Marsh

Guides

Acronicta insularis
cattail caterpillar, Henry's marsh moth
Acronicta insularis is a noctuid moth native to North America, with larvae known as the cattail caterpillar and adults as Henry's marsh moth. The species was first described in 1868 and was reclassified from Simyra to Acronicta in 2015 based on phylogenetic analysis. It has a transcontinental distribution across the United States and southern Canada, with adults active from spring through late summer and larvae feeding on wetland plants including cattails and various grasses.
moth Noctuidae wetland marsh cattail North-America transcontinental herbivore generalist-feeder multivoltine
Aeshna interrupta
Variable Darner
Aeshna interrupta, commonly known as the Variable Darner, is a dragonfly species in the family Aeshnidae native to North America. Its range extends from Alaska and the Northwest Territories through Newfoundland, south to New Hampshire and Michigan in the eastern United States, and to the mountains of New Mexico, Arizona, and California in the west. The species is named for the distinctive broken stripes on the sides of the thorax present in many male specimens. It occupies diverse habitats including northern and mountain peatlands, cattail marshes, and other wetland environments.
dragonfly darner Aeshnidae Odonata North-America peatland marsh wetland
Agonum thoreyi
Agonum thoreyi is a ground beetle species in the family Carabidae. In central Alberta marshes, it is one of four most abundant carabid species in emergent vegetation of flooded zones. It shows relatively even distribution across macrohabitats compared to congeners, with preference for microsites featuring emergent substrate or dead vegetation piles. Its reproductive timing is later than sympatric Agonum nigriceps and A. ferruginosum. The species is nocturnal.
ground-beetle marsh wetland nocturnal resource-partitioning
Anasimyia
swamp flies
Anasimyia is a genus of wetland hoverflies (Syrphidae) characterized by aquatic larval development. The genus was historically treated as a subgenus of Lejops but has been elevated to full generic status based on morphological and molecular evidence. Adults are associated with marshy and aquatic habitats. The genus includes approximately 20 described species distributed primarily across the Holarctic region.
aquatic-larvae wetland hoverfly Holarctic Syrphidae marsh fen pollinator detritivore genus-elevated-from-subgenus
Armases cinereum
squareback marsh crab, wharf crab
Armases cinereum is a small, dark brown crab native to Atlantic and Gulf coasts of North America. It inhabits intertidal zones from salt marshes to mangrove swamps, often found under rocks and debris. The species is highly omnivorous, consuming detritus, plant material, and small invertebrates. It is notable for extensive mobility between marsh and upland habitats, with females exhibiting wider ranging movements that may transport energy between ecosystems.
crab marsh mangrove omnivore intertidal coastal western-atlantic
Attulus floricola
Flower Jumping Spider
Attulus floricola is a small jumping spider in the family Salticidae with a widespread Holarctic distribution spanning Europe, Asia, and North America. Originally described as Euophrys floricola in 1837, the species has undergone extensive taxonomic revision, with North American populations formerly recognized as separate species or subspecies before being synonymized in 2020. The species name refers to its habit of living on flower heads and similar vegetation. It inhabits wetland habitats including bogs, marshes, fens, and meadows.
jumping-spider Salticidae Holarctic wetland flower-dwelling bog marsh fen meadow
Elaphrus
Marsh Ground Beetles
Elaphrus is a genus of ground beetles (Carabidae: Elaphrinae) commonly known as marsh ground beetles. The genus contains at least 40 described species distributed across the Palearctic, Nearctic, Near East, and Northern Africa. Many species are strongly associated with wetland habitats, including vernal pools and marshes. Several species exhibit strong morphological resemblance to tiger beetles (Cicindelinae), frequently leading to misidentification by collectors. At least two species, E. viridis and E. sugai, are considered threatened or endangered due to habitat loss and degradation.
Carabidae Elaphrinae wetland marsh vernal-pool predator conservation endangered misidentification tiger-beetle-mimicry
Grypus
marsh weevils
Grypus is a genus of marsh weevils (family Brachyceridae) comprising approximately 10 described species. These beetles are associated with wetland and marsh habitats. The genus was established by Germar in 1817. Species in this genus include G. equiseti, G. brassicae, and G. brunnirostris, among others.
weevil marsh wetland Coleoptera Brachyceridae
Hypera paludicola
Hypera paludicola is a species of weevil in the family Curculionidae, described by Tuttler in 1973. It belongs to the genus Hypera, which contains several species associated with leguminous plants. The specific epithet 'paludicola' suggests an association with marsh or wetland habitats.
weevil Curculionidae Hypera Coleoptera wetland marsh paludicola
Leptysma marginicollis
cattail toothpick grasshopper, slender locust
Leptysma marginicollis is a grasshopper species known by the common names cattail toothpick grasshopper and slender locust. It is distinguished from superficially similar Gomphocerinae grasshoppers by a diagnostic spur or spine between the front legs. The species is strongly associated with wetland vegetation, particularly emergent plants such as cattails and sedges, across a broad geographic range spanning North America, the Neotropics, and the Caribbean.
grasshopper wetland marsh cattail North-America Neotropical Caribbean
Lepyrus palustris
Marsh Weevil
Lepyrus palustris is a true weevil in the family Curculionidae, characterized by the distinctive elongated snout typical of weevils. The species has a transcontinental distribution spanning the Holarctic region, with records from both North America and Europe. As a member of the large and diverse genus Lepyrus, it inhabits marshy environments as suggested by its specific epithet 'palustris'.
weevil Curculionidae Holarctic marsh wetland boreal Bedel-1884
Lethe eurydice
Eyed Brown, Marsh Eyed Brown
Lethe eurydice, commonly known as the Eyed Brown or Marsh Eyed Brown, is a North American satyrine butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. The species inhabits marshy and wetland environments across northern North America, with records from Canadian provinces including Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan, as well as the northeastern United States. Adults display the characteristic brown coloration and eyespot patterns typical of the Satyrinae subfamily.
butterfly satyrine North-America marsh wetland
Lissorhoptrus lacustris
marsh weevil
Lissorhoptrus lacustris is a species of marsh weevil in the beetle family Brachyceridae, originally described by Kuschel in 1951. It is found in North America, though specific details about its biology and ecology remain poorly documented in the available literature. The genus Lissorhoptrus is notable for containing the rice water weevil (L. oryzophilus), a major agricultural pest, but L. lacustris appears to be a non-pest species associated with marsh habitats.
weevil marsh North-America Brachyceridae poorly-known
Listronotus palustris
underwater weevil
Listronotus palustris is a species of underwater weevil in the beetle family Curculionidae. It is found in North America. The species epithet 'palustris' refers to marsh or swamp habitat, suggesting an association with wetland environments.
underwater marsh poorly-known North-America Curculionidae Listronotus
Medetera aberrans
Medetera aberrans is a species of long-legged fly in the family Dolichopodidae, described by Wheeler in 1899. It occurs in eastern North America, where adults are frequently encountered in wet grasslands and marshes. The species exhibits metallic green coloration with yellow legs, characteristic of many dolichopodids. It belongs to the aberrans species group within Medetera, a group that has alternatively been treated as the separate genus Saccopheronta.
Dolichopodidae long-legged-fly metallic-green wet-grassland marsh eastern-North-America predatory-fly
Neoconocephalus palustris
marsh conehead
Neoconocephalus palustris, commonly known as the marsh conehead, is a large katydid species in the family Tettigoniidae. It belongs to the conehead group, characterized by a distinctive forward-projecting cone on the head. The species is found in wetland habitats across eastern North America. Like other members of the genus Neoconocephalus, it is among the largest katydids in its range, with some individuals exceeding seven centimeters in length.
Orthoptera Tettigoniidae katydid conehead marsh wetland North-America insect Ensifera Conocephalinae Copiphorini Neoconocephalus
Notaris
marsh weevils
Notaris is a genus of marsh weevils in the family Brachyceridae. The genus contains at least 40 described species. These beetles are associated with wetland habitats.
weevil marsh wetland Brachyceridae
Notiodes limatulus
marsh weevil
Notiodes limatulus is a species of marsh weevil in the beetle family Brachyceridae, described by O'Brien & Wibmer in 1982. It is known from multiple Canadian provinces and is part of a genus associated with wetland habitats. The species has been documented through 19 iNaturalist observations and is accepted in major taxonomic databases.
weevil marsh North-America Canada
Notiodes ovalis
marsh weevil
Notiodes ovalis is a species of marsh weevil in the beetle family Brachyceridae. The species was originally described by LeConte in 1876 and has been placed in the genus Endalus in some taxonomic treatments. As a member of Brachyceridae, it belongs to a family of weevils commonly associated with marsh and wetland habitats.
weevil Brachyceridae marsh Coleoptera LeConte-1876
Onychylis
marsh weevils
Onychylis is a genus of marsh weevils established by LeConte in 1876. The genus contains approximately 12 described species. These beetles are classified in the family Brachyceridae, though some sources place them in Erirhinidae. The genus is characterized by its association with marsh habitats.
weevil marsh Coleoptera
Onychylis alternans
marsh weevil
Onychylis alternans is a species of marsh weevil in the beetle family Brachyceridae. It was described by LeConte in 1876 and occurs in North America. The species is provisionally accepted in current taxonomy.
weevil marsh North-America LeConte-1876
Onychylis nigrirostris
pickerelweed weevil
Onychylis nigrirostris, commonly known as the pickerelweed weevil, is a marsh-dwelling weevil species first described by LeConte in 1876. It belongs to the family Brachyceridae (sometimes historically placed in Erirhinidae or Curculionidae in various taxonomic treatments). The species is associated with wetland habitats in eastern North America.
weevil marsh wetland pickerelweed North-America
Ostrinia marginalis
Ostrinia marginalis is a small crambid moth described by Francis Walker in 1866. It is found across northern North America from Newfoundland and Maine westward through the Canadian provinces to the Yukon and Northwest Territories. The species is associated with wetland habitats, specifically bogs and marshes. Its larvae feed on Rumex (dock) and Polygonum (knotweed) species.
crambidae pyraustinae lepidoptera moth wetland bog marsh north-america rumex polygonum
Phlegyas annulicrus
Phlegyas annulicrus is a true bug in the family Pachygronthidae, distributed from the southern United States through Mexico to Central America. It inhabits marshy and wetland habitats, feeding on seeds of sedges (Cyperaceae), particularly Cyperus species. The species undergoes five nymphal instars before reaching adulthood.
seed-feeding wetland marsh sedge-associated pentatomomorpha lygaeoidea
Pissonotus paludosus
Pissonotus paludosus is a species of planthopper in the family Delphacidae, first described by Morgan and Beamer in 1949. It belongs to the genus Pissonotus, a group of small delphacid planthoppers found in North America. The species is documented from the southeastern United States, with records from Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi. Like other delphacids, it is associated with wetland and marshy habitats, as suggested by its specific epithet "paludosus" (meaning marshy or swampy).
planthopper delphacid southeastern-US wetland marsh Hemiptera Auchenorrhyncha Fulgoromorpha Delphacidae Pissonotus 1949-description Morgan-&-Beamer
Ptichodis vinculum
Black-tipped Ptichodis Moth
Ptichodis vinculum is a small erebid moth with a wingspan of 34 mm. It is primarily distributed in the southeastern United States, with scattered records north to New Jersey and New York. The species is closely associated with coastal marshy habitats. Adults are active year-round in Florida, with more seasonal activity likely in northern parts of the range.
coastal marsh southeastern-US small-moth
Sympetrum vicinum
Autumn Meadowhawk, Yellow-legged Meadowhawk
Sympetrum vicinum is a small dragonfly in the skimmer family Libellulidae, commonly known as the Autumn Meadowhawk or Yellow-legged Meadowhawk. Adults measure 26–35 mm in length and are distinguished by their yellow legs and late-season flight period. This species exhibits two disjunct populations in North America—one in the eastern United States and Canada, and another in the Pacific Northwest. It is notable for flying later into autumn than any other dragonfly species in its western range, with observations extending into November.
dragonfly odonata libellulidae meadowhawk autumn yellow-legs North-America pond marsh
Tetramesa
Tetramesa is a genus of minute phytophagous wasps in the family Eurytomidae comprising over 200 described species. Members are exclusively associated with grasses (Poaceae), where they typically induce stem or inflorescence galls. The genus exhibits pronounced host specificity, with most species restricted to a single grass species or closely related congeners. Several species have been deployed as biological control agents against invasive grasses, including T. romana for giant reed (Arundo donax) and candidate agents for medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) and African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). Adults feed on nectar. Recent phylogenomic studies have synonymized the genera Aiolomorphus and Cathilaria within Tetramesa.
biological-control gall-wasp grassland invasive-species-management host-specificity cryptic-species phylogenomics Eurytomidae Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera phytophagy Poaceae stem-gall inflorescence-gall integrated-pest-management riparian-restoration molecular-systematics species-delimitation GMYC COI 28S biocontrol-agent Arundo-donax giant-reed medusahead African-lovegrass Eragrostis Sporobolus barley-jointworm integrated-taxonomy Southern-Hemisphere-diversity grassland-expansion Miocene-diversification monophagy host-range-testing non-target-effects tick-habitat cattle-fever-tick Rio-Grande Big-Bend-National-Park greenhouse-rearing oviposition-behavior water-deficit-stress generation-time parasitoid Eurytoma-amicophaga Eurytominae Walker-1848 Terebrantes Apocrita microhymenoptera minute-wasp reduced-wing-venation antennal-segmentation mesosoma-sculpture ovipositor molecular-operational-taxonomic-units MOTU species-boundaries cryptic-diversity sampling-effects SPEDE-sampler host-genetic-proxies field-host-range no-choice-testing native-Australian-species non-target-risk host-phylogeny target-weed suppression topping mechanical-control integrated-weed-management native-vegetation-recovery light-penetration canopy-structure dispersal establishment post-release-evaluation adventive-population Austin-Texas Idaho England Wales Orissa Canary-Islands Canary-Is.Mediterranean South-Africa southern-Africa Northern-Hemisphere Australia North-America Texas California Greece central-Asia Iran Ukraine Moldova Russia Israel Tajikistan Japan Eragrostis-curvula Sporobolus-pyramidalis Sporobolus-natalensis Sporobolus-africanus Hyparrhenia-hirta Andropogon-gayanus Eragrostis-plana Eragrostis-planiculmis Eragrostis-biflora Eragrostis-capensis Eragrostis-trichophora Deschampsia-caespitosa Deschampsia-setacea Taeniatherum-caput-medusae Hordeum barley Phragmites common-reed Dactylis-glomerata orchardgrass Poales grass graminoid cereal-crop pasture rangeland invasive-weed noxious-weed habitat-structure ecosystem-functioning naturalised-species alien-grass donor-country receiver-country biocontrol-practitioner host-plant-resistance internode-infestation oviposition-preference behavioral-categories antennae-attitude laboratory-artifact polyphagy specialist generalist climate-fluctuation molecular-clock dated-analysis phylogenetic-clade intrapopulation-variation geographic-sub-structuring singleton-effect overestimation consensus-delimitation operational-taxonomic-unit integrative-taxonomy evidence-line caveat putative-species novel-taxon undescribed-species biodiversity-assessment faunal-survey field-collection genetic-sequence mitochondrial-DNA nuclear-DNA cytochrome-c-oxidase-I ribosomal-DNA internal-transcribed-spacer chloroplast-DNA rps16 rpl32 trnK trnL ITS plant-insect-interaction herbivore phytophage primary-consumer trophic-level food-web community-ecology restoration-ecology conservation-biological-control classical-biological-control augmentative-biological-control inundative-release establishment-rate population-increase downstream-dispersal river-mile biomass-reduction plant-community tick-feeding-ant tick-feeding-beetle habitat-modification law-enforcement international-border flood-control irrigation-channel stream-clogging river-bank-weakening native-vegetation-stifling wildlife-habitat-reduction cattle-inspection deer-inspection Rhipicephalus Boophilus tick-population vegetation-transition shading-effect long-term-suppression high-suppression cane-thinning mechanical-cutting growth-suppression susceptibility-to-attack combination-treatment synergistic-effect research-demonstration USDA Agricultural-Research-Service entomologist field-measurement post-release-monitoring impact-assessment agent-efficacy non-target-damage crop-safety agricultural-importance host-specific-herbivore sustainable-method cost-effective-method weed-control invasive-plant-management habitat-restoration ecosystem-service provisioning-service regulating-service supporting-service cultural-service biodiversity-conservation threatened-species endangered-species habitat-loss climate-change land-use-change anthropogenic-disturbance urbanization agricultural-intensification grazing-pressure fire-regime nitrogen-deposition carbon-sequestration soil-stabilization water-quality air-quality pollinator nectar-feeding adult-diet larval-diet tissue-feeding gall-induction plant-manipulation phytohormone cytokinin auxin cell-proliferation tissue-differentiation nutrient-sink sink-strength source-sink-dynamics plant-physiology reproductive-output seed-production seed-weight flowering-head inflorescence stem-elongation tiller-production biomass-allocation growth-rate relative-growth-rate net-primary-productivity ecosystem-productivity carbon-cycling nitrogen-cycling phosphorus-cycling decomposition litter-quality herbivory-impact top-down-control bottom-up-control trophic-cascade indirect-effect direct-effect density-dependence density-independence population-regulation population-dynamics life-table survivorship fecundity reproductive-rate intrinsic-rate-of-increase doubling-time carrying-capacity population-growth exponential-growth logistic-growth Allee-effect stochasticity environmental-variation demographic-variation genetic-variation phenotypic-plasticity local-adaptation evolutionary-response coevolution arms-race escape-and-radiate diversification-rate speciation extinction phylogenetic-diversity functional-diversity taxonomic-diversity alpha-diversity beta-diversity gamma-diversity species-richness species-evenness species-abundance-distribution rank-abundance-curve diversity-index Shannon-index Simpson-index evenness-index dominance-index similarity-index dissimilarity-index cluster-analysis ordination principal-component-analysis principal-coordinate-analysis non-metric-multidimensional-scaling canonical-correspondence-analysis redundancy-analysis variation-partitioning structural-equation-modeling path-analysis meta-analysis systematic-review evidence-synthesis research-priority knowledge-gap data-deficiency IUCN-Red-List conservation-status protected-area management-plan monitoring-protocol adaptive-management stakeholder-engagement policy-recommendation legislation regulation incentive market-based-instrument payment-for-ecosystem-services carbon-credit biodiversity-offset habitat-banking conservation-easement land-trust stewardship sustainable-agriculture organic-farming agroecology precision-agriculture conservation-tillage cover-cropping crop-rotation intercropping agroforestry silvopasture riparian-buffer filter-strip grassed-waterway wetland-restoration prairie-restoration savanna-restoration forest-restoration degraded-land abandoned-land marginal-land set-aside wildlife-corridor habitat-connectivity landscape-matrix patch-dynamics edge-effect interior-habitat core-area buffer-zone permeability resistance least-cost-path circuit-theory isolation-by-distance isolation-by-resistance gene-flow genetic-drift inbreeding outbreeding hybridization introgression admixture population-structure genetic-differentiation FST GST D allele-frequency haplotype genotype phenotype quantitative-trait morphological-trait behavioral-trait life-history-trait reproductive-trait survival-trait developmental-trait physiological-trait metabolic-trait stress-response immune-response defense-trait resistance-trait tolerance-trait avoidance-trait antipredator-defense chemical-defense mechanical-defense crypsis mimicry aposematism startle-display thanatosis autotomy regeneration compensatory-growth induced-defense constitutive-defense direct-defense indirect-defense volatile-organic-compound extrafloral-nectar domatia mutualism ant-plant-mutualism pollination-mutualism seed-dispersal-mutualism protection-mutualism nutrition-mutualism transport-mutualism cleaning-mutualism agricultural-mutualism domestication crop-wild-relative landrace cultivar variety breeding selection genetic-improvement yield quality stress-tolerance nutrient-use-efficiency water-use-efficiency photosynthetic-efficiency harvest-index grain-filling source-limitation sink-limitation assimilate-transport phloem-loading phloem-unloading remobilization senescence stay-green antioxidant reactive-oxygen-species oxidative-stress heat-stress cold-stress drought-stress salinity-stress metal-stress nutrient-deficiency nutrient-toxicity soil-pH soil-texture soil-structure soil-organic-matter soil-microbial-community rhizosphere mycorrhiza nitrogen-fixation phosphorus-solubilization potassium-mobilization micronutrient-uptake allelopathy competition facilitation niche-differentiation resource-partitioning temporal-partitioning spatial-partitioning morphological-partitioning physiological-partitioning phenological-partitioning competitive-exclusion competitive-displacement priority-effect founder-effect mass-effect species-sorting neutral-theory ecological-drift dispersal-limitation environmental-filtering biotic-filtering abiotic-filtering trait-based-approach functional-trait response-trait effect-trait community-assembly community-disassembly community-reassembly succession primary-succession secondary-succession pioneer-species climax-species keystone-species ecosystem-engineer foundation-species dominant-species subordinate-species transient-species resident-species migrant-species nomadic-species irruptive-species invasive-species naturalized-species casual-species established-species spreading-species widespread-species restricted-species endemic-species cosmopolitan-species disjunct-distribution relict-distribution refugium glacial-refugium interglacial-refugium postglacial-colonization range-shift range-expansion range-contraction range-fragmentation source-population sink-population metapopulation population-viability minimum-viable-population effective-population-size genetic-rescue demographic-rescue assisted-migration managed-relocation ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation cryopreservation seed-bank gene-bank botanic-garden arboretum zoo aquarium microbial-culture-collection DNA-bank tissue-bank sperm-bank oocyte-bank embryo-bank reintroduction translocation reinforcement supplementation headstarting captive-breeding propagation nucleus-population release-program soft-release hard-release acclimatization habitat-preparation predator-control competitor-control disease-control parasite-control health-screening quarantine veterinary-care nutrition-management environmental-enrichment behavioral-training imprinting fostering cross-fostering hand-rearing parent-rearing semi-natural-enclosure pre-release-conditioning survival-rate reproduction-rate dispersal-rate site-fidelity homeward-orientation migration navigation orientation magnetic-sense olfactory-sense visual-sense auditory-sense mechanosensory-sense thermosensory-sense hygrosensory-sense electrosensory-sense polarized-light celestial-cues landmark-cues odor-plume wind-direction sun-compass star-compass moon-compass magnetic-compass inertial-navigation path-integration cognitive-map spatial-memory temporal-memory episodic-memory procedural-memory associative-learning operant-conditioning classical-conditioning habituation sensitization song-learning tool-use problem-solving innovation social-learning cultural-transmission teaching cooperation altruism kin-selection reciprocal-altruism group-selection multilevel-selection selfish-gene inclusive-fitness reproductive-skew dominance-hierarchy territoriality home-range activity-center den-site nest-site roost-site singing-post display-site lek arena scrape burrow cavity crevice hole tunnel gallery chamber cell comb paper-nest mud-nest silk-nest spun-cocoon pupal-case ootheca egg-mass clutch brood litter covey pack herd flock colony society superorganism eusociality cooperative-breeding communal-breeding polygyny polyandry promiscuity monogamy serial-monogamy genetic-monogamy social-monogamy extra-pair-copulation sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice sexual-selection intersexual-selection intrasexual-selection mate-choice mate-guarding mate-switching divorce widowhood mate-replacement breeding-season breeding-cycle breeding-attempt breeding-success fledging-success recruitment juvenile-survival adult-survival longevity life-expectancy maximum-lifespan aging telomere oxidative-damage mitochondrial-dysfunction cellular-senescence apoptosis necrosis autophagy proteostasis DNA-repair epigenetic-modification transgenerational-effect maternal-effect paternal-effect parental-care maternal-care paternal-care biparental-care alloparental-care brood-care egg-care larval-care pupal-care food-provisioning nest-defense territory-defense predator-defense disease-defense parasite-defense hygiene-behavior grooming nest-cleaning cannibalism siblicide infanticide filial-cannibalism sexual-cannibalism cannibalistic-oophagy trophic-egg regurgitation trophallaxis food-sharing information-sharing alarm-call mobbing distraction-display broken-wing-display tailing persecution attack escape flight fight freeze faint death-feigning tonic-immobility startle-response withdrawal avoidance dishabituation latent-inhibition blocking overshadowing relative-validity conditioned-inhibition spontaneous-recovery renewal reinstatement rapid-reacquisition latent-learning insight-learning observational-learning vicarious-learning emulation imitation social-facilitation social-inhibition audience-effect bystander-effect conformity obedience compliance commitment consistency foot-in-the-door door-in-the-face low-ball that's-not-all sunk-cost endowment-effect loss-aversion risk-aversion risk-seeking probability-weighting hyperbolic-discounting temporal-discounting intertemporal-choice optimal-foraging marginal-value-theorem prey-choice patch-choice diet-breadth central-place-foraging load-size travel-time handling-time search-time encounter-rate prey-density prey-profitability prey-handling prey-detection prey-pursuit prey-capture prey-consumption prey-rejection ingestion-rate digestion-rate assimilation-efficiency production-efficiency ecological-efficiency trophic-transfer-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency ten-percent-rule pyramid-of-numbers pyramid-of-biomass pyramid-of-energy food-chain trophic-network energy-flow material-cycling biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle water-cycle hydrological-cycle atmospheric-circulation ocean-circulation thermohaline-circulation El-Niño La-Niña ENSO NAO AO PDO AMO climate-oscillation climate-anomaly weather-extreme drought flood heat-wave cold-snap storm hurricane typhoon cyclone tornado thunderstorm lightning wildfire volcanic-eruption earthquake tsunami landslide avalanche meteor-impact mass-extinction background-extinction speciation-rate extinction-rate net-diversification turnover standing-diversity fossil-record taphonomy preservation-bias sampling-bias collection-bias publication-bias citation-bias language-bias geographic-bias temporal-bias taxonomic-bias size-bias abundance-bias habitat-bias facies-bias Lagerstätte Konservat-Lagerstätte Konzentrat-Lagerstätte trace-fossil body-fossil chemical-fossil molecular-fossil biomarker isotope-signature paleoclimate-proxy paleoecology paleobiogeography paleoecosystem paleocommunity paleoenvironment paleogeography paleolatitude paleolongitude continental-drift plate-tectonics seafloor-spreading subduction orogeny mountain-building basin-formation sedimentation erosion weathering soil-formation pedogenesis horizon-development profile-development chronosequence toposequence biosequence climosequence landform geomorphology topography relief elevation slope aspect curvature roughness drainage watershed catchment basin subbasin reach segment zone riffle pool run glide cascade waterfall wetland marsh swamp bog fen mire peatland tundra taiga boreal-forest temperate-forest temperate-rainforest temperate-grassland tropical-forest tropical-rainforest tropical-dry-forest tropical-savanna tropical-grassland desert hot-desert cold-desert semiarid steppe prairie pampas veld savanna woodland shrubland chaparral maquis garigue fynbos kwongan mallee mulga mogote karst cave sinkhole doline polje uvala ponor spring seep oasis wadi arroyo gully ravine canyon gorge valley dale glen strath rift graben horst fault fold anticline syncline monocline dome plateau mesa butte escarpment bluff cliff crag tor inselberg bornhardt kopje hill knoll mound ridge spur saddle pass col gap notch cleft fissure joint bedding-plane foliation lineation cleavage schistosity gneissic-banding magma lava igneous-rock sedimentary-rock metamorphic-rock mineral crystal grain texture structure fabric composition chemistry mineralogy petrology geochemistry geophysics geochronology radiometric-dating isotopic-dating dendrochronology varve-chronology lichenometry archaeomagnetism paleomagnetism thermoluminescence optically-stimulated-luminescence electron-spin-resonance cosmogenic-nuclide exposure-dating burial-dating terrestrial-cosmogenic-nuclide in-situ-cosmogenic-nuclide meteoric-cosmogenic-nuclide fallout-radionuclide lead-210 cesium-137 plutonium americium radiocarbon carbon-14 calibration-curve intcal marine-reservoir-effect terrestrial-reservoir-effect hard-water-effect contamination pretreatment combustion graphitization accelerator-mass-spectrometry liquid-scintillation-counting gas-proportional-counting beta-counting gamma-spectrometry alpha-spectrometry mass-spectrometry inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry thermal-ionization-mass-spectrometry secondary-ion-mass-spectrometry laser-ablation-inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry electron-microprobe scanning-electron-microscopy transmission-electron-microscopy light-microscopy confocal-microscopy fluorescence-microscopy polarizing-microscopy phase-contrast-microscopy differential-interference-contrast-microscopy dark-field-microscopy bright-field-microscopy stereomicroscopy dissecting-microscopy microtomy sectioning staining mounting embedding fixation preservation collection curation vouchering repository herbarium museum archive database registry catalogue checklist inventory survey monitoring assessment evaluation appraisal audit review synthesis rapid-review scoping-review narrative-review critical-review state-of-the-art-review literature-review bibliometric-analysis citation-analysis co-citation-analysis bibliographic-coupling co-authorship-analysis collaboration-network knowledge-map concept-map ontology taxonomy classification nomenclature typification designation description diagnosis illustration measurement morphometry meristics count ratio index score rank grade scale level category class group set subset cluster clade lineage branch stem crown root node tip terminal internal basal derived ancestral plesiomorphic apomorphic synapomorphic autapomorphic homologous homoplastic convergent parallel reversal gain loss duplication deletion insertion inversion fusion fission polyploidy aneuploidy chromosome-number genome-size gene-number transcriptome proteome metabolome lipidome glycome interactome phenome connectome epigenome microbiome virome mycobiome bacteriome phytobiome rhizobiome endobiome ectobiome parasitome pathobiome diseasome toxome exposome foodome nutriome pharmacome toxicome adverse-outcome-pathway mode-of-action mechanism-of-action target-site receptor-binding enzyme-inhibition ion-channel-blockade membrane-disruption DNA-intercalation inflammation cell-differentiation cell-migration cell-adhesion cell-signaling signal-transduction gene-expression transcription translation post-translational-modification protein-folding protein-degradation protein-trafficking vesicle-transport exocytosis endocytosis phagocytosis pinocytosis mitophagy pexophagy ribophagy ER-phagy lysophagy lipophagy glycophagy ferritinophagy aggrephagy xenophagy entosis cytosis syncytium plasmodesmata gap-junction tight-junction adherens-junction desmosome hemidesmosome focal-adhesion cell-polarity cell-asymmetry cell-division mitosis meiosis cytokinesis karyokinesis chromosome-segregation spindle-assembly checkpoint DNA-replication DNA-recombination transposition retrotransposition horizontal-gene-transfer vertical-gene-transfer endosymbiosis symbiogenesis holobiont hologenome extended-phenotype niche-construction ecosystem-engineering keystone-process ecological-function ecosystem-function ecosystem-good natural-capital natural-resource renewable-resource non-renewable-resource common-pool-resource public-good private-good club-good externality market-failure government-failure policy-failure institutional-failure tragedy-of-the-commons free-rider collective-action social-dilemma prisoner's-dilemma chicken-game assurance-game coordination-game zero-sum-game positive-sum-game negative-sum-game win-win lose-lose win-lose Pareto-optimal Pareto-improvement Kaldor-Hicks-improvement cost-benefit-analysis cost-effectiveness-analysis multi-criteria-decision-analysis decision-support-system expert-system knowledge-based-system rule-based-system case-based-reasoning machine-learning deep-learning neural-network random-forest support-vector-machine decision-tree regression-tree classification-tree clustering-algorithm dimensionality-reduction feature-selection feature-extraction pattern-recognition image-analysis signal-processing time-series-analysis spatial-analysis geographic-information-system remote-sensing satellite-imagery aerial-photography drone-imagery LiDAR radar sonar seismic geophysical geochemical biogeochemical ecoinformatics bioinformatics computational-biology systems-biology synthetic-biology biotechnology nanotechnology genetic-engineering genome-editing CRISPR TALEN zinc-finger-nuclease transgenic cisgenic intragenic subgenic agrobacterium-mediated-transformation biolistics electroporation microinjection protoplast-fusion somatic-hybridization cybrid asymmetric-hybrid synthetic-polyploid doubled-haploid haploid-induction anther-culture microspore-culture ovule-culture embryo-culture endosperm-culture protoplast-culture cell-culture tissue-culture organ-culture shoot-culture root-culture callus-culture suspension-culture bioreactor hairy-root-culture transformation hardening micropropagation clonal-propagation meristem-culture shoot-tip-culture axillary-bud-culture nodal-culture leaf-culture petiole-culture stem-culture internode-culture rhizome-culture bulb-culture corm-culture tuber-culture seed-culture zygotic-embryo-culture somatic-embryo-culture somatic-embryogenesis organogenesis caulogenesis rhizogenesis adventitious-shoot-formation direct-regeneration indirect-regeneration primary-metabolism secondary-metabolism biosynthesis biotransformation bioconversion biodegradation bioremediation phytoremediation mycoremediation zooremediation bioaugmentation biostimulation natural-attenuation monitored-natural-attenuation engineered-natural-attenuation permeable-reactive-barrier pump-and-treat soil-vapor-extraction air-sparging thermal-desorption incineration landfilling containment capping slurry-wall grout-curtain sheet-piling clay-liner geomembrane geotextile geogrid geocomposite geosynthetic geofabric geonet geocell geopipe geostrip geofoam geobag geotube geocontainer geomat geoblanket geospacer geodrain geoinjection geogrout geopier geocolumn geopile geowall geoberm geotrench geocut geofill geolift geoslab geopanel geoblock geobrick geotile geopaver geoweb geomattress geocushion