Peatland

Guides

Aeshna interrupta
Variable Darner
Aeshna interrupta, commonly known as the Variable Darner, is a dragonfly species in the family Aeshnidae native to North America. Its range extends from Alaska and the Northwest Territories through Newfoundland, south to New Hampshire and Michigan in the eastern United States, and to the mountains of New Mexico, Arizona, and California in the west. The species is named for the distinctive broken stripes on the sides of the thorax present in many male specimens. It occupies diverse habitats including northern and mountain peatlands, cattail marshes, and other wetland environments.
dragonfly darner Aeshnidae Odonata North-America peatland marsh wetland
Aeshna juncea
Common Hawker, Moorland Hawker, Sedge Darner
Aeshna juncea, known as the Common Hawker, Moorland Hawker, or Sedge Darner, is a large hawker dragonfly with a Holarctic distribution spanning the Palearctic from Ireland to Japan and northern North America. It is one of the larger Aeshna species and is strongly associated with acidic bog habitats, particularly in Scotland where it is a prominent bog specialist. The species has a flight period from June to early October. Recent genomic research has revealed that Alaskan populations underwent population bottlenecks during the most recent ice age, and the species has been used as a model for studying genome size variation in Odonata driven by transposons and repetitive elements.
dragonfly hawker bog-specialist peatland Holarctic Arctic genome-model-organism Aeshnidae Odonata acidic-pools Sphagnum incomplete-metamorphosis predator Scotland Alaska population-bottleneck ice-age-refugia transposons genome-size-variation
Chilostigma itascae
headwaters chilostigman
Chilostigma itascae is a winter-emerging caddisfly in the family Limnephilidae, endemic to Minnesota with possible range extension into adjacent Ontario. Discovered in 1974 at the headwaters of the Mississippi River in Itasca State Park, it remained known from a single creek for 31 years. Subsequent surveys have documented populations in peatland habitats across northwestern Minnesota. Its most distinctive trait is adult emergence during winter under snow cover, an unusual pattern among caddisflies.
endemic winter-emerging peatland Minnesota Trichoptera Limnephilidae
Chrysops nigripes
Chrysops nigripes is a species of deer fly in the family Tabanidae, first described by Zetterstedt in 1838. Larval development has been documented in subarctic peatland environments, where the species occupies aquatic to semi-aquatic microhabitats. Life cycle completion at subarctic latitudes may require 7–8 years, indicating exceptionally slow growth rates compared to temperate populations of related species.
deer-fly horse-fly Tabanidae Chrysops subarctic peatland slow-development long-life-cycle aquatic-larvae minerotrophic-fen
Coenonympha
heaths, ringlets
Coenonympha is a genus of brush-footed butterflies in the subfamily Satyrinae, containing species distributed across temperate regions of the Holarctic. Palearctic species are commonly called heaths, while Nearctic species are called ringlets. The genus exhibits complex evolutionary patterns involving hybrid speciation, with some species complexes showing homoploid hybrid speciation and extensive gene flow. Many species are habitat specialists associated with peatlands, salt marshes, or alpine meadows, and several are of conservation concern due to habitat degradation.
butterfly Satyrinae peatland wetland hybrid-speciation conservation thermoregulation Holarctic heath ringlet
Coenonympha tullia
large heath, common ringlet
Coenonympha tullia is a Holarctic butterfly species in the family Nymphalidae, found across northern Europe, Asia, and North America. The species inhabits diverse grassy environments including peat bogs, wet meadows, prairies, and arctic tundra. It serves as a flagship species for peatland restoration efforts, with documented reintroduction programs in the UK. The species exhibits poor flight capability and has been observed seeking new grounds along ditches. Multiple subspecies have been described across its broad range, with some forms formerly considered subspecies now elevated to species rank.
butterfly Satyrinae peatland wetland Holarctic flagship-species reintroduction conservation
Coenonympha tullia ampelos
Common Ringlet (subspecies)
Coenonympha tullia ampelos is a subspecies of the Common Ringlet butterfly, distributed across parts of Europe and North America. As a member of the Satyrinae subfamily, it inhabits open grassland and wetland habitats including peat bogs. The species is known to occur in association with Sphagnum moss-dominated blanket bogs, where it serves as an indicator of intact bog ecosystems.
butterfly peatland bog indicator-species conservation Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Satyrinae
Coenonympha tullia columbiana
Coenonympha tullia columbiana is a subspecies of the large heath butterfly, a member of the Nymphalidae family. This subspecies is part of a complex of heathland and bog-dwelling butterflies distributed across North America and Europe. The species group is associated with peatland and wetland habitats, where larvae feed on specific grass species. Conservation concerns exist for related taxa due to habitat degradation from peatland drainage and wildfire.
butterfly Nymphalidae peatland bog wetland conservation subspecies
Coenonympha tullia eryngii
Large Heath butterfly, Bog ringlet
Coenonympha tullia eryngii is a subspecies of the Large Heath butterfly, a satyrine nymphalid found in peat bog habitats across northern Europe and North America. This subspecies is part of a complex that shows considerable geographic variation in wing pattern and size. The species is notable for its obligate association with intact bog ecosystems, making it sensitive to habitat degradation from drainage, burning, and afforestation. Adults are active during summer months and larvae feed on specific grasses in the Cyperaceae family.
butterfly Satyrinae peatland bog indicator-species conservation
Coenonympha tullia inornata
Inornate Ringlet, Common Ringlet (inornata subspecies)
Coenonympha tullia inornata is a subspecies of the Common Ringlet butterfly, a member of the family Nymphalidae. This subspecies occurs in North America, where it inhabits peatland and bog habitats. The species has been documented in association with blanket bog ecosystems, where it serves as an indicator of intact peatland conditions. Like other members of the genus, it is associated with grasses as larval host plants.
butterfly peatland bog indicator-species conservation Nymphalidae Satyrinae North-America grass-feeder wetland-specialist
Coenonympha tullia insulana
Large Heath butterfly (subspecies)
Coenonympha tullia insulana is a subspecies of the Large Heath butterfly, a member of the Satyrinae subfamily within Nymphalidae. The species is associated with peatland habitats, particularly blanket bogs. It is one of several subspecies of Coenonympha tullia found across parts of Europe and potentially North America, though specific details for insulana are limited in the provided sources.
Satyrinae peatland blanket-bog Scotland indicator-species conservation Lepidoptera Nymphalidae bog-specialist
Coenonympha tullia kodiak
Kodiak Ringlet
Coenonympha tullia kodiak is a subspecies of the Large Heath butterfly, commonly known as the Kodiak Ringlet. It belongs to the subfamily Satyrinae within the brush-footed butterfly family Nymphalidae. This subspecies is part of a widespread Holarctic species complex that exhibits considerable geographic variation across its range. The Kodiak Ringlet is associated with peatland and bog habitats, reflecting the broader ecological affinity of the C. tullia complex for wetland environments.
butterfly Satyrinae peatland bog subspecies Holarctic
Coenonympha tullia mcisaaci
Coenonympha tullia mcisaaci is a subspecies of the common ringlet butterfly, a member of the family Nymphalidae. It belongs to a genus of small brown butterflies commonly associated with grassland and bog habitats. The subspecies is part of a widespread Holarctic species complex with variable taxonomy across its range.
butterfly Nymphalidae bog-habitat peatland subspecies Holarctic
Coenonympha tullia subfusca
Coenonympha tullia subfusca is a subspecies of the large heath butterfly, a member of the family Nymphalidae. It is associated with peatland and bog habitats, where it occurs alongside other bog-specialist species. The subspecies is part of a complex that shows variation across its range in Europe and North America. Like other Coenonympha species, it is dependent on specific habitat conditions that have become increasingly threatened by drainage, peat extraction, and climate change-induced wildfires.
butterfly Nymphalidae peatland bog indicator-species climate-change carbon-storage Holarctic Europe North-America conservation habitat-specialist wetland Sphagnum wildfire-vulnerability drainage-sensitivity
Dodia tarandus
Woodland Tiger Moth
Dodia tarandus is a moth in the family Erebidae, first described by Macaulay and Schmidt in 2009. It is endemic to Canada, occurring in boreal black spruce bogs and adjacent open pine uplands across central to northern Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Yukon. The species exhibits sexual dimorphism in forewing length, with males measuring approximately 15.5 mm and females 14.3 mm. Larval biology and specific host plants remain unknown, though potential hosts are suspected to include Salix and Ericaceae species common in peatland habitats.
endemic boreal peatland sexual-dimorphism data-deficient
Heliophanus
Sun Jumping Spiders
Heliophanus is a genus of jumping spiders (Salticidae) comprising approximately 90–170 described species, with significant taxonomic revision in 2024 when many African species were transferred to other genera. The genus has a Palearctic and Afrotropical distribution, with core diversity in Europe extending into Asia and Africa. Several species are agrobionts in Central European cereal systems, where they function as dominant predators. At least one species, Heliophanus dampfi, is a bog specialist with highly restricted distribution.
Salticidae jumping-spiders agrobiont peatland biological-control Palearctic Afrotropical
Hypselistes florens
Peatland Sheetweb Weaver
Hypselistes florens is a dwarf spider in the family Linyphiidae, commonly known as the Peatland Sheetweb Weaver. It is found across northern North America, with records from the United States and Canada. The species includes two subspecies: the nominate H. f. florens and H. f. bulbiceps. It is one of the more frequently observed sheetweb weavers, with substantial observational data available.
dwarf-spider sheetweb-weaver peatland boreal Linyphiidae North-America subspecies-florens subspecies-bulbiceps
Lasionycta taigata
Northern Bog Arches
Lasionycta taigata is a noctuid moth described by Lafontaine in 1988. The species is strongly associated with boreal wetland habitats, specifically open peatlands and fens within the taiga zone. It represents one of 43 species recognized in a 2009 revision of the genus Lasionycta, which included 17 newly described species. The specific epithet 'taigata' references its primary distribution in taiga ecosystems.
noctuid boreal peatland fen taiga wetland-specialist
Leucorrhinia
whitefaces
Leucorrhinia is a genus of dragonflies in the family Libellulidae, commonly known as whitefaces due to their distinctive pale frons. The genus name derives from Greek 'leuco' (white) and 'rhinus' (nose). Species within this genus are associated with wetland habitats, particularly acidic bog pools with Sphagnum moss. Several species are of conservation concern due to specialized habitat requirements and vulnerability to habitat degradation.
dragonfly Odonata Libellulidae whitefaces bog-specialist conservation peatland acidic-wetlands Scotland Appalachians translocation territorial-behavior
Limotettix brooksi
A Nearctic leafhopper described in 1994 and placed in the subgenus Scleroracus. It belongs to a genus that evolved in New World peatlands from ancestors associated with spike-rush habitats. Like other members of its subgenus, it likely inhabits ombrotrophic peatlands and has been associated with ericaceous plant zones that enabled subsequent colonization of drier habitats.
leafhopper Cicadellidae peatland ombrotrophic Nearctic Alberta Scleroracus ericaceous 1994-description
Limotettix elegans
Limotettix elegans is a leafhopper species in the family Cicadellidae, described by Hamilton in 1994. It belongs to the subgenus Dryola within the genus Limotettix, a group that evolved in New World peatland habitats. The genus originated from ancestors feeding on spike-rush (Eleocharis) in swales and fens, with later lineages adapting to ombrotrophic peatlands and eventually to drier habitats with ericaceous and semiwoody host plants. Specific ecological details for L. elegans itself remain limited in published literature.
leafhopper Cicadellidae peatland Nearctic Dryola Hamilton-1994 ombrotrophic spike-rush Eleocharis
Limotettix medleri
Limotettix medleri is a Nearctic leafhopper species described in 1994 as part of a revision of the genus Limotettix. It was originally placed in the subgenus Scleroracus, a group associated with peatland habitats. The species is currently synonymized under Scleroracus medleri. Like other members of its genus, it likely inhabits ombrotrophic peatlands and feeds on sedges or rushes, though species-specific ecological data are not documented.
leafhopper Cicadellidae peatland Nearctic Saskatchewan ombrotrophic-bog Scleroracus
Limotettix minuendus
A Nearctic leafhopper described in 1994, placed in the subgenus Dryola. Known from Maryland. The genus evolved from peatland ancestors, with this species part of a lineage associated with ombrotrophic bog habitats.
leafhopper Cicadellidae Nearctic peatland bog Dryola
Limotettix obesura
Leafhopper described in 1994 as part of a revision of the genus Limotettix, placed in subgenus Scleroracus. The species belongs to a lineage of Limotettix that evolved in peatland habitats from ancestors feeding on spike-rush. Its placement in subgenus Scleroracus suggests association with sedges or rushes in ombrotrophic peatland environments.
leafhopper Cicadellidae peatland bog Scleroracus Nearctic British-Columbia 1994-description
Limotettix scudderi
Limotettix scudderi is a leafhopper species described by Hamilton in 1994, originally placed in the subgenus Scleroracus of the genus Limotettix. The species is part of an evolutionary radiation of Limotettix in peatland habitats, representing a lineage that adapted from ancestral wetland plants to colonize drier environments. It is currently recognized as a synonym of Scleroracus scudderi. Distribution records indicate occurrence in Yukon Territory.
leafhopper Cicadellidae peatland bog wetland Yukon Scleroracus Hamilton-1994
Liodessus
Liodessus is a genus of small diving beetles in the family Dytiscidae, tribe Bidessini. Species occur across the Americas from North America through the Andes to southern South America, with notable diversity in high-altitude wetlands and páramo ecosystems. Many species inhabit shallow, exposed pools and temporary water bodies, showing phenotypic plasticity in body form correlated with habitat permanence. The genus contains numerous species, with several new species described from the high Andes of Peru and Colombia in recent years. Taxonomic resolution relies heavily on male genital morphology.
diving-beetle aquatic-insect high-altitude páramo Andes phenotypic-plasticity Bidessini Hydroporinae Dytiscidae Coleoptera wetland temporary-pool peatland subantarctic taxonomy male-genitalia COI-barcode cryptic-species incipient-speciation hybridization geometric-morphometrics environmental-sentinel drought-indicator South-America North-America Fiji Navarino-Island Magallanes Peru Colombia Chile Argentina Bolivia Bogotá Junín Cusco Huánuco Cundinamarca Sumapaz Puna steppe peat-bog shallow-pool puddle altitude-3400-4900m L.-affinis-complex L.-bogotensis-complex L.-chilensis L.-affinis L.-obscurellus L.-noviaffinis L.-saratogae L.-picinus L.-santarosita L.-alpinus L.-hauthi L.-rhigos L.-thespesios Guignot-1939 Zimmermann Sharp LeConte Say Steinheil Régimbart Biström Miller Balke Franciscolo Sanfilippo Pederzani Nilsson Young Clark Hatch Mannerheim Casey Aubé Balfour-Browne Brinck Peschet Solier White Zootaxa ZooKeys Insect-Systematics-&-Evolution Anales-del-Instituto-de-la-Patagonia PLoS-ONE GBIF iNaturalist Catalogue-of-Life NCBI-Taxonomy BOLD Barcode-of-Life-Data-System COI mitochondrial-DNA phylogeography population-structure range-expansion lineage genetic-structure subspecies lectotype neotype synonymy new-species new-subspecies revision morphometrics allometry body-size body-shape elytra pronotum striae coloration punctation habitus occipital-line genital-morphology aedeagus paramere diagnosis identification-key type-locality type-specimen etymology bionomics natural-history geographic-distribution distribution-map Nearctic Neotropical Patagonia Cape-Horn-Biosphere-Reserve drought climate-change environmental-change sentinel-species plasticity adaptation phenotypic-variation hydrological-landscape water-permanence pool bog Altiplano Andean high-elevation montane alpine aquatic freshwater lentic lotic insect beetle Adephaga Liodessus
Metrioptera sphagnorum
bog katydid
Metrioptera sphagnorum, the bog katydid, is a shield-backed katydid in the family Tettigoniidae. It is found in North America, particularly in Canada. The species is notable for its distinctive acoustic behavior: males produce a prolonged trill song that alternates regularly between two intensity levels, with corresponding audio and ultrasonic frequency modes.
orthoptera tettigoniidae katydid bog acoustic-communication North-America Canada peatland
Nehalennia
Sprites
Nehalennia is a genus of very small damselflies in the family Coenagrionidae, commonly known as Sprites. Most species occur in North and South America, with one species, N. speciosa, distributed in Eurasia. Members of this genus are among the smallest odonates and are associated with specific wetland microhabitats.
damselfly odonata wetland peatland endangered microrefugium tyrphophilous conservation
Nehalennia gracilis
Sphagnum Sprite
Nehalennia gracilis, commonly known as the sphagnum sprite, is a small damselfly species in the family Coenagrionidae. It is one of the smallest damselflies in North America. The species is associated with peatland habitats, particularly sphagnum bogs, which is reflected in its common name. It is currently listed as Least Concern by the IUCN with a stable population.
damselfly Odonata sphagnum-bog peatland wetland North-America least-concern
Pachybrachius luridus
sphagnum groundbug, dirt-colored seed bug
Pachybrachius luridus is a species of dirt-colored seed bug in the family Rhyparochromidae. It has a broad distribution spanning Europe, Northern Asia (excluding China), North America, and Southern Asia. The species is commonly known as the sphagnum groundbug, suggesting an association with peat-forming wetland habitats.
groundbug seed-bug sphagnum peatland Palearctic Nearctic Hemiptera Rhyparochromidae Pentatomomorpha
Somatochlora brevicincta
Quebec Emerald, Robert's Emerald
Somatochlora brevicincta is a rare dragonfly in the family Corduliidae, first described by Canadian entomologist Adrien Robert in 1954. It belongs to the 'ringed' group of emeralds, distinguished by faint whitish rings on the abdomen. The species is among the rarest Odonata in Canada, with a transcontinental distribution across boreal and subarctic regions. It is classified as vulnerable to critically imperiled across most of its range.
dragonfly emerald bog-specialist peatland rare conservation-concern subarctic boreal
Somatochlora incurvata
Incurvate Emerald
Somatochlora incurvata, the Incurvate Emerald, is a medium-sized dragonfly in the family Corduliidae. First described by Canadian entomologist Edmund Murton Walker in 1918 from Michigan specimens, it was initially suspected to be a local race of the closely related forcipate emerald. The species occupies a restricted range in northeastern North America and is specialized to bog and fen habitats, where larvae develop within saturated Sphagnum moss.
dragonfly emerald bog-specialist fen Sphagnum peatland North-America Odonata Corduliidae
Sympetrum danae
Black Darter, Black Meadowhawk
Sympetrum danae is a small dragonfly with a northern Holarctic distribution, found in northern Europe, Asia, and North America. It is Britain's smallest resident dragonfly at 29–34 mm long. The species is strongly associated with acidic bog habitats and is active from mid-June to mid-November, with peak activity in late summer. Mature males are entirely black, making this the only Sympetrum species lacking red coloration in males.
dragonfly bog-specialist Holarctic late-season acidic-water peatland moorland heathland
Tetramesa
Tetramesa is a genus of minute phytophagous wasps in the family Eurytomidae comprising over 200 described species. Members are exclusively associated with grasses (Poaceae), where they typically induce stem or inflorescence galls. The genus exhibits pronounced host specificity, with most species restricted to a single grass species or closely related congeners. Several species have been deployed as biological control agents against invasive grasses, including T. romana for giant reed (Arundo donax) and candidate agents for medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) and African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). Adults feed on nectar. Recent phylogenomic studies have synonymized the genera Aiolomorphus and Cathilaria within Tetramesa.
biological-control gall-wasp grassland invasive-species-management host-specificity cryptic-species phylogenomics Eurytomidae Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera phytophagy Poaceae stem-gall inflorescence-gall integrated-pest-management riparian-restoration molecular-systematics species-delimitation GMYC COI 28S biocontrol-agent Arundo-donax giant-reed medusahead African-lovegrass Eragrostis Sporobolus barley-jointworm integrated-taxonomy Southern-Hemisphere-diversity grassland-expansion Miocene-diversification monophagy host-range-testing non-target-effects tick-habitat cattle-fever-tick Rio-Grande Big-Bend-National-Park greenhouse-rearing oviposition-behavior water-deficit-stress generation-time parasitoid Eurytoma-amicophaga Eurytominae Walker-1848 Terebrantes Apocrita microhymenoptera minute-wasp reduced-wing-venation antennal-segmentation mesosoma-sculpture ovipositor molecular-operational-taxonomic-units MOTU species-boundaries cryptic-diversity sampling-effects SPEDE-sampler host-genetic-proxies field-host-range no-choice-testing native-Australian-species non-target-risk host-phylogeny target-weed suppression topping mechanical-control integrated-weed-management native-vegetation-recovery light-penetration canopy-structure dispersal establishment post-release-evaluation adventive-population Austin-Texas Idaho England Wales Orissa Canary-Islands Canary-Is.Mediterranean South-Africa southern-Africa Northern-Hemisphere Australia North-America Texas California Greece central-Asia Iran Ukraine Moldova Russia Israel Tajikistan Japan Eragrostis-curvula Sporobolus-pyramidalis Sporobolus-natalensis Sporobolus-africanus Hyparrhenia-hirta Andropogon-gayanus Eragrostis-plana Eragrostis-planiculmis Eragrostis-biflora Eragrostis-capensis Eragrostis-trichophora Deschampsia-caespitosa Deschampsia-setacea Taeniatherum-caput-medusae Hordeum barley Phragmites common-reed Dactylis-glomerata orchardgrass Poales grass graminoid cereal-crop pasture rangeland invasive-weed noxious-weed habitat-structure ecosystem-functioning naturalised-species alien-grass donor-country receiver-country biocontrol-practitioner host-plant-resistance internode-infestation oviposition-preference behavioral-categories antennae-attitude laboratory-artifact polyphagy specialist generalist climate-fluctuation molecular-clock dated-analysis phylogenetic-clade intrapopulation-variation geographic-sub-structuring singleton-effect overestimation consensus-delimitation operational-taxonomic-unit integrative-taxonomy evidence-line caveat putative-species novel-taxon undescribed-species biodiversity-assessment faunal-survey field-collection genetic-sequence mitochondrial-DNA nuclear-DNA cytochrome-c-oxidase-I ribosomal-DNA internal-transcribed-spacer chloroplast-DNA rps16 rpl32 trnK trnL ITS plant-insect-interaction herbivore phytophage primary-consumer trophic-level food-web community-ecology restoration-ecology conservation-biological-control classical-biological-control augmentative-biological-control inundative-release establishment-rate population-increase downstream-dispersal river-mile biomass-reduction plant-community tick-feeding-ant tick-feeding-beetle habitat-modification law-enforcement international-border flood-control irrigation-channel stream-clogging river-bank-weakening native-vegetation-stifling wildlife-habitat-reduction cattle-inspection deer-inspection Rhipicephalus Boophilus tick-population vegetation-transition shading-effect long-term-suppression high-suppression cane-thinning mechanical-cutting growth-suppression susceptibility-to-attack combination-treatment synergistic-effect research-demonstration USDA Agricultural-Research-Service entomologist field-measurement post-release-monitoring impact-assessment agent-efficacy non-target-damage crop-safety agricultural-importance host-specific-herbivore sustainable-method cost-effective-method weed-control invasive-plant-management habitat-restoration ecosystem-service provisioning-service regulating-service supporting-service cultural-service biodiversity-conservation threatened-species endangered-species habitat-loss climate-change land-use-change anthropogenic-disturbance urbanization agricultural-intensification grazing-pressure fire-regime nitrogen-deposition carbon-sequestration soil-stabilization water-quality air-quality pollinator nectar-feeding adult-diet larval-diet tissue-feeding gall-induction plant-manipulation phytohormone cytokinin auxin cell-proliferation tissue-differentiation nutrient-sink sink-strength source-sink-dynamics plant-physiology reproductive-output seed-production seed-weight flowering-head inflorescence stem-elongation tiller-production biomass-allocation growth-rate relative-growth-rate net-primary-productivity ecosystem-productivity carbon-cycling nitrogen-cycling phosphorus-cycling decomposition litter-quality herbivory-impact top-down-control bottom-up-control trophic-cascade indirect-effect direct-effect density-dependence density-independence population-regulation population-dynamics life-table survivorship fecundity reproductive-rate intrinsic-rate-of-increase doubling-time carrying-capacity population-growth exponential-growth logistic-growth Allee-effect stochasticity environmental-variation demographic-variation genetic-variation phenotypic-plasticity local-adaptation evolutionary-response coevolution arms-race escape-and-radiate diversification-rate speciation extinction phylogenetic-diversity functional-diversity taxonomic-diversity alpha-diversity beta-diversity gamma-diversity species-richness species-evenness species-abundance-distribution rank-abundance-curve diversity-index Shannon-index Simpson-index evenness-index dominance-index similarity-index dissimilarity-index cluster-analysis ordination principal-component-analysis principal-coordinate-analysis non-metric-multidimensional-scaling canonical-correspondence-analysis redundancy-analysis variation-partitioning structural-equation-modeling path-analysis meta-analysis systematic-review evidence-synthesis research-priority knowledge-gap data-deficiency IUCN-Red-List conservation-status protected-area management-plan monitoring-protocol adaptive-management stakeholder-engagement policy-recommendation legislation regulation incentive market-based-instrument payment-for-ecosystem-services carbon-credit biodiversity-offset habitat-banking conservation-easement land-trust stewardship sustainable-agriculture organic-farming agroecology precision-agriculture conservation-tillage cover-cropping crop-rotation intercropping agroforestry silvopasture riparian-buffer filter-strip grassed-waterway wetland-restoration prairie-restoration savanna-restoration forest-restoration degraded-land abandoned-land marginal-land set-aside wildlife-corridor habitat-connectivity landscape-matrix patch-dynamics edge-effect interior-habitat core-area buffer-zone permeability resistance least-cost-path circuit-theory isolation-by-distance isolation-by-resistance gene-flow genetic-drift inbreeding outbreeding hybridization introgression admixture population-structure genetic-differentiation FST GST D allele-frequency haplotype genotype phenotype quantitative-trait morphological-trait behavioral-trait life-history-trait reproductive-trait survival-trait developmental-trait physiological-trait metabolic-trait stress-response immune-response defense-trait resistance-trait tolerance-trait avoidance-trait antipredator-defense chemical-defense mechanical-defense crypsis mimicry aposematism startle-display thanatosis autotomy regeneration compensatory-growth induced-defense constitutive-defense direct-defense indirect-defense volatile-organic-compound extrafloral-nectar domatia mutualism ant-plant-mutualism pollination-mutualism seed-dispersal-mutualism protection-mutualism nutrition-mutualism transport-mutualism cleaning-mutualism agricultural-mutualism domestication crop-wild-relative landrace cultivar variety breeding selection genetic-improvement yield quality stress-tolerance nutrient-use-efficiency water-use-efficiency photosynthetic-efficiency harvest-index grain-filling source-limitation sink-limitation assimilate-transport phloem-loading phloem-unloading remobilization senescence stay-green antioxidant reactive-oxygen-species oxidative-stress heat-stress cold-stress drought-stress salinity-stress metal-stress nutrient-deficiency nutrient-toxicity soil-pH soil-texture soil-structure soil-organic-matter soil-microbial-community rhizosphere mycorrhiza nitrogen-fixation phosphorus-solubilization potassium-mobilization micronutrient-uptake allelopathy competition facilitation niche-differentiation resource-partitioning temporal-partitioning spatial-partitioning morphological-partitioning physiological-partitioning phenological-partitioning competitive-exclusion competitive-displacement priority-effect founder-effect mass-effect species-sorting neutral-theory ecological-drift dispersal-limitation environmental-filtering biotic-filtering abiotic-filtering trait-based-approach functional-trait response-trait effect-trait community-assembly community-disassembly community-reassembly succession primary-succession secondary-succession pioneer-species climax-species keystone-species ecosystem-engineer foundation-species dominant-species subordinate-species transient-species resident-species migrant-species nomadic-species irruptive-species invasive-species naturalized-species casual-species established-species spreading-species widespread-species restricted-species endemic-species cosmopolitan-species disjunct-distribution relict-distribution refugium glacial-refugium interglacial-refugium postglacial-colonization range-shift range-expansion range-contraction range-fragmentation source-population sink-population metapopulation population-viability minimum-viable-population effective-population-size genetic-rescue demographic-rescue assisted-migration managed-relocation ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation cryopreservation seed-bank gene-bank botanic-garden arboretum zoo aquarium microbial-culture-collection DNA-bank tissue-bank sperm-bank oocyte-bank embryo-bank reintroduction translocation reinforcement supplementation headstarting captive-breeding propagation nucleus-population release-program soft-release hard-release acclimatization habitat-preparation predator-control competitor-control disease-control parasite-control health-screening quarantine veterinary-care nutrition-management environmental-enrichment behavioral-training imprinting fostering cross-fostering hand-rearing parent-rearing semi-natural-enclosure pre-release-conditioning survival-rate reproduction-rate dispersal-rate site-fidelity homeward-orientation migration navigation orientation magnetic-sense olfactory-sense visual-sense auditory-sense mechanosensory-sense thermosensory-sense hygrosensory-sense electrosensory-sense polarized-light celestial-cues landmark-cues odor-plume wind-direction sun-compass star-compass moon-compass magnetic-compass inertial-navigation path-integration cognitive-map spatial-memory temporal-memory episodic-memory procedural-memory associative-learning operant-conditioning classical-conditioning habituation sensitization song-learning tool-use problem-solving innovation social-learning cultural-transmission teaching cooperation altruism kin-selection reciprocal-altruism group-selection multilevel-selection selfish-gene inclusive-fitness reproductive-skew dominance-hierarchy territoriality home-range activity-center den-site nest-site roost-site singing-post display-site lek arena scrape burrow cavity crevice hole tunnel gallery chamber cell comb paper-nest mud-nest silk-nest spun-cocoon pupal-case ootheca egg-mass clutch brood litter covey pack herd flock colony society superorganism eusociality cooperative-breeding communal-breeding polygyny polyandry promiscuity monogamy serial-monogamy genetic-monogamy social-monogamy extra-pair-copulation sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice sexual-selection intersexual-selection intrasexual-selection mate-choice mate-guarding mate-switching divorce widowhood mate-replacement breeding-season breeding-cycle breeding-attempt breeding-success fledging-success recruitment juvenile-survival adult-survival longevity life-expectancy maximum-lifespan aging telomere oxidative-damage mitochondrial-dysfunction cellular-senescence apoptosis necrosis autophagy proteostasis DNA-repair epigenetic-modification transgenerational-effect maternal-effect paternal-effect parental-care maternal-care paternal-care biparental-care alloparental-care brood-care egg-care larval-care pupal-care food-provisioning nest-defense territory-defense predator-defense disease-defense parasite-defense hygiene-behavior grooming nest-cleaning cannibalism siblicide infanticide filial-cannibalism sexual-cannibalism cannibalistic-oophagy trophic-egg regurgitation trophallaxis food-sharing information-sharing alarm-call mobbing distraction-display broken-wing-display tailing persecution attack escape flight fight freeze faint death-feigning tonic-immobility startle-response withdrawal avoidance dishabituation latent-inhibition blocking overshadowing relative-validity conditioned-inhibition spontaneous-recovery renewal reinstatement rapid-reacquisition latent-learning insight-learning observational-learning vicarious-learning emulation imitation social-facilitation social-inhibition audience-effect bystander-effect conformity obedience compliance commitment consistency foot-in-the-door door-in-the-face low-ball that's-not-all sunk-cost endowment-effect loss-aversion risk-aversion risk-seeking probability-weighting hyperbolic-discounting temporal-discounting intertemporal-choice optimal-foraging marginal-value-theorem prey-choice patch-choice diet-breadth central-place-foraging load-size travel-time handling-time search-time encounter-rate prey-density prey-profitability prey-handling prey-detection prey-pursuit prey-capture prey-consumption prey-rejection ingestion-rate digestion-rate assimilation-efficiency production-efficiency ecological-efficiency trophic-transfer-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency ten-percent-rule pyramid-of-numbers pyramid-of-biomass pyramid-of-energy food-chain trophic-network energy-flow material-cycling biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle water-cycle hydrological-cycle atmospheric-circulation ocean-circulation thermohaline-circulation El-Niño La-Niña ENSO NAO AO PDO AMO climate-oscillation climate-anomaly weather-extreme drought flood heat-wave cold-snap storm hurricane typhoon cyclone tornado thunderstorm lightning wildfire volcanic-eruption earthquake tsunami landslide avalanche meteor-impact mass-extinction background-extinction speciation-rate extinction-rate net-diversification turnover standing-diversity fossil-record taphonomy preservation-bias sampling-bias collection-bias publication-bias citation-bias language-bias geographic-bias temporal-bias taxonomic-bias size-bias abundance-bias habitat-bias facies-bias Lagerstätte Konservat-Lagerstätte Konzentrat-Lagerstätte trace-fossil body-fossil chemical-fossil molecular-fossil biomarker isotope-signature paleoclimate-proxy paleoecology paleobiogeography paleoecosystem paleocommunity paleoenvironment paleogeography paleolatitude paleolongitude continental-drift plate-tectonics seafloor-spreading subduction orogeny mountain-building basin-formation sedimentation erosion weathering soil-formation pedogenesis horizon-development profile-development chronosequence toposequence biosequence climosequence landform geomorphology topography relief elevation slope aspect curvature roughness drainage watershed catchment basin subbasin reach segment zone riffle pool run glide cascade waterfall wetland marsh swamp bog fen mire peatland tundra taiga boreal-forest temperate-forest temperate-rainforest temperate-grassland tropical-forest tropical-rainforest tropical-dry-forest tropical-savanna tropical-grassland desert hot-desert cold-desert semiarid steppe prairie pampas veld savanna woodland shrubland chaparral maquis garigue fynbos kwongan mallee mulga mogote karst cave sinkhole doline polje uvala ponor spring seep oasis wadi arroyo gully ravine canyon gorge valley dale glen strath rift graben horst fault fold anticline syncline monocline dome plateau mesa butte escarpment bluff cliff crag tor inselberg bornhardt kopje hill knoll mound ridge spur saddle pass col gap notch cleft fissure joint bedding-plane foliation lineation cleavage schistosity gneissic-banding magma lava igneous-rock sedimentary-rock metamorphic-rock mineral crystal grain texture structure fabric composition chemistry mineralogy petrology geochemistry geophysics geochronology radiometric-dating isotopic-dating dendrochronology varve-chronology lichenometry archaeomagnetism paleomagnetism thermoluminescence optically-stimulated-luminescence electron-spin-resonance cosmogenic-nuclide exposure-dating burial-dating terrestrial-cosmogenic-nuclide in-situ-cosmogenic-nuclide meteoric-cosmogenic-nuclide fallout-radionuclide lead-210 cesium-137 plutonium americium radiocarbon carbon-14 calibration-curve intcal marine-reservoir-effect terrestrial-reservoir-effect hard-water-effect contamination pretreatment combustion graphitization accelerator-mass-spectrometry liquid-scintillation-counting gas-proportional-counting beta-counting gamma-spectrometry alpha-spectrometry mass-spectrometry inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry thermal-ionization-mass-spectrometry secondary-ion-mass-spectrometry laser-ablation-inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry electron-microprobe scanning-electron-microscopy transmission-electron-microscopy light-microscopy confocal-microscopy fluorescence-microscopy polarizing-microscopy phase-contrast-microscopy differential-interference-contrast-microscopy dark-field-microscopy bright-field-microscopy stereomicroscopy dissecting-microscopy microtomy sectioning staining mounting embedding fixation preservation collection curation vouchering repository herbarium museum archive database registry catalogue checklist inventory survey monitoring assessment evaluation appraisal audit review synthesis rapid-review scoping-review narrative-review critical-review state-of-the-art-review literature-review bibliometric-analysis citation-analysis co-citation-analysis bibliographic-coupling co-authorship-analysis collaboration-network knowledge-map concept-map ontology taxonomy classification nomenclature typification designation description diagnosis illustration measurement morphometry meristics count ratio index score rank grade scale level category class group set subset cluster clade lineage branch stem crown root node tip terminal internal basal derived ancestral plesiomorphic apomorphic synapomorphic autapomorphic homologous homoplastic convergent parallel reversal gain loss duplication deletion insertion inversion fusion fission polyploidy aneuploidy chromosome-number genome-size gene-number transcriptome proteome metabolome lipidome glycome interactome phenome connectome epigenome microbiome virome mycobiome bacteriome phytobiome rhizobiome endobiome ectobiome parasitome pathobiome diseasome toxome exposome foodome nutriome pharmacome toxicome adverse-outcome-pathway mode-of-action mechanism-of-action target-site receptor-binding enzyme-inhibition ion-channel-blockade membrane-disruption DNA-intercalation inflammation cell-differentiation cell-migration cell-adhesion cell-signaling signal-transduction gene-expression transcription translation post-translational-modification protein-folding protein-degradation protein-trafficking vesicle-transport exocytosis endocytosis phagocytosis pinocytosis mitophagy pexophagy ribophagy ER-phagy lysophagy lipophagy glycophagy ferritinophagy aggrephagy xenophagy entosis cytosis syncytium plasmodesmata gap-junction tight-junction adherens-junction desmosome hemidesmosome focal-adhesion cell-polarity cell-asymmetry cell-division mitosis meiosis cytokinesis karyokinesis chromosome-segregation spindle-assembly checkpoint DNA-replication DNA-recombination transposition retrotransposition horizontal-gene-transfer vertical-gene-transfer endosymbiosis symbiogenesis holobiont hologenome extended-phenotype niche-construction ecosystem-engineering keystone-process ecological-function ecosystem-function ecosystem-good natural-capital natural-resource renewable-resource non-renewable-resource common-pool-resource public-good private-good club-good externality market-failure government-failure policy-failure institutional-failure tragedy-of-the-commons free-rider collective-action social-dilemma prisoner's-dilemma chicken-game assurance-game coordination-game zero-sum-game positive-sum-game negative-sum-game win-win lose-lose win-lose Pareto-optimal Pareto-improvement Kaldor-Hicks-improvement cost-benefit-analysis cost-effectiveness-analysis multi-criteria-decision-analysis decision-support-system expert-system knowledge-based-system rule-based-system case-based-reasoning machine-learning deep-learning neural-network random-forest support-vector-machine decision-tree regression-tree classification-tree clustering-algorithm dimensionality-reduction feature-selection feature-extraction pattern-recognition image-analysis signal-processing time-series-analysis spatial-analysis geographic-information-system remote-sensing satellite-imagery aerial-photography drone-imagery LiDAR radar sonar seismic geophysical geochemical biogeochemical ecoinformatics bioinformatics computational-biology systems-biology synthetic-biology biotechnology nanotechnology genetic-engineering genome-editing CRISPR TALEN zinc-finger-nuclease transgenic cisgenic intragenic subgenic agrobacterium-mediated-transformation biolistics electroporation microinjection protoplast-fusion somatic-hybridization cybrid asymmetric-hybrid synthetic-polyploid doubled-haploid haploid-induction anther-culture microspore-culture ovule-culture embryo-culture endosperm-culture protoplast-culture cell-culture tissue-culture organ-culture shoot-culture root-culture callus-culture suspension-culture bioreactor hairy-root-culture transformation hardening micropropagation clonal-propagation meristem-culture shoot-tip-culture axillary-bud-culture nodal-culture leaf-culture petiole-culture stem-culture internode-culture rhizome-culture bulb-culture corm-culture tuber-culture seed-culture zygotic-embryo-culture somatic-embryo-culture somatic-embryogenesis organogenesis caulogenesis rhizogenesis adventitious-shoot-formation direct-regeneration indirect-regeneration primary-metabolism secondary-metabolism biosynthesis biotransformation bioconversion biodegradation bioremediation phytoremediation mycoremediation zooremediation bioaugmentation biostimulation natural-attenuation monitored-natural-attenuation engineered-natural-attenuation permeable-reactive-barrier pump-and-treat soil-vapor-extraction air-sparging thermal-desorption incineration landfilling containment capping slurry-wall grout-curtain sheet-piling clay-liner geomembrane geotextile geogrid geocomposite geosynthetic geofabric geonet geocell geopipe geostrip geofoam geobag geotube geocontainer geomat geoblanket geospacer geodrain geoinjection geogrout geopier geocolumn geopile geowall geoberm geotrench geocut geofill geolift geoslab geopanel geoblock geobrick geotile geopaver geoweb geomattress geocushion