidae: Cicadellinae) comprising approximately 422 species in 58 genera, restricted to the New World. Members are commonly known as sharpshooters due to their rapid, directed flight patterns. The tribe includes major agricultural pests and vectors of Xylella fastidiosa, a phytopathogenic bacterium causing diseases in citrus, grapes, almonds, and other crops. Proconiini species exhibit distinctive morphological adaptations including brachyptery in high-altitude Andean forms and unique egg brochosome production for offspring protection.
leafhopper sharpshooter xylem-feeder vector Xylella-fastidiosa brochosome egg-parasitoid biological-control New-World agricultural-pest
Psammotettix
Psammotettix is a genus of leafhoppers in family Cicadellidae, tribe Paralimnini. Species occur in Eurasia and North America. Several species are significant agricultural pests as vectors of wheat viruses, including Wheat dwarf virus and Wheat yellow striate virus. The genus includes both generalist and halophilic species.
leafhopper vector wheat-pest virus-transmission vibrational-communication halophilic
Pseudolynchia canariensis
pigeon louse fly, pigeon fly
Pseudolynchia canariensis is an obligate ectoparasitic louse fly in the family Hippoboscidae that specializes on pigeons and doves (Columbidae). It is a significant vector of Haemoproteus columbae, the causative agent of pigeon malaria, serving as the definitive host where sexual reproduction of the parasite occurs. The species exhibits adenotrophic viviparity, producing one prepupa at a time that is deposited in the host's nest or roosting site. Both sexes feed exclusively on blood. The fly has been documented in numerous regions worldwide, particularly where domestic pigeons are kept, and shows limited ability to survive on human blood.
ectoparasite vector Hippoboscidae adenotrophic-viviparity pigeon-malaria Columbidae Haemoproteus obligate-parasite phoretic-association endosymbiont-host
Pseudopityophthorus
oak bark beetles
A genus of bark and ambrosia beetles in the family Curculionidae, comprising more than 30 described species distributed primarily in North and Central America. Species in this genus are strongly associated with oak trees (Quercus spp.) and have been investigated as potential vectors of forest pathogens, including the oak wilt fungus Ceratocystis fagacearum and the canker-causing fungus Geosmithia pallida. Some species exhibit phoretic behavior and form associations with other organisms including mites and nematodes.
bark-beetle ambrosia-beetle oak forest-pest vector Curculionidae Scolytinae North-America phoresy gallery-forming
Pseudopityophthorus minutissimus
oak bark beetle
Pseudopityophthorus minutissimus, commonly known as the oak bark beetle, is a small bark beetle in the family Curculionidae. It is native to North America and breeds in oak species (Quercus). The species has been investigated as a potential vector of the oak wilt fungus Ceratocystis fagacearum, though evidence suggests it plays a minor role in long-distance pathogen transmission compared to other insects.
oak-wilt forest-pest vector phoresy Scolytinae Curculionidae North-America Quercus Ceratocystis-fagacearum bark-beetle forest-entomology disease-ecology
Pseudopityophthorus pubipennis
western oak bark beetle
Pseudopityophthorus pubipennis, the western oak bark beetle, is a small bark beetle in the family Curculionidae. The species has been identified as a vector of Geosmithia pallida, the causal agent of foamy bark canker disease on coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia) in California. Previously considered a secondary agent, this native beetle is now associated with significant tree decline and mortality in urban landscapes across multiple California counties.
bark-beetle vector oak-pest California Geosmithia-pallida foamy-bark-canker emerging-disease urban-forestry
Psorophora
gallinipper
Psorophora is a genus of large mosquitoes in the subfamily Culicinae, tribe Aedini, described by Robineau-Desvoidy in 1827. The genus comprises approximately 50 species distributed across the Americas, with three recognized subgenera: Psorophora, Janthinosoma, and Grabhamia. Several species, notably Psorophora ciliata and P. ferox, are among the largest mosquitoes in the world and are known for aggressive biting behavior. Larvae of some species are obligate predators with specialized anatomical adaptations for capturing prey.
mosquito Culicidae predatory-larvae floodwater vector gallinipper aggressive-biter biological-control range-expansion climate-change
Psorophora columbiae
dark ricefield mosquito, glades mosquito
Psorophora columbiae is a large, aggressive mosquito species native to North America, commonly known as the dark ricefield mosquito or glades mosquito. It is notorious for its capacity for massive population explosions following hurricane and flooding events, which have resulted in documented livestock fatalities through exsanguination. The species is a significant pest of mammals, including cattle, horses, sheep, and deer, and is considered difficult to repel with standard insect repellents.
mosquito vector livestock-pest floodwater-mosquito hurricane-associated veterinary-entomology difficult-to-repel
Psorophora ferox
White-footed Woods Mosquito
Psorophora ferox is a medium-sized floodplain mosquito native to the Americas, commonly known as the white-footed woods mosquito. It inhabits wet woodlands and temporary pools, with eggs requiring flooding to hatch. The species has expanded its range northward in recent years, becoming increasingly dominant in floodplain mosquito communities in the northeastern United States. Adults are aggressive biters with painful bites and are active during both day and night.
mosquito floodplain-mosquito vector aggressive-biter climate-change range-expansion
Psorophora howardii
Howard's Gallinipper
Psorophora howardii is a large, aggressive floodwater mosquito native to tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas. The species was described by Daniel William Coquillett in 1901. Adult females are persistent biters that attack humans and medium to large mammals at any time of day, with a proboscis strong enough to pierce through multiple layers of clothing. Larvae are predaceous, feeding on other mosquito larvae in temporary aquatic habitats. The species has demonstrated recent northward range expansion, with the first Canadian record documented in 2024 in southern Ontario.
mosquito floodwater-mosquito predatory-larvae aggressive-biter vector range-expansion invasive-potential
Psylloidea
jumping plant lice, psyllids, psylloids
Psylloidea is a superfamily of true bugs (Hemiptera) in the suborder Sternorrhyncha, commonly known as jumping plant lice or psyllids. The group comprises approximately 3,800 described species classified into seven extant families: Aphalaridae, Calophyidae, Carsidaridae, Liviidae, Mastigimatidae, Psyllidae, and Triozidae. Fossil evidence indicates the superfamily originated in the Early Jurassic, though modern families do not appear until the Eocene. Psyllids are obligate phloem-feeders, typically exhibiting high host specificity with most species restricted to a single plant species or closely related group. Many species are economically significant agricultural pests, notably as vectors of bacterial and viral plant pathogens.
phloem-feeder plant-pest vector jumping-insect vibrational-communication gall-former
Pulex
human flea (for P. irritans)
Pulex is a genus of fleas in the family Pulicidae, established by Linnaeus in 1758. The genus comprises six to seven recognized species, with Pulex irritans (the human flea) being the most notable and widespread. The remaining species are restricted to the Nearctic and Neotropical realms. Members of this genus are laterally compressed, wingless ectoparasites adapted for blood-feeding on mammals.
Siphonaptera Pulicidae ectoparasite vector medical-entomology urban-pest cosmopolitan-distribution Nearctic Neotropical
Pulex irritans
Human Flea, House Flea
Pulex irritans is a cosmopolitan flea species commonly known as the human flea. Despite its name, it has a broad host range including humans, dogs, cats, livestock, and various wild mammals. The species is thought to have originated in South America, possibly associated with guinea pigs or peccaries as original hosts. It is one of only six species in the genus Pulex, with the other five restricted to Nearctic and Neotropical regions. P. irritans has been found in human archaeological sediments dating back thousands of years in Europe and Greenland, demonstrating its long association with human populations. The species is medically significant as a potential vector of plague (Yersinia pestis), murine typhus, trench fever (Bartonella quintana), flea-borne spotted fever (Rickettsia felis), and the tapeworm Dipylidium caninum.
flea vector plague cosmopolitan hematophagy zoonosis cryptic-species climate-change archaeological-record One-Health
Pulicidae
Common Fleas
Pulicidae is a family of fleas (Siphonaptera) containing 181 species in 27 genera. Members are wingless, laterally compressed ectoparasites of mammals with exceptional jumping ability enabled by the elastic protein resilin. The family includes significant pests such as the cat flea (*Ctenocephalides felis*), dog flea (*C. canis*), and human flea (*Pulex irritans*), which are vectors of disease and parasites.
ectoparasite vector pest jumping resilin
Pycnoscelus
burrowing cockroaches
Pycnoscelus is a genus of burrowing cockroaches in the family Blaberidae, containing approximately 15 described species. The genus is distributed across India, China, Southeast Asia, and has been introduced to other regions including the Americas. The most studied species, Pycnoscelus surinamensis (Surinam cockroach), is notable for being parthenogenetic and serving as an intermediate host for poultry parasites.
burrowing parthenogenetic poultry-pest intermediate-host false-ovoviviparity vector
Rhipicephalus sanguineus
Brown Dog Tick, Kennel Tick, Pantropical Dog Tick
Rhipicephalus sanguineus is a hard tick species distinguished by its ability to complete its entire life cycle indoors, a trait unusual among ixodid ticks. It is found worldwide but is most common in warmer climates. The species is a three-host tick that feeds on a variety of mammals, with dogs serving as the preferred host in the United States. It is a significant vector of multiple pathogens affecting dogs and humans, including Ehrlichia canis, Babesia canis, Rickettsia rickettsii, and Rickettsia conorii.
tick vector dog-parasite indoor-pest Rickettsia Ehrlichia Babesia veterinary-pest public-health acaricide-resistance
Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae
waterlily aphid, water lily aphid
Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae, the waterlily aphid, is a cosmopolitan, host-alternating aphid species with a unique ability to thrive in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. It is a significant agricultural pest that damages crops through direct herbivory and as a vector for plant viruses, particularly affecting Prunus spp. fruits and various aquatic plants. The species exhibits complex life history traits including rapid population growth (intrinsic rate of increase 0.315 day⁻¹, doubling time 2.2 days) and strong host preferences among aquatic vegetation.
aphid pest vector aquatic-insect host-alternating polyphagous Prunus-pest water-lily genome-sequenced
Rhynchophorus palmarum
South American palm weevil, American palm weevil, black palm weevil
Rhynchophorus palmarum is a large black palm weevil native to the Neotropics that has become a destructive invasive pest in southern California. Adults are attracted to volatile compounds released by injured palms, where females lay eggs in the crown. Larvae burrow into the palm heart, causing direct damage and creating wounds that facilitate secondary infections. The weevil is the primary vector of the red ring nematode (Bursaphelenchus cocophilus), which causes lethal red ring disease in palms. In its native range, larvae have been consumed as food for centuries.
invasive-species palm-pest vector nematode-vector agricultural-pest urban-pest traditional-food long-distance-dispersal California-invasion red-ring-disease integrated-pest-management pheromone-trapping
Saccharosydne saccharivora
West Indian Canefly, West Indian Sugarcane Fulgorid
Saccharosydne saccharivora is a delphacid planthopper and major pest of sugarcane with a 6½–7 week life cycle. It has been documented as a vector of sugarcane yellow leaf phytoplasma, the first confirmed phytoplasma transmission by this species. Population dynamics in Jamaica showed epidemic versus endemic patterns, with generation segregation and synchronization occurring in epidemic areas due to parasitoid pressure. Outbreaks require plant cane under favorable climatic and agricultural conditions.
pest vector phytoplasma sugarcane agricultural
Saccharosydnini
Saccharosydnini is a tribe of delphacid planthoppers (Hemiptera: Fulgoromorpha: Delphacidae) established by Vilbaste in 1968. The tribe includes at least one new genus, Lacertina, described from Argentina with distinctive dorsoventrally flattened morphology. Some members are associated with sugarcane and serve as vectors of plant pathogens.
planthopper delphacid Neotropical vector sugarcane Argentina phytoplasma
Salmincola californiensis
gill lice, gill maggot, salmon gill maggot
Salmincola californiensis is a freshwater parasitic copepod in the family Lernaeopodidae that infests the gills and branchial cavities of salmonid fishes, particularly species of Oncorhynchus. Native to the Pacific Rim and now established in introduced ranges including Japan and Colorado, this parasite has become a significant concern for fisheries management and salmonid conservation. Recent research has documented a previously unrecognized naupliar stage and demonstrated strong temperature-dependence in egg development and copepodid survival, with implications for disease management under climate change scenarios.
parasite copepod salmonid fisheries invasive temperature-dependent vector reservoir
Scaphoideus
Scaphoideus is a genus of leafhoppers in the family Cicadellidae, subfamily Deltocephalinae. The genus is best known for Scaphoideus titanus, the American grapevine leafhopper, which is the primary vector of Flavescence dorée phytoplasma, a serious disease of grapevines in European vineyards. Members of this genus are small, plant-feeding insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts. The genus has a Nearctic origin, with S. titanus introduced to Europe approximately 150 years ago, likely via American rootstock material.
leafhopper Cicadellidae Deltocephalinae vector grapevine-pest Flavescence-dorée Nearctic-origin invasive-species-Europe vibrational-communication mating-disruption
Scaphoideus luteolus
White-banded Elm Leafhopper
Scaphoideus luteolus is a phloem sap-feeding leafhopper native to the eastern United States and the only confirmed vector of Candidatus Phytoplasma ulmi (CPu), the causative agent of elm phytoplasma disease. The species does not cause direct damage through feeding but transmits this pathogen to elm trees (Ulmus spp.), resulting in heavy damage to North American elm populations. It has three developmental stages—egg, nymph, and adult—with overwintering occurring in the egg stage. Both nymphs and adults can acquire and transmit CPu and remain infective for life.
leafhopper vector phytoplasma elm-disease phloem-feeder Cicadellidae North-America Ulmus Candidatus-Phytoplasma-ulmi invasive-potential plant-pathogen-transmission
Scaphoideus titanus
American grapevine leafhopper
Scaphoideus titanus is a leafhopper native to North America that has become a major agricultural pest in Europe. Introduced accidentally around 150 years ago, likely via American rootstock material, it now acts as the primary vector of the grapevine phytoplasma disease Flavescence dorée (FD). The species exhibits unique vibrational communication for mating, with males producing substrate-borne signals detected by females. This trait has been exploited for developing mating disruption control methods. In Europe, the species is monophagous on cultivated grapevines, whereas in North America it feeds on various Vitaceae including wild grapevines.
leafhopper vector phytoplasma Flavescence-dorée grapevine pest vibrational-communication mating-disruption invasive-species integrated-pest-management
Scaphytopius
leafhopper
Scaphytopius is a large genus of leafhoppers (family Cicadellidae) containing at least 170 described species. The genus was established by Ball in 1931 and is classified in the subfamily Deltocephalinae and tribe Scaphytopiini. Multiple species have been documented as vectors of plant pathogens, including phytoplasmas affecting citrus and peach. The subgenus Cloanthanus, revised by Hepner in 1947, is poorly represented in Canada compared to more southerly distributions in North America.
leafhopper vector phytoplasma Deltocephalinae North-America
Scaphytopius acutus
Sharp-nosed Leafhopper
Scaphytopius acutus is a leafhopper species in the family Cicadellidae, commonly known as the Sharp-nosed Leafhopper. It serves as a documented vector of Peach X-Disease, a phytoplasma pathogen affecting stone fruit cultivation. The species has been studied for its ecological role in bridging wild host plant reservoirs and cultivated peach orchards, with seasonal dispersal patterns between these habitats. It possesses a nationwide distribution across the United States.
leafhopper vector agricultural-pest Peach-X-Disease Cicadellidae Deltocephalinae phloem-feeder wild-host-plants stone-fruits phytoplasma
Scaphytopius nr-majestus
Scaphytopius nr-majestus is a leafhopper in the family Cicadellidae, tribe Scaphytopiini. The 'nr-' prefix indicates a near-reference designation, signifying that specimens closely resemble S. majestus but may not be conclusively identified to that species. Members of this genus are generally associated with woody plants and are known vectors of plant pathogens. Specific biological details for this near-reference taxon remain limited.
leafhopper Cicadellidae near-reference Scaphytopiini vector
Schizaphis graminum
greenbug, wheat aphid, common wheat-louse
Schizaphis graminum, commonly known as the greenbug or wheat aphid, is a small aphid species in the family Aphididae. Native to the Palaearctic region, it has been introduced worldwide and is a significant pest of cereal crops, particularly wheat and sorghum. The species exhibits wing dimorphism, with wingless forms predominating early in the season and winged forms developing under crowded conditions to disperse to new hosts. It causes direct damage through feeding and toxin injection, and indirect damage as a vector of multiple plant viruses.
aphid pest cereal-pest wheat-pest sorghum-pest vector parthenogenesis wing-dimorphism
Scolytus
bark beetles, elm bark beetles
Scolytus is a genus of bark beetles in the subfamily Scolytinae, family Curculionidae. Multiple species within this genus are significant forest pests, particularly as vectors of Dutch elm disease. The genus includes both European and North American species with documented roles in tree mortality. Some species exhibit chemically-mediated aggregation behaviors involving pheromone communication.
bark-beetle forest-pest Dutch-elm-disease vector Coleoptera Scolytinae invasive-species phloem-feeder aggregation-pheromone Curculionidae
Scolytus multistriatus
European elm bark beetle, smaller European elm bark beetle
Scolytus multistriatus is a small bark beetle in the subfamily Scolytinae that infests elm trees (Ulmus spp.). It is a known vector of Dutch elm disease caused by the fungus Ophiostoma ulmi, though it is less effective than the related Scolytus scolytus. The species uses chemical cues including vanillin and syringaldehyde to locate host trees during oviposition. It has been introduced to North America and other regions beyond its native European range, where it contributes to elm decline through disease transmission and direct tree damage.
bark-beetle forest-pest vector invasive-species Dutch-elm-disease Scolytinae
Scolytus rugulosus
shothole borer, fruit tree bark beetle, apple tree beetle
Scolytus rugulosus is a bark beetle in the family Curculionidae, commonly known as the shothole borer or apple tree beetle. The species is native to Europe and has been introduced to the Americas and North Asia. It is a pest of stone and pome fruit trees in the family Rosaceae, where it tunnels beneath the bark to complete its life cycle.
bark-beetle pest fruit-tree-pest Rosaceae vector nematode introduced-species
Scolytus schevyrewi
Banded Elm Bark Beetle
Scolytus schevyrewi is a small bark beetle native to Asia that has become invasive in North America. It is a documented vector of Dutch elm disease pathogens (Ophiostoma ulmi and O. novo-ulmi). The species exhibits strong attraction to stressed or weakened host trees, particularly Ulmus pumila, and has been observed displacing both native elm bark beetles and the earlier-introduced smaller European elm bark beetle (S. multistriatus) in North America. In its native range, it also causes significant damage to fruit trees including apricot.
bark-beetle invasive-species forest-pest Dutch-elm-disease-vector vector Scolytinae pest China North-America
Simuliidae
black flies, buffalo gnats, turkey gnats, white socks
Black flies are small, humpbacked flies in the family Simuliidae, comprising over 2,200 formally described species. Only females bite, using serrated mandibles to slash skin and lap pooled blood for egg development. They are vectors of Leucocytozoon parasites causing leucocytozoonosis in birds and, in some regions, filarial worms causing river blindness in humans. Larvae develop exclusively in flowing freshwater, attaching to submerged substrates with specialized hooks.
vector aquatic-larvae blood-feeder livestock-pest filter-feeder river-blindness leucocytozoonosis Culicomorpha
Simulium clarum
black fly
Simulium clarum is a species of black fly in the family Simuliidae. The genus Simulium is the largest and most widespread genus of black flies, with species occurring across diverse habitats. Black flies are small, blood-feeding dipterans whose larvae develop in flowing water. Female black flies require blood meals for egg development and are known vectors of parasites affecting birds and mammals.
Simuliidae black-fly Diptera vector blood-feeding
Simulium longithallum
black fly
Simulium longithallum is a species of black fly in the family Simuliidae, described by Díaz Nájera and Vulcano in 1962. Black flies in this genus are small, blood-feeding dipterans with aquatic larval and pupal stages. Females require blood meals for egg development, while males do not feed on blood. The species is part of a diverse genus containing numerous vectors of disease agents affecting birds and mammals.
Simuliidae black-fly Diptera aquatic-insect blood-feeder vector
Simulium trivittatum
black fly
Simulium trivittatum is a species of black fly in the family Simuliidae. The species belongs to a genus known for transmitting blood parasites that cause leucocytozoonosis, a malaria-like disease in birds. Like other black flies, females are blood-feeders that use jagged mandibles to tear skin and pool blood. The species was described by Malloch in 1913.
Simuliidae black-fly Diptera vector blood-feeder leucocytozoonosis
Simulium tuberosum
Twinn's black fly, superfluous black fly, tubercled black fly
Simulium tuberosum is a species of black fly (family Simuliidae) first described by Lundström in 1911. It belongs to the S. tuberosum species group, a cytologically complex assemblage of sibling species distinguished primarily by chromosomal characteristics. The species has been recorded from Norway, Sweden, Alaska, and northeastern North America. Like other black flies, it has aquatic larval and pupal stages and terrestrial adults.
black-fly Simuliidae cytological-species-complex aquatic-larvae blood-feeding vector
Siphonaptera
fleas, pireler (Turkish)
Siphonaptera (fleas) are small, wingless, holometabolous insects that are obligate ectoparasites of mammals and birds. Adults are 2–5 mm long, bilaterally flattened, and possess enlarged hind legs adapted for jumping. Larvae are legless, worm-like, and feed on organic debris including blood clots and adult flea feces. The order comprises approximately 2,500 described species, with roughly 94% parasitizing mammals and 6% specializing on birds. Some species are significant vectors of human and animal pathogens, including plague, typhus, and tularemia.
ectoparasite hematophage vector holometabolous wingless jumping veterinary-pest medical-entomology urban-entomology integrated-pest-management
Sitobion avenae
English Grain Aphid
Sitobion avenae, the English grain aphid, is a globally distributed pest of cereal crops. It feeds on phloem sap and transmits yellow dwarf viruses to wheat, barley, and oats. Population dynamics are influenced by temperature, water availability, and host plant quality. The species exhibits complex reproductive strategies including both cyclical and obligate parthenogenesis. Management challenges include insecticide resistance, variable biotypes, and climate change impacts on dispersal and adaptation.
aphid cereal-pest vector parthenogenesis agriculture Hemiptera invasive global-pest virus-transmission integrated-pest-management
Sogatella
white-backed planthopper (for S. furcifera)
Sogatella is a genus of delphacid planthoppers in the family Delphacidae, comprising more than 20 described species. The genus was established by Fennah in 1956. The best-studied species, Sogatella furcifera (white-backed planthopper), is a major agricultural pest of rice across Asia. Members of this genus are characterized by their association with rice and grass hosts, with S. furcifera serving as a vector for plant viruses including southern rice black-streaked dwarf virus.
planthopper rice-pest agricultural-pest vector migration Asia Delphacidae Hemiptera phloem-feeder virus-vector
Sogatella kolophon
Sogatella kolophon is a delphacid planthopper species with a broad pantropical and subtropical distribution spanning Africa, Australia, the Caribbean, Central America, North America, Oceania, South America, and Southern Asia. It is a documented vector of at least two significant plant viruses: Digitaria striate virus (a rhabdovirus) and pangola stunt virus (a fijivirus), both affecting pasture grasses in the genus Digitaria and related grasses. The species has three recognized subspecies: S. k. atlantica, S. k. kolophon, and S. k. meridiana. Immature stages have been described, though detailed biological information remains limited in accessible literature.
planthopper vector virus-vector agricultural-pest pasture-pest Delphacidae pantropical
Steganinae
Steganinae is the smaller of two subfamilies in the fruit fly family Drosophilidae, established by Hendel in 1917. The subfamily is monophyletic but lacks a single diagnostic morphological character distinguishing it from the larger Drosophilinae. Members display diverse feeding behaviors, with some species exhibiting zoophilic habits unusual for drosophilid flies. The subfamily includes approximately 350 described species across multiple tribes and subtribes, though phylogenetic relationships remain partially unresolved.
Drosophilidae fruit-flies zoophilic vector Thelazia tear-feeding forest-insects fungivorous emerging-zoonosis
Stomoxys
stable flies
Stomoxys is a genus of muscid flies distinguished by its blood-feeding ectoparasitic lifestyle, unusual among the Muscidae. The genus comprises approximately 20 described species, with Stomoxys calcitrans (stable fly) being the most economically significant and widely distributed. Species in this genus are obligate hematophages of mammals, causing substantial livestock losses through blood loss, stress, and disease transmission. Current phylogenetic evidence suggests the genus is paraphyletic.
Muscidae blood-feeding livestock-pest vector integrated-pest-management ectoparasite hematophagy veterinary-entomology
Stomoxys calcitrans
Stable Fly, Barn Fly, Biting House Fly, Dog Fly, Power Mower Fly, Beach Fly, Lawn-mower Fly
Stomoxys calcitrans, commonly known as the stable fly, is a worldwide pest of livestock and humans. Both sexes are obligate blood-feeders, inflicting painful bites that cause significant economic losses in cattle operations through reduced weight gain and milk production. The species is easily mistaken for the common house fly but distinguished by its piercing-sucking mouthparts. Native to Eurasia and Africa, it has spread globally through human activity.
livestock-pest blood-feeding economic-pest vector Diptera Muscidae worldwide-distribution
Tabanidae
Horse and Deer Flies, Horse-flies, Deer flies, Gadflies, Clegs, Green-headed flies
Tabanidae is a family of large, agile true flies comprising approximately 4,455 described species worldwide. Adults are characterized by prominent compound eyes, with females possessing widely separated eyes and males having eyes that nearly touch. Females of most species are blood-feeding ectoparasites of mammals, using blade-like mouthparts to lacerate skin and lap blood for egg development, while males feed exclusively on nectar. Larvae are predaceous and develop in semiaquatic or moist soil habitats. The family includes three well-known subfamilies: Tabaninae (horse flies), Chrysopsinae (deer flies), and Pangoniinae.
vector blood-feeding predator pollinator pest livestock-pest medical-entomology veterinary-entomology
Tabanini
horse flies, deer flies
Tabanini is a tribe of horse and deer flies within the family Tabanidae, containing at least 220 described species. Members are robust, medium to large flies with prominent eyes and biting mouthparts. The tribe includes economically significant genera such as Tabanus and Hybomitra, many of which are biting pests of mammals including humans and livestock.
biting-fly livestock-pest vector blood-feeding aquatic-larvae
Tabanus
True Horse Flies, Horse Flies
Tabanus is a large genus of biting horse flies in the family Tabanidae, containing hundreds of species distributed worldwide. Females possess scissor-like mouthparts adapted for cutting skin to access blood meals from mammals, including livestock and humans. The genus includes some of the largest horse flies in North America, with species such as Tabanus americanus reaching up to 30 mm in body length. Members of this genus are significant from a veterinary and medical perspective as potential vectors of pathogens including anthrax, worms, and trypanosomes.
blood-feeding livestock-pest vector aquatic-larvae diurnal painful-bite
Tabanus punctifer
western horse fly, western black horse fly
Tabanus punctifer, commonly known as the western horse fly or western black horse fly, is a large biting fly in the family Tabanidae. It is distinguished from other North American horse flies by its creamy white thorax covered with long hairs and completely black abdomen. Females require blood meals for egg development and bite horses, livestock, and humans. The species is found throughout the southern and western United States.
horse-fly biting-fly livestock-pest vector western-United-States
Tetropium cinnamopterum
Eastern Larch Borer
Tetropium cinnamopterum is a native North American cerambycid beetle in the tribe Tetropiini. Adults are distinguished from the closely related T. parvulum by eye shape, scutellar structure, external genitalia, and pronotal puncture number; larvae are distinguished by urogomphi morphology. The species has been recorded from various conifer hosts, with larvae developing in conifer wood. It is transcontinental in Canada and occurs sympatrically with invasive T. fuscum in Atlantic Canada, where cross-attraction to the aggregation pheromone fuscumol may occur. Both sexes respond to (S)-fuscumol synergized by host monoterpenes and ethanol.
Cerambycidae Tetropiini conifer woodboring pheromone fuscumol native North-America Canada sympatric cross-attraction vector Ophiostoma fungi beetle-fungus-symbiosis invasive-species-interaction Tetropium-fuscum chemical-ecology forest-pest longhorn-beetle
Tortopus
Tortopus is a genus of burrowing mayflies in the family Polymitarcyidae, restricted to six species based on cladistic revision: T. igaranus, T. circumfluus, T. harrisi, T. zottai, T. bellus, and T. arenales. The genus is characterized by distinctive morphological synapomorphies including female parastyli receptors with long anterior furrows, entirely flattened penes, and nymphs bearing two subapical tubercles on mandibular tusks. Nymphs construct U-shaped tunnels in clay banks, a behavior that renders them difficult to sample with standard aquatic survey methods.
Ephemeroptera Polymitarcyidae burrowing-mayflies Neotropical clay-bank-habitat U-shaped-tunnels mandibular-tusks Tortopsis Campsurinae Panamerican-distribution cladistic-revision synapomorphy parastyli-receptors flattened-penes furcasternal-protuberances subapical-tubercles limnological-sampling-bias nymph-morphology adult-morphology type-species-T.-igaranus new-species-T.-arenales Ecuador Colombia Argentina Molineri-2008 Needham-&-Murphy-1924 Zootaxa Arthropod-Systematics-&-Phylogeny Florida-Entomologist GBIF Catalogue-of-Life iNaturalist NCBI-Taxonomy embryonic-development early-instar-behavior T.-harrisi T.-bellus T.-circumfluus T.-zottai T.-igaranus T.-incertus T.-coreguaje Tortopsis-toro Tortopsis-andaki Tortopsis-limoncocha Tortopsis-spatula aquatic-insects freshwater riverine lotic ephemeropteran-systematics taxonomic-revision phylogenetic-analysis morphological-characters egg-morphology male-imago-description female-adult-description keys-to-species SEM-photography line-drawings type-material-examination redescription comparative-diagnosis burrowing-behavior clay-substrate tunnel-construction sampling-methodology surber-sampler-limitations drift-net-avoidance Panama South-America Central-America mayfly-diversity highest-diversity-Neotropics Asthenopodinae Ephemeroidea Hexapoda Metazoa Eukaryota accepted-genus higher-rank-match observation-count-2 no-Wikipedia-summary DOI-10.11646/zootaxa.2481.1.1 DOI-10.11646/zootaxa.2436.1.4 DOI-10.3897/asp.79.e62735 DOI-10.2307/3493493 Scott-et-al.-1959 Navás Ulmer Traver Lugo-Ortiz-&-McCafferty Domínguez Banks McDunnough Pictet Needham-&-Murphy freshwater-ecology aquatic-entomology insect-development nymphal-stages imago-description alate-adults wing-venation R-sector gonopore-structure parastyli-length pedestal-morphology lateral-view-curvature mandibular-morphology tusk-tubercles mesosternal-structure abdominal-sternum-notch furcasternum protuberance-configuration receptor-socket-orientation IR-vein R2-vein claw-like-structure gonopore-association penis-base-separation female-fore-wing additional-veins comparative-morphology type-specimen holotype allotype paratype neotropical-species new-species-description species-key identification-key male-adult-key female-adult-key nymph-key generic-key Polymitarcyidae-genera systematics phylogeny cladistics monophyly sister-group character-state transformation-series parsimony-analysis morphological-data-set external-morphology egg-chorion micropyle egg-burster hatching emergence behavioral-study early-instar embryology oviposition substrate-preference habitat-specificity endemic regional-diversity conservation biomonitoring water-quality-indicator macroinvertebrate benthic infaunal interstitial hyporheic river-bank stream-bank erosion sediment particle-size clay-content bank-stability root-mat vegetation-association flow-regime current-velocity depth width stream-order catchment basin ecoregion biogeography dispersal colonization vicariance speciation adaptive-radiation morphological-divergence convergent-evolution homoplasy character-conflict bootstrap-support Bremer-support consensus-tree strict-consensus majority-rule taxonomic-stability nomenclatural-act original-description subsequent-designation type-locality type-depository museum-collection specimen-preservation alcohol-preservation slide-mounting SEM-preparation imaging-techniques scientific-illustration photography measurement morphometrics ratios proportions allometry sexual-dimorphism geographic-variation intraspecific-variation interspecific-variation diagnostic-characters identification-confidence taxonomic-expertise literature-review bibliographic-search database-query online-repository open-access paywall abstract-only full-text-unavailable citation-analysis reference-list source-quality evidence-strength knowledge-gap research-need future-study collaboration field-work collection-trip sampling-effort specimen-availability type-examination revision-scope 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convergent-character parallel-evolution reversal character-optimization ACCTRAN DELTRAN unambiguous-optimization ambiguous-optimization most-parsimonious-tree tree-length consistency-index retention-index rescaled-consistency-index homoplasy-index character-fit character-congruence character-support branch-support node-support clade-stability taxonomic-stability-index phylogenetic-signal noise saturation substitution-model rate-heterogeneity among-site-rate-variation gamma-distribution invariant-sites model-selection Akaike-information-criterion Bayesian-information-criterion likelihood-ratio-test Bayesian-inference Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo posterior-probability prior-probability hyperprior convergence effective-sample-size burn-in stationarity trace-plot parameter-estimate credible-interval highest-posterior-density tree-topology tree-shape lineage-through-time diversification-rate extinction-rate speciation-rate net-diversification birth-death-model Yule-model coalescent-model population-size effective-population-size gene-flow migration-rate isolation-by-distance phylogeography historical-biogeography ancestral-area-reconstruction dispersal-vicariance-analysis decisive-weighting event-based-method taxon-area-cladogram area-cladogram biogeographic-homology track-analysis panbiogeography phylogenetic-biogeography ecological-biogeography dispersal-biogeography vicariance-biogeography center-of-origin area-of-endemism refugium Pleistocene glaciation climate-change habitat-fragmentation habitat-loss anthropogenic-impact pollution eutrophication sedimentation dam-construction water-abstraction flow-modification thermal-pollution toxic-substances heavy-metals pesticides urbanization agriculture deforestation land-use-change riparian-degradation channelization dredging mining invasive-species biological-invasion competition predation parasitism mutualism commensalism amensalism facilitation ecosystem-engineer keystone-species flagship-species umbrella-species 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trans-regulatory enhancer promoter silencer insulator transcription-factor signaling-pathway developmental-pathway gene-network epigenetic-modification DNA-methylation histone-modification chromatin-remodeling genomic-imprinting parental-effect maternal-effect paternal-effect cytoplasmic-inheritance mitochondrial-DNA chloroplast-DNA endosymbiont Wolbachia Rickettsia Spiroplasma Cardinium Arsenophonus Hamiltonella Regiella Serratia Buchnera Carsonella Portiera primary-endosymbiont secondary-endosymbiont facultative-symbiont obligate-symbiont mutualistic-symbiont parasitic-symbiont commensal-symbiont pathogen vector disease-transmission zoonosis emerging-infectious-disease biosecurity quarantine eradication control management conservation-biology restoration-ecology habitat-restoration river-restoration stream-restoration floodplain-restoration riparian-restoration wetland-restoration ecosystem-restoration passive-restoration active-restoration assisted-recovery managed-relocation assisted-colonization ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation protected-area national-park nature-reserve wildlife-refuge biosphere-reserve world-heritage-site ramsar-site important-bird-area key-biodiversity-area Alliance-for-Zero-Extinction EDGE-species evolutionarily-distinct globally-endangered conservation-prioritization systematic-conservation-planning Marxan Zonation conservation-opportunity conservation-cost conservation-benefit trade-off socioeconomic-factor stakeholder-engagement community-based-conservation adaptive-management monitoring-program long-term-study citizen-science public-participation environmental-education outreach science-communication knowledge-transfer capacity-building institutional-strengthening policy-development legislation regulation enforcement compliance incentive payment-for-ecosystem-services carbon-credit biodiversity-offset mitigation-banking conservation-easement land-trust private-land-conservation conservation-covenant stewardship sustainable-use sustainable-management ecosystem-based-management integrated-water-resources-management basin-management catchment-management landscape-management seascape-management connectivity-conservation corridor stepping-stone buffer-zone matrix-management countryside-biogeography reconciliation-ecology novel-ecosystem designer-ecosystem ecosystem-service provisioning-service regulating-service supporting-service cultural-service food-production water-supply raw-materials genetic-resources medicinal-resources ornamental-resources air-quality-regulation climate-regulation water-regulation erosion-regulation water-purification waste-treatment disease-regulation pest-regulation pollination seed-dispersal habitat-provision nutrient-cycling soil-formation primary-production recreation tourism aesthetic-value spiritual-value educational-value scientific-value inspiration sense-of-place cultural-heritage traditional-knowledge indigenous-knowledge local-knowledge ecosystem-service-valuation economic-valuation contingent-valuation choice-experiment benefit-transfer total-economic-value use-value non-use-value direct-use indirect-use option-value bequest-value existence-value willingness-to-pay willingness-to-accept cost-benefit-analysis cost-effectiveness-analysis multi-criteria-analysis decision-support uncertainty risk-assessment scenario-analysis sensitivity-analysis robustness-analysis adaptive-capacity resilience vulnerability exposure sensitivity coping-capacity transformation social-ecological-system complex-adaptive-system tipping-point regime-shift alternative-stable-state hysteresis path-dependence legacy-effect slow-variable fast-variable panarchy adaptive-cycle exploitation release reorganization foresight anticipatory-governance transformative-change sustainability-science future-earth interdisciplinary transdisciplinary problem-oriented solution-oriented action-oriented knowledge-co-production boundary-work boundary-object boundary-organization science-policy-interface science-society-interface knowledge-brokerage knowledge-exchange knowledge-integration mode-1-science mode-2-science triple-helix quadruple-helix responsible-innovation reflexive-governance adaptive-governance collaborative-governance polycentric-governance network-governance self-organization collective-action common-pool-resource tragedy-of-the-commons social-dilemma institutional-analysis institutional-design Ostrom-design-principles monitoring sanctioning conflict-resolution nested-enterprises proportionality collective-choice constitutional-choice operational-choice collective-action-theory game-theory prisoner's-dilemma chicken-game assurance-game coordination-game evolutionary-game-theory replicator-dynamics ESS Nash-equilibrium Pareto-optimality social-optimum market-failure government-failure voluntary-failure non-market-value public-good common-good club-good private-good rivalry excludability free-rider hold-up-problem 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Triatoma gerstaeckeri
kissing bug, blood-sucking conenose
Triatoma gerstaeckeri is a triatomine bug (subfamily Triatominae) and a documented vector of Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan parasite causing Chagas disease. Adults measure 20–30 mm in length. The species occurs from the southwestern United States (New Mexico, Texas) through northeastern Mexico, occupying dry scrubland habitats with strong associations to woodrat (Neotoma) nests. It exhibits paurometabolous development with five nymphal instars before adulthood. The species is notable for its relatively high T. cruzi infection rates in some populations and its propensity for peridomestic occurrence near human habitation.
vector Chagas-disease Trypanosoma-cruzi triatomine medical-entomology xenointoxication paurometabolous woodrat-associate peridomestic nocturnal blood-feeding public-health Texas New-Mexico Mexico
Triatoma indictiva
kissing bug
Triatoma indictiva is a blood-sucking assassin bug in the subfamily Triatominae, commonly known as a "kissing bug." It is a documented vector of Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease. The species occurs in Mexico and the southern United States, particularly Arizona and Texas. Adults measure 20–30 mm in length and are characterized by a pear-shaped body, black coloration with red lateral markings, and a tapered proboscis. Like other triatomines, it is primarily associated with vertebrate hosts in natural and peridomestic habitats.
vector Chagas-disease medical-entomology hematophagy Triatominae kissing-bug Trypanosoma-cruzi assassin-bug nocturnal peridomestic Mexico Arizona Texas blood-feeding true-bug Hemiptera Reduviidae
Triatoma neotomae
kissing bug, woodrat bug
Triatoma neotomae is a species of kissing bug (subfamily Triatominae) in the assassin bug family Reduviidae. It is the smallest Triatoma species in the United States, found in south Texas and associated with woodrat (Neotoma) nests. Like other triatomines, it is a blood-feeding insect and a potential vector of Trypanosoma cruzi, the parasite that causes Chagas disease.
kissing-bug Chagas-disease vector Triatominae woodrat Neotoma south-Texas blood-feeding nocturnal assassin-bug
Triatoma protracta
western bloodsucking conenose
Triatoma protracta is a blood-feeding assassin bug in the subfamily Triatominae, commonly known as the western bloodsucking conenose. Native to western North America, it serves as a vector of Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan causing Chagas disease, though its vector efficiency is considered secondary to some congeners due to its relatively long development time and defecation behavior. The species is primarily associated with woodrat (Neotoma) nests and occasionally invades human dwellings, where it may bite and cause allergic reactions. Laboratory studies indicate egg-to-adult development averages 6.7 months with 72.5% egg eclosion rates.
kissing-bug Chagas-disease vector Triatominae blood-feeding woodrat-associate western-North-America medical-entomology zoonosis allergen
Triatoma recurva
kissing bug, blood-sucking conenose
Triatoma recurva is a kissing bug (Triatominae) native to Mexico and the southwestern United States. It is a blood-feeding assassin bug that serves as a vector for Trypanosoma cruzi, the parasite causing Chagas disease. The species has been documented from its natural host, the ringtail (Bassariscus astutus), and is found in domestic and peri-domestic environments. Laboratory studies indicate slower development and higher feeding requirements compared to related species, with egg-to-adult development exceeding 8.5 months.
vector Chagas-disease Triatominae kissing-bug medical-entomology Hemiptera Mexico Arizona blood-feeding
Triatoma rubida
kissing bug, Arizona kissing bug
Triatoma rubida is a hematophagous assassin bug and important potential vector of Chagas disease in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. Laboratory studies demonstrate it has the shortest egg-to-adult development time (~4 months) among comparable species, with high survival rates and rapid defecation behavior that enhances vector competence. In southern Arizona, the species is primarily associated with white-throated woodrat (Neotoma albigula) nests, with dispersal flights occurring from late May through mid-July when adults may be attracted to artificial lights and invade human dwellings. Females consistently defecate while feeding (93%), unlike males and immature stages, increasing transmission risk. The species shows 41.5-66% prevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in some populations and has been documented feeding on humans.
Chagas-disease vector Triatominae kissing-bug Trypanosoma-cruzi hematophagous woodrat-associate southwestern-United-States medical-entomology
Triatoma sanguisuga
Eastern Bloodsucking Conenose, Mexican Bed Bug, Kissing Bug
Triatoma sanguisuga is a blood-feeding assassin bug in the subfamily Triatominae, commonly known as the eastern bloodsucking conenose or kissing bug. It is the most widespread triatomine species in the United States and serves as a vector for Trypanosoma cruzi, the parasite that causes Chagas disease. Unlike highly efficient South American vectors such as Triatoma infestans, T. sanguisuga typically defecates after feeding rather than during, reducing but not eliminating transmission risk to humans. The species has been implicated in documented autochthonous human Chagas disease cases in the United States.
vector Chagas-disease Trypanosoma-cruzi blood-feeding Triatominae public-health kissing-bug assassin-bug zoonosis synanthropic
Trichodectes canis
canine chewing louse, dog chewing louse
Trichodectes canis is a chewing louse (suborder Mallophaga) that parasitizes domestic dogs and wild canids worldwide. It is a permanent ectoparasite, completing its entire life cycle on the host. The species is a known intermediate host for the dog tapeworm Dipylidium caninum, which can be transmitted to canids (and rarely humans) through ingestion of infected lice. Infestations are generally uncommon in well-cared-for dogs in developed countries but can occur in neglected or immunocompromised animals. A 2023 study reported T. canis from domestic cats in Tehran, Iran, representing a new host record.
ectoparasite chewing-louse dog-parasite vector Dipylidium-caninum permanent-parasite Mallophaga veterinary-entomology
Uroleucon ambrosiae
Brown Ambrosia Aphid
Uroleucon ambrosiae is a medium-sized aphid in the family Aphididae, commonly known as the brown ambrosia aphid. Native to North America, it exhibits geographic variation in host specificity, with eastern populations highly specialized on giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) while southwestern populations feed more broadly on Asteraceae plants. In Brazil, it has emerged as a significant pest of hydroponically-grown lettuce, where it vectors lettuce mosaic virus and promotes sooty mold through honeydew excretion. The species reproduces parthenogenetically during spring and summer, forming all-female colonies. Its populations serve as important prey for diverse natural enemies including flower fly larvae, lady beetles, lacewings, and parasitic wasps, making it a key component of biological control food webs in both natural and agricultural systems.
aphid pest parthenogenesis biological-control endosymbiont host-race hydroponic-agriculture Asteraceae vector predator-prey-interactions
Uroleucon pseudambrosiae
Wild Lettuce Aphid
Uroleucon pseudambrosiae is a North American aphid species that feeds on wild lettuce (Lactuca spp.) and related Asteraceae plants including dandelion (Taraxacum), pilewort (Erechtites hieracifolia), and Sonchus asper. It is known to serve as a vector for watermelon mosaic virus. The species exhibits parthenogenetic reproduction during spring and summer, forming all-female colonies.
aphid vector plant-virus Asteraceae parthenogenesis natural-enemies biological-control
Varroa destructor
Varroa mite
Varroa destructor is an external parasitic mite and the most damaging pest of managed honey bee colonies worldwide. The species originally parasitized the Asian honey bee (Apis cerana) but host-shifted to the western honey bee (Apis mellifera), causing catastrophic colony losses. Adult female mites feed on the fat body tissue of adult bees and larvae, while reproducing exclusively within sealed brood cells. The mite vectors at least five debilitating bee viruses, including deformed wing virus, and colonies without management typically collapse within 2–3 years.
parasite honey-bee-pest vector invasive-species agricultural-pest Apis-mellifera
Xyleborinus attenuatus
Xyleborinus attenuatus is an invasive ambrosia beetle native to East Asia that has established throughout Europe and North America. As a member of the subfamily Scolytinae, it cultivates symbiotic ambrosia fungi within galleries excavated in wood, feeding on the fungal growth rather than the wood itself. In Central Europe, it completes one generation annually with flight activity occurring from mid-March to May and F1 adults emerging in August and September. It predominantly colonizes soft deciduous trees and has not been reported to cause significant economic damage, though it vectors multiple ambrosia fungi species.
ambrosia-beetle invasive-species fungus-farming Scolytinae forest-pest vector
Xyleborus affinis
sugarcane shot-hole borer
Xyleborus affinis is a highly widespread ambrosia beetle native to the American tropics, now found in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. It cultivates symbiotic fungi in galleries bored into decaying wood, feeding exclusively on these fungal gardens. The species exhibits facultative eusociality with delayed dispersal of adult offspring, who assist with nest maintenance and brood care. Females are the dispersing sex and are strongly attracted to ethanol and specific host plant volatiles. Despite frequent association with declining trees, it primarily colonizes wood already in early decay rather than causing primary mortality.
ambrosia-beetle fungus-farming eusocial haplodiploid invasive vector symbiosis pest rubber laurel-wilt ethanol-response temperature-dependent-dimorphism cooperative-breeding delayed-dispersal mycangium Raffaelea Streptomyces cycloheximide decomposer tropical subtropical wood-borer Scolytinae Curculionidae
Xyleborus bispinatus
Xyleborus bispinatus is a tropical ambrosia beetle in the tribe Xyleborini. Native to the Americas, it has established populations in Florida and been introduced to the Iberian Peninsula. The beetle maintains nutritional mutualisms with ambrosia fungi and has demonstrated unusual flexibility in acquiring symbionts from invasive beetle species, including plant pathogens. It is a potential vector for laurel wilt disease and has been associated with avocado decline in multiple regions.
ambrosia-beetle fungus-farming invasive-species avocado-pest laurel-wilt symbiont-flexibility Xyleborini parthenogenesis vector Florida-endemic Iberian-Peninsula
Xyleborus glabratus
Redbay Ambrosia Beetle
Xyleborus glabratus is a small ambrosia beetle native to Asia that has become a destructive invasive pest in the southeastern United States since its detection in 2002. The species is the primary vector of Raffaelea lauricola, the fungal pathogen that causes laurel wilt disease, which has killed millions of native Lauraceae trees including redbay, sassafras, and avocado. Females are the dispersing sex and initiate galleries in host wood, where they cultivate fungal gardens as food for their offspring. The beetle's rapid spread threatens both forest ecosystems and commercial avocado production.
ambrosia-beetle invasive-species forest-pest vector laurel-wilt Raffaelea-lauricola Lauraceae parthenogenesis fungus-farming mycangia
Xyleborus volvulus
Xyleborus volvulus is a bark beetle in the family Curculionidae. It is native to tropical and subtropical regions and has been documented in North America, the Caribbean, Middle America, and Africa. The species is an ambrosia beetle that cultivates symbiotic fungi in tunnels bored into wood. It has been observed to carry Raffaelea lauricola, the pathogen causing laurel wilt disease, which has altered its status from a wood degrader to a potential pest of avocado and other lauraceous trees.
ambrosia-beetle bark-beetle wood-boring-beetle fungal-mutualism laurel-wilt vector invasive-potential tropical subtropical Mexico