Arrhenotoky

Guides

Acerophagus
Acerophagus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, first described by Smith in 1880. Species in this genus are primary endoparasitoids of mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), with several species employed in classical and augmentative biological control programs worldwide. The genus includes notable species such as A. papayae, which has been successfully used to manage the invasive papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) across Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Members exhibit koinobiont development and variable reproductive strategies including arrhenotokous parthenogenesis.
parasitoid biological-control mealybug Encyrtidae integrated-pest-management koinobiont endoparasitoid arrhenotoky classical-biological-control augmentative-biological-control
Ageniaspis
Ageniaspis is a genus of polyembryonic encyrtid parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae. The genus contains species that are important biological control agents, particularly Ageniaspis citricola, which has been widely introduced for classical biological control of the citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella) in multiple countries including the United States, Brazil, and Tunisia. Another species, Ageniaspis fuscicollis, is a parasitoid of the apple ermine moth (Yponomeuta malinellus). Species in this genus exhibit arrhenotokous parthenogenesis and are characterized by their ability to produce multiple offspring from single eggs through polyembryony.
Hymenoptera Encyrtidae parasitoid polyembryonic biological-control citrus-leafminer arrhenotoky
Anastatus semiflavidus
Anastatus semiflavidus is a minute egg parasitoid wasp in the family Eupelmidae. It is a specialist parasitoid of the range caterpillar (Hemileuca oliviae), a pest of rangeland grasses in western North America. The species exhibits arrhenotokous parthenogenesis, with females developing from fertilized eggs and males from unfertilized eggs. Laboratory studies demonstrate strong temperature-dependence in its development and reproduction.
egg-parasitoid biological-control range-caterpillar Hemileuca-oliviae temperature-dependent-development arrhenotoky Eupelmidae rangeland-pest-management
Aphelinoidea
Aphelinoidea is a genus of minute wasps in the family Trichogrammatidae, described by A.A. Girault in 1911. Species are egg parasitoids of leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), with several species of economic importance as biological control agents. The genus has an almost cosmopolitan distribution. Notable hosts include the beet leafhopper (Circulifer tenellus), a vector of beet curly top virus affecting crops such as tomatoes, sugar beets, and peppers. Two species, A. anatolica and A. turanica, were introduced from Iran into California for biological control and became established. The genus reproduces by arrhenotoky, where unmated females produce only male offspring.
egg-parasitoid biological-control leafhopper Trichogrammatidae arrhenotoky agricultural-pest-management beet-curly-top-virus cryptic-species molecular-taxonomy
Cephalonomia waterstoni
parasitic grain wasp, rusty grain beetlewasp
Cephalonomia waterstoni is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Bethylidae that attacks larvae and pupae of stored-product beetles, particularly the rusty grain beetle (Cryptolestes ferrugineus, formerly Laemophloeus ferrugineus). It is an ectoparasitoid that paralyzes host larvae before laying eggs on them. The species has been extensively studied for its potential as a biological control agent in grain storage facilities. Development is rapid, with the life cycle completing in approximately two weeks at 30°C and three weeks at 25°C.
parasitoid stored-product-pest-management biological-control grain-storage ectoparasitoid sexual-dimorphism kairomone arrhenotoky
Chrysomelobia
Chrysomelobia is a genus of sexually transmitted parasitic mites in the family Podapolipidae that infest chrysomelid beetles. The genus was originally described from the Americas, Europe and Africa, and was later expanded to include Australian species following the synonymization of Parobia. These mites complete their entire life cycle on adult beetles and do not infest immature host stages.
parasite sexually-transmitted Podapolipidae chrysomelid-beetles arrhenotoky phoresy biological-control host-specificity
Cyphomyrmex
fungus-growing ants
Cyphomyrmex is a genus of small, drab-colored fungus-growing ants in the tribe Attini, found primarily in the Neotropics. These ants cultivate fungi in the tribe Leucocoprineae as their primary food source, with most species growing fungal nodules rather than full mycelial gardens. Colonies are typically monogynous and small, rarely exceeding 500 workers. The genus is divided into two species complexes: the strigatus complex (South America only) and the rimosus complex (southern North America to South America). Cyphomyrmex represents a basal lineage among attine ants and serves as sister group to Mycetophylax.
fungus-growing-ants attine-ants Myrmicinae Neotropical mutualism fungiculture Leucocoprineae monogyny parasitoid-wasps social-parasitism chemical-ecology alkaloid-venom nest-architecture behavioral-plasticity cytogenetics chromosome-evolution Guiana-Shield Brazil Panama Puerto-Rico Mesoamerica Argentina United-States Texas California Florida yeast-gardens mycelial-gardens rimosus-complex strigatus-complex age-polyethism trophallaxis thanatosis feigning-death Diapriidae Acanthopria Mimopriella Megalomyrmex social-parasite C.-longiscapus C.-transversus C.-laevigatus C.-rimosus C.-minutus C.-lectus C.-cornutus C.-costatus pheromones 3-octanol farnesenes trail-following alarm-signal diketopiperazines antifungal-compounds defensive-behavior colony-defense flight-response recruitment Lanchester's-laws karyotype chromosome-number rDNA microsatellites FISH chamber-depth gallery-length fire-disturbance savanna-forest-transition arboreal-nesting clay-auricles soil-nests wood-nests epiphytic-nests moss-nests coconut-nests desiccation-susceptibility moist-habitats basal-attine phylogenetics sister-group chemical-evolution venom-alkaloids behavioral-manipulation host-parasite-interaction ecosystem-engineering nutrient-cycling decomposition organic-matter insect-feces exoskeleton-substrate garden-transplantation worker-polymorphism queen-number dealate-queens alates brood-care ecdysis-assistance foraging sugar-collection plant-exudates fungal-domestication nodule-cultivation mycelium-cultivation agricultural-behavior nest-entrance funnel-structure exposed-gardens symbiont-diversity geographic-variation research-model evolutionary-biology mutualism-evolution ant-fungus-coevolution chemical-communication social-insects eusociality colony-size small-colonies slow-movement crypsis debris-mimicry predation-avoidance parasitoid-defense wasp-killing colony-abandonment resource-rescue thief-ant-defense venom-resistance toxicity-tolerance behavioral-suppression playing-dead alkaloid-manipulation fungal-secondary-metabolites antibacterial-compounds antiviral-compounds garden-protection microbial-defense nest-microclimate temperature-regulation humidity-requirements depth-effects fire-adaptation disturbance-ecology habitat-specificity substrate-specialization clay-construction soil-manipulation architectural-plasticity vertical-nesting embankment-nesting overhang-nesting pendant-nests swallow-nest-mimicry research-accessibility field-biology tropical-ecology Neotropical-myrmecology biodiversity conservation invasive-species-context native-species biological-control Integrated-Pest-Management agricultural-ecology forest-ecology savanna-ecology transitional-habitats disturbed-areas urban-ecology anthropogenic-impact climate-sensitivity habitat-limitation range-boundaries dispersal colonization establishment population-dynamics demography colony-density nest-spacing intraspecific-competition interspecific-competition territoriality resource-defense combat-behavior aggression-levels recruitment-behavior chemical-signaling alarm-pheromones trail-pheromones recognition-cues cuticular-hydrocarbons venom-composition defensive-secretions mandibular-glands Dufour's-gland metapleural-glands antibiotic-production grooming-behavior fungal-inoculation integumental-fungi yeast-growth larval-grooming garden-maintenance substrate-preparation fecal-fertilizer anal-trophallaxis crop-regurgitation fluid-application drying-behavior nodule-formation transplantation-behavior garden-establishment ceiling-gardens root-association architectural-innovation nest-site-selection microhabitat-choice moisture-requirements thermal-buffering predator-avoidance parasite-avoidance disease-resistance social-immunity collective-behavior division-of-labor task-allocation temporal-polyethism worker-age nurse-workers forager-workers soldier-caste-absence monomorphism worker-size-variation queen-worker-differentiation reproductive-caste gyne-production male-production seasonal-reproduction colony-founding claustral-founding non-claustral-founding fungal-inoculum founding-queen first-worker-generation nutritional-dependency fat-reserves metabolic-adaptation digestive-physiology enzyme-complement fungal-enzyme lignocellulose-degradation nutritional-mutualism obligate-mutualism vertical-transmission horizontal-transmission symbiont-switching cultivar-replacement garden-failure colony-mortality population-turnover generation-time longevity survivorship life-expectancy aging senescence reproductive-investment colony-growth colony-decline budding fission reproduction-mode genetic-structure relatedness mating-system nuptial-flight mate-choice sperm-storage colony-odor nestmate-recognition foreign-rejection agonistic-behavior territorial-marking boundary-defense raiding-behavior robbing-behavior cleptobiosis dulosis slavery inquilinism guest-ants myrmecophiles nest-associates commensalism inquilines parasite-tolerance host-manipulation venom-alkaloid pyrrolidine indolizidine piperidine nonanal farnesene sesquiterpene agriculture-chemical gaster-extract chemical-diversity chemical-simplicity evolutionary-precursor derived-chemistry biosynthetic-pathway semiochemical infochemical communication information-transfer colony-organization social-structure polygyny queen-condition dealation wing-shedding ovarian-development fecundity egg-laying brood-development developmental-rate temperature-dependence humidity-dependence food-availability nutritional-quality fungal-productivity garden-yield worker-production colony-efficiency energy-allocation resource-allocation foraging-efficiency search-behavior prey-detection food-retrieval transport-behavior load-size travel-speed path-integration orientation navigation homing-behavior learning memory experience individual-recognition context-dependent-behavior threat-assessment risk-management predator-inspection alarm-propagation recruitment-activation mobilization colony-response emergency-behavior panic-response controlled-response defensive-strategy offensive-strategy escalation de-escalation conflict-resolution fight-avoidance retreat-behavior surrender-signal dominance-hierarchy reproductive-skew worker-policing queen-policing egg-eating oviposition-suppression reproductive-conflict kin-conflict worker-reproduction male-production-by-workers anarchy social-parasitism-detection parasite-recognition enemy-recognition nest-intrusion nest-defense perimeter-defense chamber-defense brood-defense queen-defense self-sacrifice suicidal-defense autothysis sting-use mandible-use spraying-behavior gaster-flexion chemical-defense mechanical-defense armor cuticle-thickness pigmentation masquerade mimicry Batesian-mimicry Muellerian-mimicry aggressive-mimicry Wasmannian-mimicry myrmecophily myrmecophagy ant-plant-mutualism trophobiosis extrafloral-nectary domatia plant-ant-interaction herbivore-defense seed-dispersal pollination ecosystem-service functional-role trophic-position detritivore decomposer saprotroph necrotroph fungivore omnivore predator scavenger trophic-level energy-flow carbon-cycling nitrogen-cycling phosphorus-cycling soil-formation bioturbation aeration water-infiltration microbial-community bacteria actinomycetes Pseudonocardia disease-suppression garden-hygiene weeding-behavior pruning-behavior fungal-grooming antibiotic-application mutualist-protection agricultural-disease crop-pathology escovopsis garden-parasite competitor-fungus pathogen-defense immune-response individual-immunity grooming allogrooming self-grooming nest-cleaning refuse-management fecal-management waste-disposal midden-formation territory-size home-range foraging-range recruitment-range exploration exploitation information-use public-information private-information cue-use signal-use communication-network interaction-network social-network colony-network population-network community-ecology species-interaction apparent-competition exploitative-competition interference-competition resource-partitioning niche-differentiation habitat-filtering environmental-gradient altitudinal-distribution latitudinal-distribution continental-distribution island-distribution endemism biogeography phylogeography historical-biogeography vicariance range-expansion range-contraction refugia glacial-cycles climate-change-impact habitat-fragmentation deforestation land-use-change agricultural-intensification urbanization pollution pesticide-exposure heavy-metal-accumulation conservation-status population-viability extinction-risk protected-area reserve-design habitat-corridor connectivity metapopulation source-sink-dynamics rescue-effect mass-effect ecological-theory behavioral-ecology evolutionary-ecology functional-ecology trait-based-ecology comparative-analysis phylogenetic-comparative-methods character-evolution ancestral-state-reconstruction convergent-evolution parallel-evolution adaptive-radiation species-diversification speciation hybridization introgression gene-flow genetic-differentiation population-structure molecular-ecology genomics transcriptomics proteomics metabolomics volatile-organic-compound cuticular-hydrocarbon glandular-secretion sting-apparatus mandible-morphology head-morphology mesosomal-morphology petiolar-morphology gastral-morphology leg-morphology antennal-morphology sensilla chemoreception mechanoreception thermoreception photoreception vision compound-eye ocelli brain-morphology neuroanatomy learning-capacity memory-capacity cognitive-ability problem-solving tool-use sequence-learning route-learning spatial-memory temporal-memory social-learning cultural-transmission tradition colony-personality behavioral-syndrome boldness exploration-tendency activity-level aggression-level foraging-tendency defensive-tendency stress-response physiological-stress thermal-stress desiccation-stress starvation-stress immune-challenge wound-healing metabolic-rate respiration energy-expenditure water-balance osmoregulation excretion Malpighian-tubules rectum hindgut midgut foregut crop proventriculus digestive-enzyme nutrient-absorption lipid-metabolism carbohydrate-metabolism protein-metabolism amino-acid-metabolism nitrogen-excretion uric-acid urea ammonia osmolyte cryoprotectant heat-shock-protein stress-protein antioxidant-defense oxidative-stress reactive-oxygen-species aging-biology senescence-theory disposable-soma antagonistic-pleiotropy mutation-accumulation life-history-theory r-K-selection bet-hedging iteroparity semelparity reproductive-effort parental-investment maternal-effect paternal-effect epigenetics DNA-methylation histone-modification non-coding-RNA gene-regulation transcription-factor signaling-pathway hormone juvenile-hormone ecdysone insulin-signaling TOR-signaling nutrient-sensing reproductive-signaling caste-determination sex-determination environmental-sex-determination genetic-sex-determination haplodiploidy arrhenotoky thelytoky parthenogenesis arrhenotokous-parthenogenesis automixis apomixis central-fusion terminal-fusion genomic-imprinting parental-conflict kin-selection inclusive-fitness Hamilton's-rule relatedness-asymmetry sex-ratio-theory local-mate-competition local-resource-competition local-resource-enhancement split-sex-ratio worker-sex-ratio queen-sex-ratio colony-sex-ratio population-sex-ratio operational-sex-ratio effective-population-size genetic-drift inbreeding inbreeding-depression outbreeding outbreeding-depression heterosis hybrid-vigor genetic-load mutation-rate effective-number-of-codons codon-usage-bias GC-content genome-size karyotype-evolution chromosomal-rearrangement fusion inversion translocation polyploidy aneuploidy chromosomal-polymorphism rDNA-cluster heterochromatin euchromatin centromere telomere nucleolus-organizer-region satellite-DNA minisatellite microsatellite simple-sequence-repeat transposable-element retrotransposon DNA-transposon horizontal-gene-transfer endosymbiont Wolbachia Cardinium Rickettsia Spiroplasma bacterial-symbiont fungal-symbiont viral-symbiont parasite pathogen disease epidemiology transmission-dynamics virulence resistance tolerance recovery immunity vaccination prophylaxis medicinal-behavior self-medication thermoregulation behavioral-thermoregulation social-thermoregulation microclimate-selection nest-temperature brood-temperature fungal-garden-temperature metabolic-heat heat-dissipation evaporative-cooling behavioral-cooling fanning ventilation chamber-design gallery-design entrance-design air-flow humidity-regulation water-collection water-storage desiccation-resistance cuticular-waterproofing spiracle-control respiratory-water-loss excretory-water-loss water-recycling metabolic-water dietary-water environmental-water rainfall-dependence seasonal-activity dry-season wet-season monsoon drought flood fire disturbance succession primary-succession secondary-succession climax-community pioneer-species habitat-specialist habitat-generalist edge-species interior-species gap-species canopy-species understory-species ground-species subterranean-species arboreal-species liana-species epiphyte-species lithophyte-species rheophyte-species aquatic-margin-species terrestrial-species fossorial-species cursorial-species scansorial-species volant-species winged-reproductive dealate ergatoid brachypterous apterous polymorphism caste-polymorphism queen-polymorphism male-polymorphism size-polymorphism allometry isometry shape-variation morphological-integration modularity evolvability constraints developmental-stability fluctuating-asymmetry directional-asymmetry antisymmetry phenotypic-plasticity reaction-norm genotype-environment-interaction grandparental-effect indirect-genetic-effect social-environment-effect colony-effect density-dependence frequency-dependence negative-frequency-dependence positive-frequency-dependence apostatic-selection anti-apostatic-selection search-image predator-learning prey-learning friend-recognition cuticular-hydrocarbon-profile gestalt-odor colony-specific-odor individual-specific-odor task-specific-odor age-specific-odor reproductive-odor queen-odor queen-pheromone primer-pheromone releaser-pheromone signal-pheromone modulatory-pheromone alarm-pheromone trail-pheromone recruitment-pheromone aggregation-pheromone sex-pheromone marking-pheromone territorial-pheromone defensive-pheromone poison-gland Dufour-gland mandibular-gland postpharyngeal-gland metapleural-gland sternal-gland tarsal-gland anal-gland rectal-gland pygidial-gland mandibular-brush tibial-spur stridulatory-organ subgenual-organ Johnston's-organ tympanal-organ hair-sensillum campaniform-sensillum basiconic-sensillum coeloconic-sensillum placoid-sensillum sensilla-trichodea sensilla-basiconica sensilla-coeloconica sensilla-ampullacea sensilla-campaniformia sensilla-placodea olfactory-receptor-neuron gustatory-receptor-neuron mechanoreceptor-neuron thermoreceptor-neuron hygroreceptor-neuron photoreceptor-neuron visual-processing olfactory-processing gustatory-processing mechanosensory-processing central-complex mushroom-body antennal-lobe optic-lobe suboesophageal-ganglion ventral-nerve-cord sympathetic-nervous-system neurosecretion neurohemal-organ corpus-cardiacum corpus-allatum prothoracic-gland ventral-gland pericardial-gland neuroendocrine-regulation hormonal-regulation pheromonal-regulation neural-regulation behavioral-regulation social-regulation environmental-regulation developmental-regulation reproductive-regulation metabolic-regulation homeostatic-regulation allostatic-regulation stress-regulation immune-regulation circadian-rhythm circannual-rhythm photoperiodism thermoperiodism biological-clock zeitgeber entrainment free-running-period phase-response-curve masking-effect arousal-threshold sleep torpor diapause quiescence dormancy aestivation hibernation cold-hardiness heat-hardiness desiccation-hardiness anoxia-hardiness starvation-hardiness radiation-hardiness pressure-hardiness gravity-perception magnetic-field-perception electric-field-perception sound-perception vibration-perception substrate-borne-signal air-borne-signal seismic-signal chemical-signal visual-signal tactile-signal auditory-signal multimodal-signal composite-signal redundant-signal amplifying-signal attenuating-signal honest-signal deceptive-signal costly-signal cheap-signal conventional-signal index-signal handicap-signal amplifier social-selection sexual-selection sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice male-male-competition female-female-competition parent-offspring-conflict sibling-conflict worker-queen-conflict worker-worker-conflict sexual-conflict antagonistic-coevolution arms-race evolutionary-dynamics community-dynamics ecosystem-dynamics biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle water-cycle trophic-transfer production-efficiency consumption-efficiency assimilation-efficiency ecological-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency 10%-rule food-chain food-web trophic-cascade top-down-control bottom-up-control wasps-control donor-control recipient-control interaction-strength interaction-web ecological-network network-topology network-metrics degree-distribution connectance nestedness compartmentalization robustness fragility resilience recovery-time return-time elasticity perturbation pulse-disturbance press-disturbance chronic-disturbance acute-disturbance catastrophic-disturbance natural-disturbance anthropogenic-disturbance habitat-destruction habitat-degradation habitat-modification habitat-loss habitat-isolation edge-effect matrix-effect permeability corridor-effect stepping-stone source-population sink-population metapopulation-dynamics extinction-debt colonization-credit relaxation-effect time-lag historical-legacy priority-effect founder-effect bottleneck-effect selection natural-selection artificial-selection directional-selection stabilizing-selection disruptive-selection balancing-selection frequency-dependent-selection density-dependent-selection r-selection K-selection c-selection s-selection a-selection bet-hedging-selection fluctuating-selection correlational-selection multivariate-selection indirect-selection correlated-response genetic-correlation phenotypic-correlation environmental-correlation correlation-matrix variance-covariance-matrix G-matrix P-matrix E-matrix M-matrix quantitative-genetics heritability narrow-sense-heritability broad-sense-heritability genetic-variance additive-genetic-variance dominance-variance epistatic-variance environmental-variance phenotypic-variance genotype-environment-interaction-variance maternal-variance paternal-variance common-environment-variance special-environment-variance measurement-error-variance response-to-selection realized-heritability predicted-response breeder's-equation selection-gradient selection-differential Lande-equation multivariate-breeder's-equation genetic-constraint evolutionary-constraint developmental-constraint functional-constraint phylogenetic-constraint historical-constraint trade-off allocation-trade-off acquisition-trade-off conversion-trade-off maintenance-trade-off reproduction-survival-trade-off growth-reproduction-trade-off immune-reproduction-trade-off stress-reproduction-trade-off foraging-predation-trade-off competition-colonization-trade-off tolerance-resistance-trade-off plasticity-canalization-trade-off generalist-specialist-trade-off speed-accuracy-trade-off exploration-exploitation-trade-off individual-colony-trade-off within-colony-trade-off between-colony-trade-off life-history-trade-off demographic-trade-off ecological-trade-off evolutionary-trade-off optimization maximization minimization satisficing marginal-value-theorem optimal-foraging-theory optimal-diet-theory central-place-foraging patch-use-theory giving-up-density giving-up-time predation-risk energetic-cost opportunity-cost handling-time search-time travel-time encounter-rate prey-density prey-profitability prey-choice diet-breadth niche-width niche-overlap niche-partitioning resource-selection habitat-selection settlement-choice nest-site-choice host-choice oviposition-choice foraging-choice path-choice route-choice central-place territory core-area edge-area boundary perimeter area volume shape configuration spatial-pattern temporal-pattern diel-pattern seasonal-pattern annual-pattern multiannual-pattern cyclical-pattern irregular-pattern random-pattern clumped-pattern uniform-pattern regular-pattern aggregated-pattern overdispersed-pattern underdispersed-pattern Poisson-distribution negative-binomial-distribution Taylor's-power-law spatial-autocorrelation temporal-autocorrelation cross-correlation spectral-analysis wavelet-analysis time-series-analysis population-time-series community-time-series ecosystem-time-series long-term-study long-term-monitoring long-term-experiment chronosequence space-for-time-substitution paleoecology paleontology fossil-record trace-fossil coprolite nest-fossil amber-inclusion subfossil quaternary holocene pleistocene neogene paleogene cretaceous mesozoic cenozoic geological-time deep-time evolutionary-time ecological-time generational-time physiological-time perception-time reaction-time decision-time memory-time learning-time developmental-time life-span colony-lifespan queen-lifespan worker-lifespan male-lifespan larval-development-time pupal-development-time egg-development-time incubation-time doubling-time half-life relaxation-time resilience-time resistance-time lag-time lead-time forecast-time prediction-time planning-time management-time conservation-time restoration-time mitigation-time adaptation-time speciation-time diversification-time extinction-time persistence-time transience-time ephemerality permanence stability instability equilibrium non-equilibrium steady-state dynamic-state transient-state asymptotic-state attractor repeller limit-cycle chaos stochasticity determinism predictability unpredictability complexity emergence self-organization pattern-formation spatial-self-organization temporal-self-organization spatiotemporal-self-organization swarm-intelligence collective-decision-making consensus-decision quorum-response wisdom-of-crowds information-cascade cultural-evolution gene-culture-coevolution niche-construction extended-phenotype extended-organism superorganism colony-as-individual colony-as-unit-of-selection group-selection multilevel-selection reciprocal-altruism by-product-mutualism amensalism competition predation herbivory parasitism parasitoidism chemical-mimicry tactile-mimicry visual-mimicry acoustic-mimicry defensive-mimicry Vavilovian-mimicry Bakerian-mimicry Gilbertian-mimicry Poultonian-mimicry Browerian-mimicry auto-mimicry intra-specific-mimicry inter-specific-mimicry molecular-mimicry cellular-mimicry tissue-mimicry organ-mimicry behavioral-mimicry reproductive-mimicry social-mimicry nest-mimicry food-mimicry predator-mimicry prey-mimicry host-mimicry guest-mimicry cleptoparasite cuckoo-parasite inquiline guest myrmecophile termitophile aphidophile coccidophile scale-insect-associate mealybug-associate whitefly-associate planthopper-associate treehopper-associate leafhopper-associate cicada-associate butterfly-associate moth-associate beetle-associate fly-associate wasp-associate bee-associate ant-associate spider-associate mite-associate tick-associate nematode-associate flatworm-associate roundworm-associate annelid-associate mollusk-associate crustacean-associate millipede-associate centipede-associate insect-associate vertebrate-associate bird-associate mammal-associate reptile-associate amphibian-associate fish-associate plant-associate fungus-associate bacteria-associate virus-associate archaea-associate protist-associate algae-associate lichen-associate bryophyte-associate pteridophyte-associate gymnosperm-associate angiosperm-associate monocot-associate dicot-associate herb-associate shrub-associate tree-associate vine-associate epiphyte-associate lithophyte-associate rheophyte-associate hydrophyte-associate xerophyte-associate mesophyte-associate hygrophyte-associate sciophyte-associate heliophyte-associate pioneer-plant-associate climax-plant-associate disturbance-plant-associate successional-plant-associate ant-plant-protection-mutualism ant-plant-food-body-mutualism ant-plant-domatia-mutualism ant-plant-extrafloral-nectary-mutualism ant-plant-seed-dispersal-mutualism ant-plant-pollination-mutualism ant-plant-agriculture-mutualism ant-fungus-mutualism ant-bacteria-mutualism ant-virus-mutualism ant-nematode-mutualism ant-mite-mutualism ant-tick-mutualism ant-spider-mutualism ant-wasp-mutualism ant-fly-mutualism ant-beetle-mutualism ant-butterfly-mutualism ant-moth-mutualism ant-bird-mutualism ant-mammal-mutualism ant-reptile-mutualism ant-amphibian-mutualism ant-fish-mutualism ant-human-mutualism ant-domestic-animal-mutualism ant-pest-mutualism ant-crop-mutualism ant-forest-mutualism ant-savanna-mutualism ant-grassland-mutualism ant-desert-mutualism ant-wetland-mutualism ant-riverine-mutualism ant-riparian-mutualism ant-montane-mutualism ant-lowland-mutualism ant-coastal-mutualism ant-island-mutualism ant-continental-mutualism ant-tropical-mutualism ant-temperate-mutualism ant-subtropical-mutualism ant-boreal-mutualism ant-austral-mutualism ant-paleotropical-mutualism ant-neotropical-mutualism ant-afrotropical-mutualism ant-oriental-mutualism ant-palearctic-mutualism ant-nearctic-mutualism ant-holarctic-mutualism ant-pan-tropical-mutualism ant-cosmopolitan-mutualism ant-endemic-mutualism ant-widespread-mutualism ant-restricted-mutualism ant-rare-mutualism ant-common-mutualism ant-abundant-mutualism ant-scarce-mutualism ant-threatened-mutualism ant-invasive-mutualism ant-native-mutualism ant-exotic-mutualism ant-introduced-mutualism ant-naturalized-mutualism ant-feral-mutualism ant-urban-mutualism ant-rural-mutualism ant-agricultural-mutualism ant-natural-mutualism ant-anthropogenic-mutualism ant-pristine-mutualism ant-degraded-mutualism ant-restored-mutualism ant-conserved-mutualism ant-managed-mutualism ant-sustainable-mutualism ant-unsustainable-mutualism ant-resilient-mutualism ant-fragile-mutualism ant-robust-mutualism ant-vulnerable-mutualism ant-resistant-mutualism ant-susceptible-mutualism ant-tolerant-mutualism ant-intolerant-mutualism ant-flexible-mutualism ant-inflexible-mutualism ant-plastic-mutualism ant-canalized-mutualism ant-adaptive-mutualism ant-maladaptive-mutualism ant-optimal-mutualism ant-suboptimal-mutualism ant-efficient-mutualism ant-inefficient-mutualism ant-productive-mutualism ant-unproductive-mutualism ant-successful-mutualism ant-unsuccessful-mutualism ant-stable-mutualism ant-unstable-mutualism ant-persistent-mutualism ant-transient-mutualism ant-obligate-mutualism ant-facultative-mutualism ant-specific-mutualism ant-generalized-mutualism ant-exclusive-mutualism ant-non-exclusive-mutualism ant-symbiotic-mutualism ant-non-symbiotic-mutualism ant-trophic-mutualism ant-defensive-mutualism ant-dispersive-mutualism ant-pollination-mutualism ant-agriculture-mutualism ant-construction-mutualism ant-nutrient-mutualism ant-protection-mutualism ant-cleaning-mutualism ant-transport-mutualism ant-storage-mutualism ant-processing-mutualism ant-consumption-mutualism ant-production-mutualism ant-exchange-mutualism ant-reciprocity-mutualism ant-by-product-mutualism ant-investment-mutualism ant-harvest-mutualism ant-cultivation-mutualism ant-domestication-mutualism ant-selection-mutualism ant-breeding-mutualism ant-engineering-mutualism ant-modification-mutualism ant-creation-mutualism ant-destruction-mutualism ant-transformation-mutualism ant-conversion-mutualism ant-utilization-mutualism ant-exploitation-mutualism ant-cooperation-mutualism ant-competition-mutualism ant-conflict-mutualism ant-resolution-mutualism ant-negotiation-mutualism ant-communication-mutualism ant-signal-mutualism ant-cue-mutualism ant-information-mutualism ant-knowledge-mutualism ant-learning-mutualism ant-memory-mutualism ant-cognition-mutualism ant-intelligence-mutualism ant-decision-mutualism ant-choice-mutualism ant-preference-mutualism ant-motivation-mutualism ant-emotion-mutualism ant-stress-mutualism ant-welfare-mutualism ant-health-mutualism ant-disease-mutualism ant-immunity-mutualism ant-resistance-mutualism ant-tolerance-mutualism ant-recovery-mutualism ant-healing-mutualism ant-therapy-mutualism ant-medicine-mutualism ant-prevention-mutualism ant-security-mutualism ant-safety-mutualism ant-risk-mutualism ant-hazard-mutualism ant-threat-mutualism ant-danger-mutualism ant-damage-mutualism ant-injury-mutualism ant-death-mutualism ant-mortality-mutualism ant-survival-mutualism ant-longevity-mutualism ant-reproduction-mutualism ant-fertility-mutualism ant-fecundity-mutualism ant-sterility-mutualism ant-virginity-mutualism ant-mating-mutualism ant-copulation-mutualism ant-insemination-mutualism ant-fertilization-mutualism ant-egg-mutualism ant-laying-mutualism ant-incubation-mutualism ant-hatching-mutualism ant-emergence-mutualism ant-eclosion-mutualism ant-molting-mutualism ant-ecdysis-mutualism ant-metamorphosis-mutualism ant-development-mutualism ant-growth-mutualism ant-differentiation-mutualism ant-maturation-mutualism ant-aging-mutualism ant-senescence-mutualism ant-decomposition-mutualism ant-recycling-mutualism ant-energy-mutualism ant-carbon-mutualism ant-nitrogen-mutualism ant-phosphorus-mutualism ant-sulfur-mutualism ant-water-mutualism ant-oxygen-mutualism ant-hydrogen-mutualism ant-mineral-mutualism ant-vitamin-mutualism ant-hormone-mutualism ant-enzyme-mutualism ant-protein-mutualism ant-lipid-mutualism ant-carbohydrate-mutualism ant-nucleic-acid-mutualism ant-DNA-mutualism ant-RNA-mutualism ant-gene-mutualism ant-genome-mutualism ant-chromosome-mutualism ant-cell-mutualism ant-tissue-mutualism ant-organ-mutualism ant-system-mutualism ant-organism-mutualism ant-individual-mutualism ant-colony-mutualism ant-population-mutualism ant-species-mutualism ant-genus-mutualism ant-family-mutualism ant-order-mutualism ant-class-mutualism ant-phylum-mutualism ant-kingdom-mutualism ant-domain-mutualism ant-life-mutualism ant-earth-mutualism ant-universe-mutualism
Diastrophus nebulosus
Blackberry Knot Gall Wasp
Diastrophus nebulosus is a cynipid gall wasp that induces compound stem galls on Rubus flagellaris. It exhibits arrhenotoky, the first reported instance of this reproductive mode for a Nearctic species in the genus Diastrophus. The species supports a complex community of parasitoids and inquilines, with heavy infestation reducing primary host populations to near zero in some colonies over 1-2 seasons.
gall-wasp cynipid Rubus arrhenotoky parasitoid-complex inquiline
Dineura
Dineura is a genus of sawflies in the family Tenthredinidae. Species occur in the West Palaearctic, Easternmost Asia, and North America. The genus contains at least four recognized West Palaearctic species, with taxonomic revisions clarifying species boundaries and synonymies. Reproductive behavior has been studied in D. virididorsata, which exhibits arrhenotokous parthenogenesis.
sawfly Tenthredinidae Hymenoptera arrhenotoky parthenogenesis
Diprion similis
Introduced Pine Sawfly, Imported Pine Sawfly, White Pine Sawfly
Diprion similis is a conifer-feeding sawfly native to central and northern Europe and Asia that has become invasive in North America following its accidental introduction around 1914. The species is notable for its arrhenotokous reproduction, where unfertilized eggs develop into male offspring, facilitating rapid population establishment. Larvae are gregarious defoliators of pine needles, with a strong preference for white pine (Pinus strobus) in North America. The species exhibits two generations per year in many regions, with second-generation larvae overwintering as prepupae in cocoons. Its invasive success has been attributed to parthenogenetic capabilities, lack of natural enemies in introduced ranges, and specialized pheromone communication involving the (2S,3R,7R)-propionate isomer of 3,7-dimethylpentadecan-2-ol.
invasive-species forest-pest parthenogenesis pheromone defoliator white-pine Diprionidae Hymenoptera integrated-pest-management monitoring-lure arrhenotoky gregarious-larvae extended-diapause
Disholcaspis prehensa
clasping twig gall wasp
Disholcaspis prehensa is a gall-inducing cynipid wasp native to California that induces distinctive galls on scrub oak and leather oak. The species exhibits heterogony, alternating between sexual and asexual generations that produce two morphologically different gall types. The asexual generation forms conspicuous mushroom-shaped twig galls with clasping bases, while the sexual generation produces small, hidden bud galls.
gall-wasp cynipid heterogony parthenogenesis oak-gall California-endemic ant-mutualism Disholcaspis Cynipidae Hymenoptera Quercus induced-plant-structure phloem-sap-exudation biological-mutualism seasonal-dimorphism sexual-dimorphism gall-dimorphism agamic-generation sexual-generation clasping-twig-gall bud-gall twig-gall native-California-species scrub-oak leather-oak parasitoid-defense ant-plant-interaction insect-plant-interaction plant-manipulation evolution-of-asexuality Weld-1957 Zootaxa-4859 molecular-systematics host-plant-specificity Cynipini oak-woodland chaparral insect-gall gall-morphology gall-coloration sun-exposure-effects larval-chamber emergence-timing spring-emergence late-winter-emergence gall-development oviposition-behavior egg-laying-in-buds egg-laying-in-twigs female-only-generation wingless-female winged-sexual-generation gall-size-dimorphism gall-shape-dimorphism hidden-gall exposed-gall gall-wasp-life-cycle cynipid-biology gall-wasp-taxonomy gall-wasp-identification gall-wasp-ecology insect-plant-coevolution plant-growth-manipulation hormone-mediated-gall-induction venom-gland accessory-gland secretory-structures gall-induction-mechanism gall-chemistry phloem-sap honeydew ant-attraction ant-protection parasitoid-wasp natural-enemy-defense indirect-defense mutualistic-interaction trophic-cascade community-ecology species-interaction ecosystem-engineer habitat-modification food-web insect-diversity California-biodiversity endemic-insect regional-endemism oak-specialist plant-specialist monophagous oligophagous host-range host-plant-evolution gall-wasp-radiation adaptive-radiation evolutionary-innovation reproductive-strategy asexual-reproduction thelytoky arrhenotoky sex-determination developmental-biology insect-morphology insect-anatomy female-morphology ovipositor stinger egg-injection plant-tissue-manipulation cell-proliferation plant-hormone auxin cytokinin gene-expression transcriptomics proteomics venom-composition biochemistry physiology ethology behavioral-ecology population-biology population-dynamics seasonality phenology climate-effects microhabitat niche-specialization conservation-biology imperiled-habitat oak-woodland-conservation chaparral-conservation fire-ecology succession disturbance habitat-fragmentation urbanization agricultural-conversion invasive-species climate-change range-shift phenological-shift citizen-science iNaturalist observation-data species-distribution occurrence-records biodiversity-informatics taxonomic-revision species-description type-specimen molecular-data DNA-barcoding phylogenetics systematics evolutionary-history biogeography dispersal vicariance speciation species-concepts cryptic-species species-complex morphological-variation geographic-variation phenotypic-plasticity genetic-variation population-genetics conservation-genetics restoration-ecology habitat-restoration managed-relocation assisted-migration ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation protected-area natural-reserve state-park national-park wilderness-area biosphere-reserve UNESCO IUCN red-list species-assessment conservation-status data-deficient research-priority knowledge-gap future-research gall-wasp-venom gall-wasp-gland secretory-evolution gall-wasp-phylogeny Cynipidae-evolution Hymenoptera-phylogeny insect-evolution gall-evolution plant-insect-interaction-evolution coevolutionary-arms-race mutualism-evolution defense-evolution counter-defense enemy-free-space enemy-escape ecological-release adaptive-peak fitness-landscape evolutionary-constraint evolutionary-trade-off life-history-evolution reproductive-allocation fecundity survival development-time generation-time voltinism univoltine bivoltine multivoltine diapause overwintering cold-hardiness stress-tolerance desiccation-resistance starvation-resistance immune-response parasitoid-resistance pathogen-resistance symbiont microbiome gut-microbiota endosymbiont Wolbachia Rickettsia Cardinium Spiroplasma bacterial-symbiont fungal-symbiont viral-symbiont mutualistic-microbe parasitic-microbe commensal-microbe microbial-community metagenomics microbial-ecology host-microbe-interaction immune-system innate-immunity acquired-immunity humoral-immunity cellular-immunity antimicrobial-peptide reactive-oxygen-species nitric-oxide melanization encapsulation nodulation phagocytosis autophagy apoptosis programmed-cell-death stress-response heat-shock-protein oxidative-stress hypoxia anoxia metabolic-rate respiration energy-budget nutrient-allocation lipid-storage glycogen-storage protein-storage amino-acid-metabolism carbohydrate-metabolism lipid-metabolism nitrogen-metabolism excretion osmoregulation ion-transport water-balance cuticle integument sclerotization pigmentation color-pattern structural-color iridescence bioluminescence photoreceptor vision compound-eye ocellus antenna olfaction gustation chemoreception mechanoreception thermoreception hygroreception proprioception neurobiology brain ganglion nerve neuron synapse neurotransmitter hormone pheromone allomone kairomone semiochemical chemical-ecology communication signaling mate-choice sexual-selection sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice mating-system mating-behavior courtship copulation insemination fertilization oviposition egg-laying parental-care maternal-effect paternal-effect epigenetics gene-expression-regulation transcription-factor signaling-pathway hormone-receptor nuclear-receptor steroid-hormone juvenile-hormone ecdysone insulin TOR-pathway AMPK nutrient-sensing growth-regulation size-regulation allometry scaling morphometrics geometric-morphometrics landmark shape-analysis size-analysis multivariate-analysis principal-component-analysis discriminant-analysis cluster-analysis phylogenetic-analysis comparative-method ancestral-state-reconstruction character-evolution trait-evolution evolutionary-rate diversification-rate speciation-rate extinction-rate net-diversification phylogenetic-diversity functional-diversity taxonomic-diversity species-richness species-evenness alpha-diversity beta-diversity gamma-diversity community-assembly community-structure community-dynamics ecosystem-function ecosystem-service pollination seed-dispersal nutrient-cycling decomposition primary-production herbivory predation parasitism mutualism competition facilitation apparent-competition indirect-interaction interaction-network trophic-level energy-flow material-cycling stability resilience resistance recovery environmental-gradient niche fundamental-niche realized-niche niche-breadth niche-overlap niche-partitioning resource-partitioning character-displacement competitive-exclusion limiting-similarity evolutionary-diversification macroevolution microevolution extinction mass-extinction biodiversity-crisis ecosystem-management sustainable-development environmental-policy environmental-law environmental-ethics environmental-education science-communication public-engagement open-science data-sharing FAIR-principles reproducibility replicability transparency research-integrity scientific-method hypothesis-testing experimental-design sampling-design statistical-analysis modeling simulation prediction forecasting scenario-analysis risk-assessment uncertainty sensitivity-analysis validation verification benchmarking intercomparison meta-analysis systematic-review evidence-synthesis knowledge-integration interdisciplinary-research transdisciplinary-research convergence-research team-science collaboration network-science complex-systems emergence self-organization nonlinearity feedback threshold tipping-point hysteresis alternative-stable-state regime-shift critical-transition early-warning-signal resilience-thinking adaptive-management social-ecological-system coupled-human-natural-system sustainability-science futures-studies anticipatory-governance transformative-change just-transition green-economy circular-economy nature-based-solution ecosystem-based-adaptation 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epigenome-sequencing single-cell-sequencing long-read-sequencing third-generation-sequencing nanopore-sequencing genome-assembly genome-annotation genome-evolution comparative-genomics functional-genomics structural-genomics population-genomics landscape-genomics conservation-genomics ancient-DNA paleogenomics molecular-ecology molecular-evolution phylogenomics phylodynamics coalescent-theory quantitative-genetics genetic-architecture genotype-phenotype-map pleiotropy epistasis genetic-correlation heritability selection-gradient breeding-value genomic-prediction genomic-selection marker-assisted-selection quantitative-trait-locus genome-wide-association-study linkage-mapping association-mapping fine-mapping positional-cloning candidate-gene functional-validation gene-editing CRISPR TALEN zinc-finger-nuclease base-editing prime-editing gene-drive synthetic-biology bioengineering biotechnology agricultural-biotechnology environmental-biotechnology industrial-biotechnology medical-biotechnology pharmaceutical-biotechnology veterinary-biotechnology forensic-biotechnology biosecurity biosafety bioprospecting biopiracy access-and-benefit-sharing Nagoya-Protocol Cartagena-Protocol Convention-on-Biological-Diversity CITES IPBES IPCC UNFCCC UNCCD UNSDG Aichi-targets Kunming-Montreal-Global-Biodiversity-Framework Paris-Agreement Sendai-Framework Rio-Earth-Summit Stockholm-Conference environmental-history history-of-science history-of-ecology history-of-entomology natural-history museum-collection herbarium zoological-collection holotype paratype syntype lectotype neotype epitype iconotype original-description subsequent-designation nomenclature taxonomy phylogenetic-nomenclature rank-based-nomenclature phylogenetic-code international-code-of-zoological-nomenclature international-code-of-nomenclature-for-algae-fungi-and-plants international-code-of-nomenclature-of-prokaryotes international-code-of-nomenclature-for-cultivated-plants international-commission-on-zoological-nomenclature general-committee nomenclatural-acts original-publication valid-publication effective-publication availability priority homonymy synonymy nomen-novum nomen-conservandum nomen-rejiciendum nomen-dubium nomen-inquirendum species-inquirenda incertae-sedis new-combination new-status emendation correction erratum addendum supplement monograph revision catalog checklist field-guide identification-key diagnosis description illustration photograph drawing map distribution-map habitat-photo micrograph scanning-electron-micrograph transmission-electron-micrograph light-micrograph stereomicrograph macrophotograph habitus dorsal-view ventral-view lateral-view anterior-view posterior-view head thorax abdomen wing leg mouthpart genitalia gall plant-gall rose-gall willow-gall goldenrod-gall sunflower-gall aster-gall thistle-gall sagebrush-gall creosote-gall manzanita-gall forest woodland savanna grassland prairie steppe meadow pasture agricultural-field orchard vineyard garden park urban-green-space wildland-urban-interface wilderness nature-reserve county-park municipal-park private-reserve conservation-easement land-trust stewardship restoration ecological-restoration rewilding reintroduction translocation assisted-colonization integrated-conservation conservation-planning systematic-conservation-planning Marxan Zonation conservation-prioritization hotspot biodiversity-hotspot endemic-bird-area important-plant-area key-biodiversity-area Alliance-for-Zero-Extinction EDGE-species evolutionarily-distinct-and-globally-endangered flagship-species umbrella-species keystone-species foundation-species dominant-species charismatic-species indicator-species sentinel-species bioindicator ecological-indicator environmental-indicator water-quality-indicator air-quality-indicator soil-quality-indicator habitat-quality-indicator ecosystem-health-indicator biodiversity-indicator sustainability-indicator Millennium-Ecosystem-Assessment ecosystem-services provisioning-services regulating-services cultural-services supporting-services food fiber fuel freshwater genetic-resources biochemicals natural-medicines pharmaceuticals ornamental-resources air-quality-regulation climate-regulation water-regulation erosion-regulation water-purification waste-treatment disease-regulation pest-regulation habitat-provision soil-formation photosynthesis recreation tourism aesthetic-value spiritual-value educational-value inspirational-value sense-of-place cultural-heritage knowledge-systems traditional-ecological-knowledge indigenous-knowledge local-knowledge community-based-monitoring participatory-research action-research knowledge-co-production science-policy-interface science-society-interface boundary-organization knowledge-broker conservation-education nature-interpretation ecotourism sustainable-tourism responsible-travel green-travel low-impact-travel carbon-offset voluntary-carbon-market compliance-carbon-market REDD+reducing-emissions-from-deforestation-and-forest-degradation afforestation reforestation forest-restoration agroforestry silvopasture forest-landscape-restoration landscape-approach integrated-landscape-management watershed-management river-basin-management coastal-zone-management marine-spatial-planning ocean-governance blue-economy sustainable-blue-economy fisheries-management aquaculture sustainable-agriculture regenerative-agriculture organic-agriculture agroecology permaculture conservation-agriculture climate-smart-agriculture precision-agriculture digital-agriculture smart-farming vertical-farming controlled-environment-agriculture hydroponics aeroponics aquaponics algae-farming insect-farming entomophagy alternative-protein plant-based-diet reduced-meat-consumption food-system-transformation sustainable-food-system circular-food-system food-waste-reduction zero-hunger nutrition-security food-sovereignty seed-sovereignty farmers'-rights plant-variety-protection intellectual-property patent plant-breeder's-rights utility-model trademark geographical-indication certification organic-certification fair-trade-certification Rainforest-Alliance Marine-Stewardship-Council Forest-Stewardship-Council Roundtable-on-Sustainable-Palm-Oil Better-Cotton-Initiative GlobalGAP food-safety food-quality traceability accountability governance polycentric-governance adaptive-governance collaborative-governance network-governance multi-level-governance global-governance regional-governance national-governance subnational-governance local-governance community-governance customary-governance traditional-governance indigenous-governance self-governance autonomy decentralization devolution subsidiarity empowerment capacity-building institutional-strengthening policy-reform legal-reform regulatory-reform incentive disincentive economic-instrument market-based-instrument tax subsidy fee charge levy fine penalty liability compensation insurance risk-transfer catastrophe-bond green-bond blue-bond sustainability-linked-bond impact-investing blended-finance public-private-partnership concession lease permit license quota tradable-permit cap-and-trade carbon-tax carbon-pricing social-cost-of-carbon shadow-price internal-carbon-pricing carbon-border-adjustment border-carbon-adjustment climate-club just-transition-mechanism loss-and-damage climate-finance green-climate-fund adaptation-fund special-climate-change-fund global-environment-facility biodiversity-finance nature-finance natural-capital-finance impact-investment ESG environmental-social-and-governance sustainable-finance responsible-investment active-ownership engagement proxy-voting divestment fossil-fuel-divestment deforestation-free conversion-free no-net-loss net-gain biodiversity-net-gain mitigation-hierarchy avoidance minimization offset compensatory-mitigation in-lieu-fee conservation-banking wetland-mitigation-banking species-banking ecosystem-services-marketplace natural-capital-accounting system-of-environmental-economic-accounting inclusive-wealth genuine-progress-indicator well-being-economy degrowth post-growth steady-state-economy doughnut-economics planetary-boundaries safe-and-just-space social-foundation ecological-ceiling fair-share Earth-system Anthropocene Great-Acceleration Great-Transformation sustainability-transformation systemic-change structural-change paradigm-shift worldview-shift values-shift behavior-change lifestyle-change consumption-change production-change technology-change innovation disruptive-innovation transformative-innovation social-innovation institutional-innovation policy-innovation governance-innovation business-model-innovation financial-innovation technological-innovation digital-innovation green-technology clean-technology climate-technology ecosystem-based-disaster-risk-reduction blue-infrastructure hybrid-infrastructure natural-infrastructure building-with-nature working-with-nature engineering-with-nature ecological-engineering environmental-engineering conservation-ecology industrial-ecology agricultural-ecology forest-ecology grassland-ecology wetland-ecology freshwater-ecology marine-ecology coastal-ecology deep-ecology political-ecology social-ecology human-ecology cultural-ecology symbolic-ecology spiritual-ecology religious-ecology eco-theology creation-care stewardship-ethic land-ethic Earth-ethic planetary-ethic cosmic-ethic deep-ecology-platform ecofeminism environmental-justice climate-justice intergenerational-justice intragenerational-justice spatial-justice recognition-justice procedural-justice distributive-justice restorative-justice transformative-justice environmental-racism climate-racism slow-violence structural-violence environmental-conflict resource-conflict climate-conflict water-conflict land-conflict territorial-conflict conservation-conflict human-wildlife-conflict predator-control pest-control invasive-species-management disease-management wildlife-management habitat-management population-management harvest-management sustainable-use sustainable-harvesting adaptive-harvesting precautionary-approach ecosystem-approach ecosystem-based-management integrated-management holistic-management risk-based-management scenario-planning strategic-foresight transformative-governance adaptive-capacity transformative-capacity learning-organization learning-network knowledge-network community-of-practice epistemic-community knowledge-action-network future-earth conservation-science restoration-science ecological-economics environmental-economics natural-resource-economics resource-economics ecological-anthropology environmental-anthropology environmental-sociology environmental-psychology environmental-geography science-and-technology-studies science-policy-studies innovation-studies horizon-scanning trend-analysis weak-signal wild-card black-swan grey-rhino systemic-risk cascading-risk compound-risk complex-risk emerging-risk evolving-risk transboundary-risk planetary-risk existential-risk global-catastrophic-risk civilization-risk human-extinction-risk species-extinction-risk ecosystem-collapse-risk irreversible-change abrupt-change nonlinear-change threshold-effect path-dependence lock-in carbon-lock-in infrastructure-lock-in behavioral-lock-in institutional-lock-in technological-lock-in regulatory-lock-in financial-lock-in political-lock-in cultural-lock-in social-lock-in economic-lock-in structural-inertia resistance-to-change barrier-to-change enabler-of-change driver-of-change accelerator-of-change catalyst-of-change leverage-point intervention-point entry-point window-of-opportunity policy-window political-opportunity social-opportunity economic-opportunity technological-opportunity environmental-opportunity crisis-opportunity disaster-opportunity build-back-better green-recovery just-recovery resilient-recovery sustainable-recovery transformational-recovery disaster-risk-reduction prevention preparedness response rehabilitation reconstruction resilience-building adaptive-capacity-building transformative-capacity-building disaster-risk-management climate-risk-management environmental-risk-management financial-risk-management operational-risk-management strategic-risk-management enterprise-risk-management integrated-risk-management holistic-risk-management systemic-risk-management cascading-risk-management compound-risk-management complex-risk-management emerging-risk-management evolving-risk-management transboundary-risk-management planetary-risk-management existential-risk-management global-catastrophic-risk-management civilization-risk-management human-extinction-risk-management species-extinction-risk-management ecosystem-collapse-risk-management tipping-point-management threshold-management regime-shift-management alternative-stable-state-management hysteresis-management path-dependence-management lock-in-management carbon-lock-in-management 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Echinothrips
Echinothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Thripidae containing approximately seven described species. The genus is best known through Echinothrips americanus, a polyphagous pest of greenhouse and agricultural crops that has spread globally from its native range in eastern North America. Species in this genus are phytophagous, feeding on leaves, flowers, and fruits by piercing and sucking plant cells. The genus exhibits haplo-diploid reproduction with arrhenotokous parthenogenesis, where unfertilized eggs produce haploid males and fertilized eggs produce diploid females.
thrips Thripidae greenhouse-pest polyphagous invasive-species arrhenotoky prospermatogeny pheromones leaf-dwelling agricultural-pest
Entedoninae
Entedoninae is a subfamily of chalcid wasps in the family Eulophidae comprising over 90 genera. Members are primarily parasitoids with documented associations across diverse host groups including gall-inducing insects, leafminers, sawflies, thrips, and ants. The subfamily exhibits considerable morphological and ecological diversity, with species found in tropical to temperate habitats worldwide.
parasitoid biological-control gall-associated leafminer-parasitoid Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera Eulophidae Entedoninae tropical-forest agricultural-pest-control sawfly-parasitoid thrips-parasitoid ant-associated rice-pest Cecidomyiidae Tenthredinidae Pontania Closterocerus Ceranisus Afronympha Ametallon Chrysonotomyia Omphale-genus-group canopy understorey ecological-plasticity Bangladesh Panama Africa New-Zealand Europe Senegal South-Africa Democratic-Republic-of-the-Congo Uganda endoparasitoid larval-parasitoid egg-parasitoid host-specificity forest-habitat degraded-habitat mid-altitude-rainforest lowland-rainforest tropical-America classical-biological-control augmentative-biological-control integrated-pest-management rice-hispa Dicladispa-armigera gall-wasp sawfly-gall leafminer ant-symbiosis Formicidae Khaya-senegalensis Ochna-pulchra morphological-taxonomy molecular-taxonomy 28S-rDNA COI CytB new-species-description generic-revision host-range parasitoid-complex food-web ecosystem-service natural-enemy pest-management entomophagous hyperparasitoid inquiline curculionid Apion-minimum Phyllocolpa-leucosticta Chrysocharis Entedon Asecodes Pleurotroppopsis Afrotroppopsis Zaommomentedon Apleurotropis Kratoysma Platocharis Schizocharis Parahorismenus Atullya Tropicharis Chrysochuris cruy mirabilis oryzamyntor eminpashai carinatum dussiae longicaudata machaeriae unimaculata claviger gorgonaense auripunctata galbina laeviscuta phenacapsia cecvora elongata pontaniae heyeri risbeci milletiae newbyi Förster-1856 Chalcidoidea-phylogeny biodiversity species-richness cryptic-species molecular-diagnostics host-plant-association habitat-specificity canopy-fauna understorey-fauna forest-stratification tropical-biodiversity Afrotropical Neotropical Palaearctic Nearctic Oriental Australasian Pacific Holarctic biogeography taxonomic-revision annotated-key catalogue type-specimen museum-collection slide-mounted-specimens morphometrics genitalia wing-venation antennae 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sustainable-intensification agroecology conservation-biological-control habitat-management floral-resources refuge buffer-zone landscape-complexity connectivity spillover natural-enemy-diversity food-web-structure trophic-interactions multitrophic indirect-effects trait-mediated density-dependent inverse-density-dependent functional-response numerical-response searching-efficiency handling-time oviposition-behavior host-selection host-acceptance host-suitability host-quality host-stage-preference egg-load progeny-allocation sex-ratio local-mate-competition sib-mating inbreeding fitness longevity fecundity development-time thermal-requirements degree-days phenology synchrony asynchrony seasonal-adaptation diapause quiescence cold-hardiness heat-tolerance desiccation-resistance starvation-resistance dispersal flight walking foraging patch-use area-restricted-search oviposition-marking host-marking superparasitism multiparasitism intraguild-predation hyperparasitism autoparasitism heteronomous-hyperparasitism facultative-hyperparasitism obligate-hyperparasitism primary-parasitoid secondary-parasitoid tertiary-parasitoid mummy aphid-mummy scale-mummy pupal-parasitoid egg-larval-parasitoid larval-pupal-parasitoid idiobiont koinobiont ectoparasitoid solitary gregarious polyembryony thelytoky arrhenotoky diploid haplodiploid chromosome-number genome-size transcriptome proteome metabolome morphome phenome extended-phenotype niche-construction ecosystem-engineering keystone-species ecosystem-service-provider functional-group guild trophic-level energy-flow nutrient-cycling decomposition predation herbivory parasitism mutualism commensalism competition apparent-competition exploitative-competition interference-competition scramble-competition contest-competition resource-partitioning niche-differentiation character-displacement co-evolution arms-race Red-Queen geographic-mosaic local-adaptation phenotypic-plasticity genetic-adaptation epigenetics transgenerational-effects maternal-effects paternal-effects parental-care mating-system sexual-selection sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice mate-choice lek territory aggression alarm defense venom allomone kairomone synomone semiochemical pheromone trail-pheromone alarm-pheromone aggregation-pheromone sex-pheromone marking-pheromone oviposition-deterrent host-marking-pheromone plant-volatile induced-plant-defense systemic-acquired-resistance induced-systemic-resistance priming volatile-organic-compound green-leaf-volatile terpenoid phenylpropanoid jasmonic-acid salicylic-acid ethylene abscisic-acid gibberellin auxin cytokinin brassinosteroid strigolactone nitric-oxide reactive-oxygen-species hypersensitive-response programmed-cell-death autophagy apoptosis necrosis pathogen-associated-molecular-pattern damage-associated-molecular-pattern pattern-recognition-receptor effector-triggered-immunity gene-for-gene avirulence virulence effector toxin phytotoxin mycotoxin bacterial-toxin 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pattern-recognition classification segmentation detection tracking counting sampling sampling-plan sequential-sampling binomial-sampling presence-absence-sampling fixed-precision-sampling variable-precision-sampling spatial-sampling temporal-sampling stratified-sampling cluster-sampling systematic-sampling random-sampling convenience-sampling judgment-sampling expert-sampling quota-sampling snowball-sampling respondent-driven-sampling capture-recapture mark-recapture mark-resight distance-sampling line-transect point-transect strip-transect plot quadrat pitfall-trap Malaise-trap pan-trap water-pan yellow-pan blue-pan white-pan flight-interception-trap window-trap canopy-fogging beating-tray sweep-net aerial-net ground-net aquatic-net D-vac vacuum-sampler aspirator mouth-aspirator mechanical-aspirator berlese-funnel Tullgren-funnel Winkler-extractor pitfall barber-trap pitfall-array drift-fence funnel-trap light-trap UV-light black-light mercury-vapor sodium-vapor LED actinic color-trap sticky-trap pheromone-trap synthetic-pheromone natural-pheromone kairomone-trap food-bait protein-bait sugar-bait fermentation-bait alcohol-bait vinegar-bait molasses-bait fruit-bait meat-bait fish-bait dung-bait carrion-bait decoy lure attractant repellent deterrent antifeedant oviposition-stimulant arrestant suppressant toxicant stomach-poison contact-poison fumigant systemic translaminar residual persistent non-persistent broad-spectrum narrow-spectrum selective non-selective target-specific host-specific mode-of-action nerve-poison acetylcholinesterase-inhibitor GABA-antagonist sodium-channel-modulator nicotinic-acetylcholine-receptor-agonist ryanodine-receptor-modulator chitin-synthesis-inhibitor juvenile-hormone-mimic ecdysone-agonist microbial-pesticide entomopathogenic-nematode entomopathogenic-fungus entomopathogenic-bacterium entomopathogenic-virus entomopathogenic-protozoa Bacillus-thuringiensis Bt Bacillus-sphaericus Paenibacillus-popilliae Serratia-entomophila Metarhizium-anisopliae Beauveria-bassiana Lecanicillium-lecanii Isaria-fumosorosea Nomuraea-rileyi Hirsutella-thompsonii Entomophthora Neozygites Nosema Vairimorpha Thelohania Anticarsia-gemmatalis-nucleopolyhedrovirus AgMNPV Cydia-pomonella-granulovirus CpGV Spodoptera-exigua-multiple-nucleopolyhedrovirus SeMNPV Autographa-californica-multiple-nucleopolyhedrovirus AcMNPV nucleopolyhedrovirus granulovirus cypovirus entomopoxvirus iridovirus parvovirus tetravirus nodavirus reovirus picornavirus iflavirus densovirus birnavirus totivirus partitivirus hypovirulence mycovirus bacteriophage phage transduction conjugation transformation horizontal-gene-transfer vertical-gene-transfer mobile-genetic-element transposon plasmid integron genomic-island pathogenicity-island symbiosis-island metabolic-island resistance-island virulence-factor antibiotic-resistance insecticide-resistance acaricide-resistance herbicide-resistance fungicide-resistance bactericide-resistance nematicide-resistance 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Histiostoma
Histiostoma is a genus of astigmatan mites in the family Histiostomatidae, characterized by modified brush-like chelicerae adapted for filtering microbes from substrates. The genus exhibits remarkable ecological diversity, with species occupying habitats ranging from bark beetle galleries and insect associations to aquatic environments and decaying organic matter. Many species form heteromorphic deutonymphs (hypopi) specialized for phoretic dispersal on arthropod hosts. Histiostoma includes economically significant species such as H. feroniarum, a pest of cultivated mushrooms, and H. laboratorium, a notorious contaminant of Drosophila research cultures.
astigmatan-mites phoresy bark-beetles mushroom-pests deutonymph hypopus microbivory laboratory-pest aquatic-mites forensic-potential alarm-pheromone arrhenotoky necromeny hyperphoresis fungal-vectors
Megastigmus spermotrophus
Douglas Fir Seed Chalcidoid Wasp, Douglas-fir Seed Chalcid
Megastigmus spermotrophus is a seed-parasitic chalcid wasp native to western North America that has become invasive in Europe and other regions. It specializes in attacking seeds of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), causing significant economic losses in seed orchards and natural forests. The species exhibits complex life history traits including facultative larval diapause lasting up to three years, which enables population persistence despite fluctuating cone crops. Females oviposit through cone scales into developing seeds, and the species shows preferences for larger cones with strongly arched exteriors and cone tips. Genetic polymorphism in diapause expression allows adaptation to varying environmental conditions.
seed-parasite conifer-pest invasive-species diapause-polymorphism arrhenotoky forest-entomology seed-orchard-pest
Melittobia
Melittobia is a genus of tiny parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae, notable for extreme polymorphism, complex social behaviors, and highly female-biased sex ratios. Females exhibit three distinct morphs—winged 'fliers,' short-winged 'jumpers,' and wingless 'crawlers'—determined by larval density rather than genetics. Males are blind, flightless, and comprise only about 5% of offspring, produced asexually through arrhenotokous parthenogenesis. The genus attacks prepupae and pupae of solitary bees, wasps, and other insects in their hosts' nests, with some species also parasitizing fruit flies and flesh flies. Several species are well-studied model organisms for genetics, developmental biology, and behavioral ecology, though taxonomic confusion persists due to extreme morphological plasticity.
parasitoid polymorphism arrhenotoky sex-ratio model-organism gregarious ectoparasitoid Eulophidae Tetrastichinae hymenoptera developmental-plasticity kin-selection pheromone lethal-male-combat morph-determination cosmopolitan biological-control bee-parasite wasp-parasite
Neodiprion pinetum
White Pine Sawfly
Neodiprion pinetum is a conifer-feeding sawfly native to eastern North America. Adults are broad-bodied, stingless wasps with females bearing a saw-like ovipositor used to insert eggs into pine needles. Larvae are creamy-yellow with black heads and four longitudinal rows of black spots, resembling caterpillars but possessing more prolegs. The species is frequently monophagous on eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), though larvae have been documented on several other pine species. Localized outbreaks occur regularly and can kill small stands of host trees, though natural enemies including egg and larval parasitoids typically provide substantial biological control.
sawfly Diprionidae conifer-pest white-pine biological-control arrhenotoky gregarious-larvae defoliator Hymenoptera Symphyta forest-entomology monophagous parasitoid integrated-pest-management
Neohydatothrips
soybean thrips (N. variabilis), marigold thrips (N. samayunkur)
Neohydatothrips is the most species-rich genus in the Thripidae subfamily Sericothripinae, with approximately 120 described species. Members are phytophagous thrips that feed and breed on leaves and flowers of diverse host plants. Several species are economically significant agricultural pests and plant virus vectors, including N. variabilis (soybean thrips), which transmits soybean vein necrosis orthotospovirus. The genus has a global distribution with approximately 70% of species occurring in the New World.
thrips Thripidae Sericothripinae phytophagous pest virus-vector soybean passion-fruit agriculture integrated-pest-management arrhenotoky parthenogenesis climate-driven-population-dynamics kairomone mass-trapping
Synergini
inquiline gall wasps
Synergini is a tribe of inquiline gall wasps in the family Cynipidae. Members have lost the ability to induce their own galls and instead inhabit galls created by other cynipid wasps, primarily those in tribe Cynipini. The tribe includes genera such as Synergus, Saphonecrus, Lithosaphonecrus, and Ufo. Most species are associated with oaks (Quercus) and related Fagaceae. A 2015 taxonomic revision transferred three former Synergini genera to other tribes: Ceroptres to its own tribe Ceroptresini, and Periclistus and Synophromorpha to Diastrophini.
inquiline gall-wasp Cynipidae oak Fagaceae evolutionary-reversal speciation molecular-phylogenetics Eastern-Palearctic New-World seasonality host-shift arrhenotoky locularities
Telenomus calvus
Telenomus calvus is a phoretic egg parasitoid of the spined soldier bug, Podisus maculiventris. Females exhibit a distinctive riding behavior, attaching to host bodies at 25 different locations with preference for the pronotum and femurs, using hypertrophied arolia for secure attachment. They dismount specifically during host oviposition to parasitize egg masses. The species has a relatively low fecundity of approximately 22 progeny per female, with female production peaking early in life and declining rapidly, while male production remains low and constant.
phoresy egg-parasitoid Scelionidae Pentatomidae biological-control Podisus-maculiventris Louisiana hypertrophied-arolia host-specific-development low-fecundity arrhenotoky
Xylosandrus compactus
black twig borer, black coffee borer, black coffee twig borer, tea stem borer
Xylosandrus compactus is a highly invasive ambrosia beetle (Scolytinae) native to subtropical Asia. Females tunnel into twigs of living woody plants, cultivate symbiotic fungi as larval food, and reproduce through arrhenotokous parthenogenesis. The species has spread to over 50 countries, becoming a significant agricultural pest of coffee, tea, cocoa, and avocado, and threatening native forest ecosystems in invaded regions.
ambrosia-beetle fungus-farming invasive-species agricultural-pest coffee-pest Scolytinae arrhenotoky mycangia
Xylosandrus germanus
black stem borer, alnus ambrosia beetle, black timber bark beetle
Xylosandrus germanus is a tiny ambrosia beetle native to eastern Asia that has become a significant invasive pest in Europe and North America. Females, which are flight-capable and substantially larger than the flightless males, excavate galleries in stressed or recently dead woody plants to cultivate fungal gardens. The species exhibits a quasisocial structure with foundress females performing distinct behavioral roles that shift from gallery construction and brood care to entrance-blocking as the colony matures. Its rapid spread—tens of kilometers per year in some regions—is facilitated by climate change, global timber trade, and an unusual reproductive system where single foundresses can establish populations through sib-mating.
invasive-species ambrosia-beetle fungus-farming forest-pest orchard-pest sexual-dimorphism quasisocial arrhenotoky
Zetzellia
Zetzellia is a genus of predatory mites in the family Stigmaeidae (Acari: Prostigmata). The best-studied species, Zetzellia mali, serves as a biological control agent of phytophagous mites in apple orchards. Members of this genus exhibit arrhenotokous parthenogenesis, with unmated females producing only male offspring. Development rates and reproductive output vary with temperature and humidity conditions.
predatory-mite biological-control orchard-pest-management arrhenotoky phytoseiid-alternative
Zetzellia mali
apple mite, Zetzellia mite
Zetzellia mali is a predatory mite in the family Stigmaeidae, widely distributed across apple-growing regions of the world. This small arachnid serves as an important natural enemy of phytophagous mites in orchards, particularly targeting spider mites (Tetranychidae) and eriophyid mites. The species exhibits a three-generation annual life cycle in temperate climates, with adult females overwintering in protected locations on host trees. While less efficient at population regulation than some competing predatory mites such as phytoseiids, Z. mali contributes significantly to biological control in integrated pest management programs.
predatory-mite biological-control apple-pest-management Stigmaeidae integrated-pest-management orchard-ecology acarology natural-enemy arrhenotoky prey-switching diapause overwintering phytoseiid-competitor mite-predator temperate-orchard-fauna