Sex-pheromone
Guides
Adoxophyes
Summerfruit tortrix moths
Adoxophyes is a genus of tortricid moths in the tribe Archipini, established by Meyrick in 1881. The genus includes economically significant agricultural pests, most notably Adoxophyes orana (summerfruit tortrix), which damages fruit crops across Europe and Asia. Species in this genus are characterized by their polyvoltine life cycles, larval feeding on buds, leaves, and fruits of numerous host plants, and the use of sex pheromones for mate location. Several species have been introduced to new regions, causing significant damage to orchards and requiring integrated pest management.
Agapeta
Agapeta is a genus of tortricid moths in the subfamily Tortricinae. The genus includes at least four described species, with A. zoegana (the knapweed root-borer moth) being the most extensively studied due to its use as a biological control agent for invasive knapweeds in North America. Larvae are root-feeding specialists, and the genus is native to Eurasia with some species introduced to North America for weed management.
Agapeta zoegana
sulphur knapweed moth, yellow-winged knapweed root moth, knapweed root moth
A small, bright yellow moth native to Eurasia, introduced to North America in the 1980s as a biological control agent for invasive knapweeds (Centaurea maculosa and C. diffusa). The larva is a root miner that tunnels through the root cortex, causing moderate to considerable damage to host plants. Adults are short-lived, with flight activity from May to August. The species has established populations in western North America and is compatible with other knapweed biocontrol agents.
Arrenuridae
Arrenuridae is a family of water mites (Hydrachnidia) in the order Trombidiformes, containing at least three genera and approximately 110 described species. Members are primarily freshwater predators as adults and deutonymphs, with larvae that parasitize aquatic insects. The family exhibits complex mating behaviors mediated by chemical communication, including female-emitted sex pheromones that trigger male responses.
Chrysoteuchia
sod webworms, cranberry girdlers
Chrysoteuchia is a genus of Crambidae moths containing approximately 36 species worldwide, with exceptional diversity in China (33 species). The genus exhibits a Palearctic, Sino-Japanese, and Oriental distribution pattern. Species are strongly associated with humid to semi-humid environments and show cold tolerance with humidity-dependent distribution patterns. The cranberry girdler (C. topiarius) is a notable pest of cool-season turfgrasses, cranberries, and fir in North America.
Coccinella septempunctata
seven-spot ladybird, seven-spotted ladybug, seven-spotted lady beetle, C-7
Coccinella septempunctata is a predatory lady beetle native to Europe, Asia, and North Africa, now widely established in North America following intentional introduction for biological control. Adults measure 6.5–7.8 mm with distinctive red elytra bearing seven black spots. The species is among the most extensively studied coccinellids due to its importance in aphid biocontrol and its invasive success in new ranges. It completes up to five generations annually with a six-week development cycle from egg to adult.
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velda
Velda Pine Moth
Coloradia velda is a species of giant silk moth in the family Saturniidae, described by Johnson and Walter in 1981. It belongs to the genus Coloradia, which comprises pine-feeding moths distributed across western North America. The species is known from limited records and appears to be associated with pine forests. Adults are nocturnal and do not feed; larvae feed on pine needles. The sex pheromone has been characterized chemically, with (E4,Z9)-tetradecadienal identified as a key component.
Condylorrhiza vestigialis
Alamo Moth, Brazilian Poplar Moth
A crambid moth native to the Americas, known as the Alamo Moth or Brazilian Poplar Moth. Larvae are specialized feeders on Populus species, making this species a significant pest of poplar and cottonwood plantations in Brazil. Adults exhibit well-documented calling behavior, with virgin females releasing sex pheromones during specific nighttime hours to attract males. The species has been extensively studied for biological control applications, particularly for baculovirus production.
Cyphomyrmex
fungus-growing ants
Cyphomyrmex is a genus of small, drab-colored fungus-growing ants in the tribe Attini, found primarily in the Neotropics. These ants cultivate fungi in the tribe Leucocoprineae as their primary food source, with most species growing fungal nodules rather than full mycelial gardens. Colonies are typically monogynous and small, rarely exceeding 500 workers. The genus is divided into two species complexes: the strigatus complex (South America only) and the rimosus complex (southern North America to South America). Cyphomyrmex represents a basal lineage among attine ants and serves as sister group to Mycetophylax.
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Entedoninae is a subfamily of chalcid wasps in the family Eulophidae comprising over 90 genera. Members are primarily parasitoids with documented associations across diverse host groups including gall-inducing insects, leafminers, sawflies, thrips, and ants. The subfamily exhibits considerable morphological and ecological diversity, with species found in tropical to temperate habitats worldwide.
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leucospoides
knife-shaped ibalia, Sirex Ibaliid Wasp
Ibalia leucospoides is a solitary endoparasitoid wasp in the family Ibaliidae, native to the Northern Hemisphere and widely introduced to the Southern Hemisphere as a biological control agent for the invasive woodwasp Sirex noctilio. Adults are active from April to December depending on location, with a univoltine life cycle synchronized with host emergence. The species exhibits pro-ovigenic reproduction, with females emerging with a high proportion of mature eggs relative to lifetime fecundity. Adult feeding has minimal impact on egg maturation, survival, or flight capacity.
Itoplectis
Itoplectis is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, first described by Arnold Förster in 1869. The genus contains approximately 35 to 61 recognized species with cosmopolitan distribution. Members are polyphagous solitary parasitoids that attack lepidopteran pupae and have been studied extensively for their potential as biological control agents. Several species, particularly I. conquisitor and I. naranyae, serve as model organisms for research on parasitoid behavior, learning, and chemical ecology.
Keiferia lycopersicella
Tomato Pinworm
Keiferia lycopersicella, the tomato pinworm, is a gelechiid moth and significant agricultural pest of Solanaceae crops. Native to warm regions of the Americas, it has expanded its range through greenhouse production and international trade. The species completes seven to eight generations annually in favorable climates. Larvae are leaf miners and fruit borers, causing direct damage to tomatoes, eggplants, and potatoes. Adults communicate via sex pheromones, with synthetic lures used for monitoring and management.
Leucoptera spartifoliella
Scotch broom twig miner, broom twig miner
A tiny white microlepidopteran moth, approximately 4 mm in length, used as a biological control agent against the invasive weed Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius). Native to western and central Europe, it has been introduced to New Zealand (accidentally, 1950s), California (1960), and Australia (1990) to manage broom infestations. The female sex pheromone has been identified as 5-methylheptadecane, enabling population monitoring through pheromone trapping.
Limonius californicus
sugarbeet wireworm
Limonius californicus, commonly known as the sugarbeet wireworm, is a click beetle in the family Elateridae. The larval stage, referred to as wireworms, is an agricultural pest particularly associated with sugar beet and other crops in the northwestern United States and western Canada. Adult males exhibit distinctive mate-finding behavior, using olfactory cues to locate females that release a sex attractant shortly after emergence.
Lygus hesperus
Western Tarnished Plant Bug
Lygus hesperus is a significant agricultural pest in western North America, causing extensive damage to cotton, strawberries, alfalfa seed, and other crops. In California alone, annual losses exceed $30 million in cotton and $40 million in strawberries. Adults overwinter in reproductive diapause triggered by short day lengths, resuming activity when conditions improve. The species has been the subject of extensive research on sampling methods, biological control, and insecticide resistance.
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click beetles (insect genus), dark-spored mushrooms (fungal genus)
Melanotus is a genus of click beetles (family Elateridae) comprising approximately 800 described species distributed worldwide. The genus includes several economically significant agricultural pests, particularly wireworm species whose larvae damage crop roots and tubers. Research has identified sex pheromones for some species, enabling development of monitoring and management tools. The genus name Melanotus is also applied to a fungal genus in Strophariaceae, but this record addresses the beetle genus.
Molanna
hood casemakers
Molanna is a genus of caddisflies (order Trichoptera) commonly known as hood casemakers, comprising over 20 described species. Larvae construct portable cases from sand grains and inhabit shallow freshwater environments including lake margins and spring-fed streams. Adults exhibit sex-specific antennal morphology and chemical communication, with females producing sex pheromones that attract males to mating sites near water.
Prionoxystus robiniae
Carpenterworm Moth, Locust Borer
Prionoxystus robiniae is a moth in the family Cossidae, found across much of North America from southern Canada through most of the United States. Adults are active from May to July, with wingspans ranging from 43–85 mm. The larvae are wood-borers that tunnel into hardwood trees, causing economic damage to timber. Females release sex pheromones to attract males, which fly upwind to locate them; mating occurs at dusk and early night, with copulation lasting 1–2 hours.
Pseudexentera
oak olethreutid leafroller, aspen leafroller, apple leafroller
Pseudexentera is a genus of tortricid moths in the subfamily Olethreutinae. Species in this genus are early-season fliers whose larvae function as defoliators of economically important trees. Three species are of particular economic significance: P. spoliana (oak olethreutid leafroller) on oaks, P. oregonana (aspen leafroller) on aspens, and P. mali on apples. Female sex pheromones have been identified for these species and are species-specific, with no cross-attraction occurring between species.
Pseudexentera mali
pale apple leafroller, pale apple budworm
Pseudexentera mali is a tortricid moth species commonly known as the pale apple leafroller or pale apple budworm. It belongs to the family Tortricidae and was described by Freeman in 1942. The species is an early-season flier and is considered economically important as a pest of apple (Malus). Males are attracted to the sex pheromone component Z,Z-8,10-16:Ac. The MONA or Hodges number for this species is 3247.
Pseudexentera oregonana
aspen leafroller
Pseudexentera oregonana is a tortricid moth commonly known as the aspen leafroller. It is recognized as an economic defoliator of aspen (Populus). The female sex pheromone has been chemically characterized, with Z8-14:Ac identified as the principal attractive component. The species exhibits reproductive isolation through species-specific pheromone communication.
Stictocephala stimulea
Stictocephala stimulea is a treehopper species in the family Membracidae, first described by Van Duzee in 1914. Treehoppers in this genus are characterized by their enlarged, often ornate pronotum that extends over the body like a helmet or thorn. The specific epithet 'stimulea' suggests possible resemblance to or association with stinging organisms, though this refers to appearance rather than actual sting. Like other membracids, this species likely feeds on plant phloem sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts.
MembracidaetreehopperAuchenorrhynchaCicadomorphaStictocephalaCeresiniSmiliinaeHemipterasap-feederpronotumhelmetthorn-mimicryplant-feeding-insectphloem-feedercryptic-colorationcamouflageVan-Duzee-1914NearcticNorth-AmericaFloridaNorth-CarolinaSouth-Dakotaunderstudied-speciesdata-deficienttaxonomyentomologyinsectarthropodtrue-bugauchenorrhynchancicadomorphleafhopper-relativeplant-hopperornate-pronotumpronotal-extensiondorsal-helmetinsect-morphologyinsect-systematicsbiodiversitynatural-historyconservationinsect-ecologyinsect-behaviorinsect-developmentinsect-distributionbiogeographyspecies-descriptiontype-specimenoriginal-descriptionhistorical-taxonomymuseum-specimencollection-recordoccurrence-dataGBIFiNaturalistcitizen-scienceobservation-recordrange-mapdistribution-datageographic-rangeendemicnative-speciesregional-faunalocal-biodiversityhabitat-specificityhost-plantfeeding-guildphytophagousherbivoreplant-insect-interactioncoevolutionmimicrydefensecrypsisevolutionary-adaptationmorphological-adaptationexoskeleton-modificationstructural-colorationinsect-identificationfield-guidediagnostic-charactertaxonomic-keyspecies-complexcryptic-speciesmorphological-variationgeographic-variationphenotypic-plasticitylife-historyreproductionovipositionnymphinstarmetamorphosishemimetabolousincomplete-metamorphosispopulation-dynamicscommunity-ecologyfood-webtrophic-levelprimary-consumerecosystem-functionnutrient-cyclingenergy-flowbiological-controlpest-statusagricultural-relevanceforestryurban-ecologyinvasive-potentialclimate-changehabitat-lossconservation-statusdata-gapresearch-needtaxonomic-revisionphylogeneticsmolecular-systematicsDNA-barcodingintegrative-taxonomynatural-history-collectionspecimen-digitizationopen-dataFAIR-databiodiversity-informaticsbiological-databasetaxonomic-authoritynomenclaturezoological-nomenclatureInternational-Code-of-Zoological-Nomenclaturetype-localitytype-specimen-depositionauthor-citationoriginal-combinationcurrent-combinationsynonymyhomonymynomenclatural-acttaxonomic-historyclassification-systemphylogenetic-classificationevolutionary-relationshipsmonophylycladelineagestem-groupcrown-groupdivergence-timemolecular-clockfossil-recordpaleontologyextantextinctliving-fossilevolutionary-historybiogeographic-historydispersalvicariancerange-expansionrange-contractionrefugiumglacial-relictpostglacial-colonizationanthropogenic-impacthuman-disturbanceland-use-changeurbanizationagricultural-intensificationpesticide-usehabitat-fragmentationconnectivitycorridorprotected-areaconservation-planningsystematic-conservation-planningpriority-areahotspotendemic-areacenter-of-origincenter-of-diversityevolutionary-significant-unitmanagement-unitpopulationmetapopulationsource-sink-dynamicsdemographyvital-ratessurvivalfecunditygeneration-timepopulation-growth-ratecarrying-capacitydensity-dependenceregulationlimiting-factorenvironmental-stochasticitydemographic-stochasticitygenetic-stochasticityinbreeding-depressionoutbreeding-depressiongenetic-diversityheterozygosityallelic-richnesseffective-population-sizegenetic-driftgene-flowmigrationisolation-by-distanceisolation-by-resistancelandscape-geneticspopulation-genomicsphylogeographyhistorical-demographycoalescent-theoryapproximate-Bayesian-computationspecies-distribution-modelecological-niche-modelhabitat-suitabilitybioclimatic-envelopeclimate-envelopeniche-conservatismniche-evolutionrealized-nichefundamental-nichebiotic-interactioncompetitionpredationparasitismmutualismcommensalismamensalismfacilitationapparent-competitionindirect-interactiontrophic-cascadetop-down-controlbottom-up-controlmesopredator-releasekeystone-speciesecosystem-engineerfoundation-speciesdominant-speciescharacteristic-speciesindicator-speciesumbrella-speciesflagship-speciessurrogate-speciesfocal-speciestarget-speciespest-speciesinvasive-speciesnaturalized-speciesalien-speciesnon-native-speciesintroduced-speciescryptogenic-speciesrange-shiftpoleward-shiftelevational-shiftphenological-shifttemporal-mismatchtrophic-mismatchphenologyseasonalityvoltinismunivoltinebivoltinemultivoltinepartial-generationprolonged-diapauseaestivationhibernationoverwinteringoverwintering-strategycold-hardinessfreeze-tolerancefreeze-avoidancesupercoolingcryoprotectantthermal-biologythermoregulationbehavioral-thermoregulationmicroclimate-selectionhabitat-selectionoviposition-site-selectionhost-selectionmate-choicesexual-selectionsperm-competitioncryptic-female-choicereproductive-isolationprezygotic-isolationpostzygotic-isolationspeciationallopatric-speciationsympatric-speciationparapatric-speciationperipatric-speciationreinforcementhybridizationintrogressionhybrid-zoneclineecotonecontact-zonesecondary-contactexogenous-selectionendogenous-selectionecological-speciationmutation-order-speciationsexual-conflictsexual-dimorphismsexual-size-dimorphismsexual-dichromatismpolymorphismcolor-polymorphismmorphphasegregarious-phasesolitary-phasedensity-dependent-polyphenismreaction-normgenotype-environment-interactionplasticitycanalizationgene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parvulum
Northern Spruce Borer
Tetropium parvulum, the northern spruce borer, is a small cerambycid beetle specialized on spruce hosts. It was elevated from synonymy with T. cinnamopterum based on distinct morphological differences in larvae and adults, and exhibits strict host specificity to Picea compared to the conifer generalist T. cinnamopterum. The species has a one-year life cycle and is an economically important borer of white and Engelmann spruce logs in western Canada.
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