Indirect-defense

Guides

• Disholcaspis prehensa

  clasping twig gall wasp

  Disholcaspis prehensa is a gall-inducing cynipid wasp native to California that induces distinctive galls on scrub oak and leather oak. The species exhibits heterogony, alternating between sexual and asexual generations that produce two morphologically different gall types. The asexual generation forms conspicuous mushroom-shaped twig galls with clasping bases, while the sexual generation produces small, hidden bud galls.

  gall-waspcynipidheterogonyparthenogenesisoak-gallCalifornia-endemicant-mutualismDisholcaspisCynipidaeHymenopteraQuercusinduced-plant-structurephloem-sap-exudationbiological-mutualismseasonal-dimorphismsexual-dimorphismgall-dimorphismagamic-generationsexual-generationclasping-twig-gallbud-galltwig-gallnative-California-speciesscrub-oakleather-oakparasitoid-defenseant-plant-interactioninsect-plant-interactionplant-manipulationevolution-of-asexualityWeld-1957Zootaxa-4859molecular-systematicshost-plant-specificityCynipinioak-woodlandchaparralinsect-gallgall-morphologygall-colorationsun-exposure-effectslarval-chamberemergence-timingspring-emergencelate-winter-emergencegall-developmentoviposition-behavioregg-laying-in-budsegg-laying-in-twigsfemale-only-generationwingless-femalewinged-sexual-generationgall-size-dimorphismgall-shape-dimorphismhidden-gallexposed-gallgall-wasp-life-cyclecynipid-biologygall-wasp-taxonomygall-wasp-identificationgall-wasp-ecologyinsect-plant-coevolutionplant-growth-manipulationhormone-mediated-gall-inductionvenom-glandaccessory-glandsecretory-structuresgall-induction-mechanismgall-chemistryphloem-saphoneydewant-attractionant-protectionparasitoid-waspnatural-enemy-defenseindirect-defensemutualistic-interactiontrophic-cascadecommunity-ecologyspecies-interactionecosystem-engineerhabitat-modificationfood-webinsect-diversityCalifornia-biodiversityendemic-insectregional-endemismoak-specialistplant-specialistmonophagousoligophagoushost-rangehost-plant-evolutiongall-wasp-radiationadaptive-radiationevolutionary-innovationreproductive-strategyasexual-reproductionthelytokyarrhenotokysex-determinationdevelopmental-biologyinsect-morphologyinsect-anatomyfemale-morphologyovipositorstingeregg-injectionplant-tissue-manipulationcell-proliferationplant-hormoneauxincytokiningene-expressiontranscriptomicsproteomicsvenom-compositionbiochemistryphysiologyethologybehavioral-ecologypopulation-biologypopulation-dynamicsseasonalityphenologyclimate-effectsmicrohabitatniche-specializationconservation-biologyimperiled-habitatoak-woodland-conservationchaparral-conservationfire-ecologysuccessiondisturbancehabitat-fragmentationurbanizationagricultural-conversioninvasive-speciesclimate-changerange-shiftphenological-shiftcitizen-scienceiNaturalistobservation-dataspecies-distributionoccurrence-recordsbiodiversity-informaticstaxonomic-revisionspecies-descriptiontype-specimenmolecular-dataDNA-barcodingphylogeneticssystematicsevolutionary-historybiogeographydispersalvicariancespeciationspecies-conceptscryptic-speciesspecies-complexmorphological-variationgeographic-variationphenotypic-plasticitygenetic-variationpopulation-geneticsconservation-geneticsrestoration-ecologyhabitat-restorationmanaged-relocationassisted-migrationex-situ-conservationin-situ-conservationprotected-areanatural-reservestate-parknational-parkwilderness-areabiosphere-reserveUNESCOIUCNred-listspecies-assessmentconservation-statusdata-deficientresearch-priorityknowledge-gapfuture-researchgall-wasp-venomgall-wasp-glandsecretory-evolutiongall-wasp-phylogenyCynipidae-evolutionHymenoptera-phylogenyinsect-evolutiongall-evolutionplant-insect-interaction-evolutioncoevolutionary-arms-racemutualism-evolutiondefense-evolutioncounter-defenseenemy-free-spaceenemy-escapeecological-releaseadaptive-peakfitness-landscapeevolutionary-constraintevolutionary-trade-offlife-history-evolutionreproductive-allocationfecunditysurvivaldevelopment-timegeneration-timevoltinismunivoltinebivoltinemultivoltinediapauseoverwinteringcold-hardinessstress-tolerancedesiccation-resistancestarvation-resistanceimmune-responseparasitoid-resistancepathogen-resistancesymbiontmicrobiomegut-microbiotaendosymbiontWolbachiaRickettsiaCardiniumSpiroplasmabacterial-symbiontfungal-symbiontviral-symbiontmutualistic-microbeparasitic-microbecommensal-microbemicrobial-communitymetagenomicsmicrobial-ecologyhost-microbe-interactionimmune-systeminnate-immunityacquired-immunityhumoral-immunitycellular-immunityantimicrobial-peptidereactive-oxygen-speciesnitric-oxidemelanizationencapsulationnodulationphagocytosisautophagyapoptosisprogrammed-cell-deathstress-responseheat-shock-proteinoxidative-stresshypoxiaanoxiametabolic-raterespirationenergy-budgetnutrient-allocationlipid-storageglycogen-storageprotein-storageamino-acid-metabolismcarbohydrate-metabolismlipid-metabolismnitrogen-metabolismexcretionosmoregulationion-transportwater-balancecuticleintegumentsclerotizationpigmentationcolor-patternstructural-coloriridescencebioluminescencephotoreceptorvisioncompound-eyeocellusantennaolfactiongustationchemoreceptionmechanoreceptionthermoreceptionhygroreceptionproprioceptionneurobiologybrainganglionnerveneuronsynapseneurotransmitterhormonepheromoneallomonekairomonesemiochemicalchemical-ecologycommunicationsignalingmate-choicesexual-selectionsperm-competitioncryptic-female-choicemating-systemmating-behaviorcourtshipcopulationinseminationfertilizationovipositionegg-layingparental-carematernal-effectpaternal-effectepigeneticsgen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• Exapion ulicis

  Gorse Seed Weevil

  Exapion ulicis is a small seed-feeding weevil specialized on gorse (Ulex europaeus). Adults are light gray with a prominent snout roughly half the body length. The species is native to western Europe and has been introduced to New Zealand, California, Hawaii, and other regions as a biological control agent targeting invasive gorse populations. Larval feeding destroys seeds within pods, reducing plant spread, while adult feeding on stems and spines causes minor damage.

  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-collectively-retentive-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-individually-retentive-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-Nash-retentive-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-individually-rational-retentive-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-weakly-stable-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-strongly-stable-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-collectively-stable-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-individually-stable-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-individually-rational-stable-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-weakly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-strongly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-collectively-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-individually-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-Nash-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-weakly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-strongly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-collectively-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-individually-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-Nash-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-individually-rational-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-setminimal-weakly-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set

• Heliothodes diminutiva

  Small Heliothodes Moth

  Heliothodes diminutiva is a small owlet moth in the family Noctuidae, native to western North America. The species is a specialist herbivore whose larvae feed on the reproductive structures of tarweed (Madia elegans), a sticky annual plant in the Asteraceae family. Adult females lay eggs on developing flower buds, and emerging caterpillars can consume all flowers and buds, potentially sterilizing host plants. This species has been extensively studied in the context of plant indirect defense mechanisms, where trapped insect carrion on sticky plants attracts predators that reduce herbivory.

  specialist-herbivoreNoctuidaeHeliothinaetarweedindirect-defenseplant-insect-interactions

• Hoplinus

  stilt bugs

  Hoplinus is a genus of stilt bugs (family Berytidae) comprising six described species. These insects are characterized by their elongated, slender bodies and exceptionally long legs that elevate them above plant surfaces. Research on Hoplinus echinatus has demonstrated their role as predators on sticky plants, where they navigate resinous surfaces to feed on trapped insect carrion and prey on herbivorous insects.

  stilt-bugpredatorsticky-plantindirect-defenseCalifornia-native

• Tetramesa

  Tetramesa is a genus of minute phytophagous wasps in the family Eurytomidae comprising over 200 described species. Members are exclusively associated with grasses (Poaceae), where they typically induce stem or inflorescence galls. The genus exhibits pronounced host specificity, with most species restricted to a single grass species or closely related congeners. Several species have been deployed as biological control agents against invasive grasses, including T. romana for giant reed (Arundo donax) and candidate agents for medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) and African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). Adults feed on nectar. Recent phylogenomic studies have synonymized the genera Aiolomorphus and Cathilaria within Tetramesa.

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