Bee-parasite
Guides
Conopinae
thick-headed flies
Conopinae is a subfamily of flies within the family Conopidae, commonly known as thick-headed flies. Members are characterized by their distinctive head shape, with a broad, inflated frons that gives the group its common name. The subfamily includes two tribes: Conopini (genera Conops and Leopoldius) and Physocephalini (genera Physocephala and Physoconops). These flies are known for their parasitoid life history, with females attacking various hymenopteran hosts.
Eupompha elegans elegans
Eupompha elegans elegans is a subspecies of blister beetle in the family Meloidae, tribe Eupomphini. It is one of two recognized subspecies within E. elegans, the other being E. e. perpulchra. The species is native to western North America. Adult beetles are known to feed on plant foliage and flowers. Like other meloids, larvae are likely hypermetamorphic, developing through distinct mobile and sedentary phases.
Eusapyga
Eusapyga is a genus of wasps in the family Sapygidae, a group of cleptoparasitic wasps that exploit the nests of other solitary bees and wasps. The genus was established by Ezra Cresson in 1880. Members of this genus are found in North America. Like other sapygids, they are likely kleptoparasites, though species-level biology remains poorly documented.
Eusapyga verticalis
Eusapyga verticalis is a species of sapygid wasp in the family Sapygidae. Sapygid wasps are cleptoparasitic, meaning females lay eggs in the nests of other solitary bees and wasps, where their larvae consume the host's provisions. The species is part of a small family of wasps that are relatively poorly studied compared to their better-known relatives in the families Mutillidae and Scoliidae.
Galleria mellonella
Greater Wax Moth, Honeycomb Moth
Galleria mellonella is a globally distributed moth in the family Pyralidae, best known as a destructive pest of honeybee colonies. The larvae tunnel through honeycomb, consuming wax, pollen, honey, and cast skins of bee larvae, causing significant economic damage to apiculture. Adults are nocturnal, with males producing ultrasonic mating calls at 75 kHz. The species has become an important model organism in biomedical research due to its innate immune system functionally similar to mammals, and has attracted recent attention for the ability of its larvae to degrade polyethylene plastic through salivary enzymes.
Gasteruption barnstoni
Carrot wasp
Gasteruption barnstoni is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Gasteruptiidae, commonly known as carrot wasps. The species exhibits the family's characteristic elongated 'neck' between head and thorax, enlarged hind tibiae, and long ovipositor in females. As a parasitoid of solitary bees, the female uses her ovipositor to deposit eggs in host nests. The species belongs to a genus of approximately 500 species worldwide, with at least 15 species documented in North America.
Grotea
Grotea is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, subfamily Labeninae. Species in this genus are specialized parasitoids of cavity-nesting bees, particularly in the families Colletidae and Apidae. The genus has been documented across the Americas from the Greater Antilles to southern South America, with recent descriptions of new species from Colombia, Argentina, and Ecuador. Grotea species develop inside host brood cells, with larvae occupying one or more neighboring cells within membranous cocoons.
Leptus
Leptus is a genus of large mites in the family Erythraeidae, first described by Pierre André Latreille in 1796. The genus comprises approximately 202 species and is distinguished from the related genus Balaustium by the forward placement of eyes on the body. Leptus species are primarily known as ectoparasites, with larvae feeding on various arthropod hosts including bees, harvestmen, and other insects. The genus has been documented across multiple continents including South America, North America, Africa, and Asia.
Leucophora obtusa
satellite fly
Leucophora obtusa is a satellite fly in the family Anthomyiidae that parasitizes the larvae of Andrena bees. The species is found across Japan, Europe, and North America. It is notoriously difficult to distinguish from other Leucophora species and is characterized by being particularly hairy. The common name "satellite fly" refers to the female's behavior of hovering or "orbiting" around bee nests.
Lytta magister
desert blister beetle, master blister beetle
Lytta magister is a large, conspicuous blister beetle native to southwestern North America. Adults are readily identified by their striking aposematic coloration: bright red head, legs, and prothorax contrasting sharply with black elytra. The species is strongly associated with desert environments, where adults emerge in spring and are frequently observed in aggregations on flowers. Larvae are predatory or parasitic on ground-nesting bees, a common life history pattern in the family Meloidae. The species possesses chemical defenses typical of the family, including cantharidins that can cause blistering upon contact with skin.
Lytta nuttalli
Nuttall's blister beetle
Lytta nuttalli is a North American blister beetle in the family Meloidae, first described by Thomas Say in 1824. The specific epithet honors botanist Thomas Nuttall. Adults display brilliant purple and green iridescent coloration. This species is notable for its complex life cycle involving hypermetamorphosis, with larvae developing as parasitoids in the nests of solitary bees. Adults are gregarious feeders on legumes and can occasionally damage agricultural crops. Populations are naturally limited by their dependence on native ground-nesting bees for larval development.
Melittobia
Melittobia is a genus of tiny parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae, notable for extreme polymorphism, complex social behaviors, and highly female-biased sex ratios. Females exhibit three distinct morphs—winged 'fliers,' short-winged 'jumpers,' and wingless 'crawlers'—determined by larval density rather than genetics. Males are blind, flightless, and comprise only about 5% of offspring, produced asexually through arrhenotokous parthenogenesis. The genus attacks prepupae and pupae of solitary bees, wasps, and other insects in their hosts' nests, with some species also parasitizing fruit flies and flesh flies. Several species are well-studied model organisms for genetics, developmental biology, and behavioral ecology, though taxonomic confusion persists due to extreme morphological plasticity.
Meloe
Oil Beetles
Meloe is a large genus of blister beetles commonly known as oil beetles, named for their defensive release of oily hemolymph containing cantharidin from leg joints and other body articulations when disturbed. Adults are flightless with shortened elytra that expose most of the abdomen, often displaying iridescent blue, green, or black coloration. The genus exhibits hypermetamorphic development with triungulin larvae that employ phoretic transport on bees to access host nests, where they consume provisions and host offspring.
Meloe americanus
Buttercup Oil Beetle, American Oil Beetle
Meloe americanus is a flightless blister beetle native to North America, commonly known as the buttercup oil beetle or American oil beetle. Adults are entirely black with occasional blue metallic iridescence, measuring 7–17 mm in length. The species exhibits a complex life cycle involving hypermetamorphosis, with triungulin larvae employing phoresy to reach host bee nests where they develop as parasites. Adults are active during late autumn through early spring, with peak emergence in December and April. The beetle is notable for its chemical defense: it secretes cantharidin, a potent blistering agent toxic to mammals at high concentrations.
Meloe angusticollis
short-winged blister beetle, oil beetle
Meloe angusticollis is a North American blister beetle known for its short elytra that leave most of the abdomen exposed. Adults release cantharidin-laden hemolymph as a chemical defense, which causes skin blistering in humans. The species exhibits hypermetamorphosis, with mobile first-instar larvae (triungulins) that parasitize solitary bees by hitchhiking to nest sites. Females are notably larger than males, reaching up to 19 mm.
Meloe barbarus
oil beetle
Meloe barbarus is a species of blister beetle in the family Meloidae, first described by LeConte in 1861. It belongs to the subgenus Treiodous within the genus Meloe. The species is found in North America, with collection records from western regions including British Columbia, Canada. Like other oil beetles in the genus Meloe, it possesses defensive chemical compounds and exhibits complex life history traits involving parasitism of ground-nesting bees.
Meloe dianella
Meloe dianella is a species of blister beetle (family Meloidae) first described by Pinto and Selander in 1970. It belongs to the genus Meloe, commonly known as oil beetles, which are characterized by their defensive production of cantharidins. The species is known from North America, with records from Canada (Alberta, British Columbia, and Nova Scotia). Like other members of its genus, it is presumed to have a parasitic life cycle involving solitary bees, though specific details for this species remain undocumented.
Meloe dugesi
Meloe dugesi is a species of blister beetle (family Meloidae) described by Champion in 1891. It belongs to the genus Meloe, commonly known as oil beetles, which are characterized by their defensive production of cantharidins. The species occurs in Central America and North America. Like other members of its genus, it likely exhibits the typical Meloe life cycle involving triungulin larvae that parasitize solitary bees.
Meloe franciscanus
Meloe franciscanus is a blister beetle endemic to the southwestern United States. Adults are flightless and feed on Astragalus lentiginosus. The species is notable for its highly specialized larval parasitism of solitary bees in the genus Habropoda. First described from San Francisco dunes in 1928, the species was presumed locally extirpated there due to habitat loss but persists in other regions.
Meloe impressus
blister beetle, oil beetle
Meloe impressus is a species of blister beetle in the family Meloidae, native to North America. It belongs to a genus commonly known as oil beetles, characterized by their defensive secretion of cantharidin, a potent blistering agent. The species is recorded across western and central Canada and the United States. Like other Meloe species, it likely exhibits the complex life history involving parasitic larvae that exploit solitary bees as hosts, though specific details for this species remain poorly documented.
Meloe strigulosus
Meloe strigulosus is a blister beetle in the family Meloidae, characterized by its phoretic larval behavior involving attachment to other organisms for transport. The species has been documented in coastal dune habitats in Oregon, where its ecological relationships have been specifically studied. Adults possess the typical oil beetle morphology with shortened elytra that expose much of the abdomen. Like other Meloe species, it produces cantharidin, a defensive compound toxic to vertebrates.
Myopa clausa
Thick-headed Fly
Myopa clausa is a species of thick-headed fly in the family Conopidae, a group of parasitic flies known for their stout build and broad heads. Like other conopids, this species is an internal parasite of bees and wasps. The genus Myopa is seldom recorded, partly due to identification difficulties.
Myopa rubida
Myopa rubida is a species of thick-headed fly in the family Conopidae, first described by Bigot in 1887. Like all conopids, it is an internal parasite of bees and wasps. The genus Myopa is seldom recorded, partly due to identification difficulties. Species in this genus are sometimes known as 'beegrabbers' for their habit of intercepting host insects in flight to oviposit eggs between abdominal segments.
Myopa vesiculosa
Myopa vesiculosa is a species of thick-headed fly in the family Conopidae, first described by Thomas Say in 1823. The genus Myopa comprises internal parasitoids of bees and wasps, with females intercepting hosts in flight to oviposit eggs between abdominal segments. Species within Myopa are generally poorly recorded, partly due to identification difficulties.
Myopa vicaria
Myopa vicaria is a species of thick-headed fly in the family Conopidae. Members of this family are internal parasitoids of bees and wasps, with females intercepting hosts in flight to oviposit eggs between abdominal segments. The genus Myopa is generally poorly recorded, likely due to identification difficulties.
Nemognatha nemorensis
Eastern Black-headed Nemognatha
Nemognatha nemorensis is a blister beetle in the family Meloidae, commonly known as the Eastern Black-headed Nemognatha. It is found in North America, with distribution records from Canada (Ontario, Québec) and the United States (Vermont and broader eastern regions). The species belongs to a genus whose larvae are known to develop in the nests of solitary bees, though specific life history details for this species are limited in available sources.
Nomada electa
nomad bee, cuckoo bee
Nomada electa is a species of kleptoparasitic nomad bee in the family Apidae, found in North America. As a cuckoo bee, it does not build its own nests or collect pollen, instead laying eggs in the nests of host bee species. The species was described by Cresson in 1863.
Oreopasites
Oreopasites is a genus of cuckoo bees in the family Apidae, first described by Cockerell in 1906. The genus comprises approximately 11 described species, all of which are kleptoparasitic bees that lay their eggs in the nests of host bees. Species in this genus are found in western North America, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. The genus is classified within the tribe Ammobatini of the subfamily Nomadinae.
Phlebopenes
Phlebopenes is a genus of parasitoid wasps in family Eupelmidae. Species were historically hypothesised to parasitise wood-boring beetles, but recent evidence from rearing records and direct observation indicates they are parasitoids of solitary wasps and bees. Phlebopenes longicaudata has been documented attacking nests of oil-collecting bees in the genus Tetrapedia.
Physocephala burgessi
thick-headed fly
Physocephala burgessi is a species of thick-headed fly in the family Conopidae. Like other members of its genus, it is a parasitoid of bees and wasps. The species exhibits wasp mimicry in appearance and behavior, including an elongated abdomen resembling a wasp waist and dark pigmentation along the front wing margin that mimics the folded wing appearance of potter wasps at rest.
Physocephala floridana
thick-headed fly
Physocephala floridana is a species of thick-headed fly in the family Conopidae. Members of this genus are known to parasitize bees and wasps, with females attacking hosts in mid-air to deposit eggs between abdominal segments. The larvae develop as internal parasites, eventually killing the host. This species has been recorded from the northeastern United States, including Vermont.
Physocephala marginata
thick-headed fly
Physocephala marginata is a species of thick-headed fly in the family Conopidae. It is an internal parasite of the solitary bee Anthophora abrupta. The larva develops inside the living host, with pupation occurring only after the bee's death. Like other conopid flies, adults are wasp mimics that frequent flowers for nectar.
Physoconops excisus
thick-headed fly
Physoconops excisus is a species of thick-headed fly in the family Conopidae. Like other members of the genus Physoconops, it exhibits wasp mimicry, resembling potter wasps in appearance. Conopid flies are parasitoids, with females attacking bees and wasps to deposit eggs between their abdominal segments. The larvae develop as internal parasites, eventually killing the host.
Physoconops fronto
thick-headed fly
Physoconops fronto is a species of thick-headed fly in the family Conopidae. Like other conopids, it exhibits wasp-mimicry in appearance and is known to parasitize bees and wasps. The species was described by Williston in 1885. Members of the genus Physoconops closely resemble potter wasps (Vespidae: Eumeninae) in their elongated abdomen and wing pigmentation patterns.
Poemenia
Poemenia is a genus of ichneumonid wasps in the subfamily Poemeniinae. The genus comprises ectoparasitoids that attack small xylophilous bees (Apoidea) nesting in tunnels or cavities. Larval morphology indicates an ectoparasitoid lifestyle, with the mature larva of Poemenia albipes being the first described for the genus.
Pseudozonitis schaefferi
Pseudozonitis schaefferi is a blister beetle in the family Meloidae, first described by Blatchley in 1922. It belongs to the subfamily Nemognathinae, a group characterized by elongated maxillary mouthparts adapted for nectar feeding on flowers. The genus Pseudozonitis comprises approximately 14 described species in North America, with P. schaefferi being one of the less commonly encountered members. Like other nemognathine blister beetles, adults are likely associated with flowers for feeding, while larvae are probably parasitoids or predators of bee eggs and provisions in nest cells.
Ripiphoridae
wedge-shaped beetles
Ripiphoridae is a cosmopolitan family of approximately 450 described species of beetles commonly known as wedge-shaped beetles. The family is notable for hypermetamorphic parasitoid development, a trait shared only with Meloidae among beetles. Host associations vary by subfamily: Ripiphorinae attack bees and wasps, Ripidiinae parasitize cockroaches, and Pelecotominae attack wood-boring beetle larvae. The family exhibits extreme morphological modifications including abbreviated elytra, sexually dimorphic antennae (flabellate or pectinate in males), and in some groups, wingless larviform females.
Ripiphorinae
wedge-shaped beetles
Ripiphorinae is a subfamily of wedge-shaped beetles within Ripiphoridae, comprising at least 2 genera (Macrosiagon and Ripiphorus) and approximately 40 described species. Members exhibit hypermetamorphic development with free-living first instar larvae. The subfamily includes species with documented oceanic dispersal capabilities, as evidenced by Ripiphorus caboverdianus on Cape Verde.
Ripiphorus epinomiae
Ripiphorus epinomiae is a species of wedge-shaped beetle in the family Ripiphoridae, first described by Linsley and MacSwain in 1950. It belongs to a genus whose members are known for their unusual biology, including hypermetamorphic development and parasitic relationships with bees. The species is documented from North America, though detailed ecological information remains limited.
Ripiphorus fasciatus-complex
fasciatus-complex ripiphorid beetles
The Ripiphorus fasciatus-complex comprises a group of closely related ripiphorid beetles within the genus Ripiphorus, characterized by distinctive banded or fasciate color patterns. These beetles belong to a family notable for extreme sexual dimorphism and complex life histories involving host associations, primarily with bees or wasps. Members of this complex are distinguished from congeners by specific elytral patterning and morphological features that remain under taxonomic study. The group occurs in North America and shares the family's unusual biology of hypermetamorphosis and parasitoid larval development.
Ripiphorus iridescens
Ripiphorus iridescens is a species of wedge-shaped beetle in the family Ripiphoridae, described by Rivnay in 1929. Members of this genus are known for their unusual biology involving hypermetamorphosis and parasitic relationships with bees. The species epithet "iridescens" refers to the metallic or iridescent coloration typical of many ripiphorid beetles. Like other members of the family, this species likely exhibits the characteristic abbreviated elytra and reduced wing venation that distinguishes Ripiphoridae from other beetle families.
Ripiphorus niger
Ripiphorus niger is a species of wedge-shaped beetle in the family Ripiphoridae. Members of the genus Ripiphorus exhibit unusual life histories involving hypermetamorphosis and parasitic relationships with bees. The species epithet 'niger' refers to the black coloration typical of this taxon. Like other ripiphorids, adults are generally short-lived and do not feed, while larvae develop as parasitoids or inquilines in bee nests.
Sapyga angustata
Sapyga angustata is a species of sapygid wasp, a member of the family Sapygidae within the order Hymenoptera. Sapygid wasps are cleptoparasites, meaning they lay their eggs in the nests of other solitary bees and wasps, where their larvae consume the host's provisions. This species is part of a genus distributed across the Northern Hemisphere, with records primarily from Europe and western Asia. Observations of S. angustata remain relatively sparse, reflecting both its small size and its secretive nesting biology.
Sapyga centrata
Sapyga centrata is a small, solitary wasp in the family Sapygidae, a group of cleptoparasitic wasps that exploit the nests of other solitary bees. The species is characterized by a compact black body with yellow or white markings and a distinctive clubbed antenna. It is native to North America and has been documented across a broad geographic range. As a cleptoparasite, it does not construct its own nest or provision food for its offspring, instead laying eggs in the nests of host bees.
Sapyga confluenta
Sapyga confluenta is a species of sapygid wasp in the family Sapygidae, a group of solitary wasps that are cleptoparasites of other solitary bees. The species belongs to the genus Sapyga, which is the type genus of the family. Sapygid wasps are generally small to medium-sized with distinctive body shapes and are known for their parasitic lifestyle targeting mason bees and other solitary bee groups.
Sapyga martinii
Sapyga martinii is a species of solitary wasp in the family Sapygidae. The genus Sapyga comprises cleptoparasitic wasps that exploit the nests of other solitary bees, particularly mason bees (Osmia) and leafcutter bees (Megachile). Adults are typically observed visiting flowers for nectar. The species is documented in the western United States, with records from California.
Sapygidae
Club-horned Wasps
Sapygidae is a small family of solitary kleptoparasitic aculeate wasps containing approximately 80 described species. They are generally black wasps with white or yellow markings, superficially resembling some Tiphiidae or Thynnidae. Females oviposit into the nests of solitary bees, where their larvae consume both the host larvae and the food stores provisioned for them. The family has limited economic importance, though some host species are important pollinators. Fossil sapygids are known from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber and Upper Eocene Baltic amber.
Sphenometopa
Sphenometopa is a genus of flesh flies (Sarcophagidae) in the subfamily Miltogramminae, established by Townsend in 1908. Members of this genus are parasitoid flies, with larvae that develop in the nests of solitary bees and wasps. The genus is part of a diverse group of kleptoparasitic or parasitoid sarcophagids that exploit the provisions of host insects rather than carrion.
Stylopidae
Stylopidae is a family of obligate parasitic insects in the order Strepsiptera, comprising approximately 15 genera and over 330 described species. All members are endoparasites of bees (Hymenoptera), with infected hosts referred to as "stylopized." Females are neotenic, remaining within the host body throughout their adult life, while males are free-living with reduced morphology. The family exhibits extreme sexual dimorphism and a unique reproductive strategy involving traumatic insemination via a paragenital organ.
Taxigramma
satellite flies
Taxigramma is a genus of satellite flies (Diptera: Sarcophagidae: Miltogramminae) comprising approximately 18 described species globally. Eight species are documented from China, with recent taxonomic work clarifying their distributions and providing first records for several species. Members of this genus are kleptoparasites that exploit other insects, particularly bees.