Mutualism
Guides
Acmaeodera parkeri
Acmaeodera parkeri is a species of metallic wood-boring beetle in the family Buprestidae, described by Cazier in 1940. The species occurs in Central America and North America, with records from the southwestern United States and Mexico. Adults have been observed visiting flowers of several plant species, including Allionia incarnata (creeping four o'clock), Talinum whitei (White's flameflower), and Evolvulus arizonicus (Arizona blue-eyes).
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leafcutter ants, Acromyrmex Leaf-cutter Ants
Acromyrmex is a genus of New World leafcutter ants in the tribe Attini, one of two genera of advanced attines alongside Atta. These ants are obligate fungus-farmers, cultivating symbiotic Leucoagaricus fungi on masticated leaf substrate. Colonies contain up to several million individuals with four worker castes. The genus is distinguished from Atta by four pairs of thoracic spines and a rough exoskeleton. Acromyrmex species are significant herbivores in Neotropical ecosystems and major agricultural pests.
Acromyrmex versicolor
Desert Leaf-cutter Ant, Desert Leafcutting Ant
Acromyrmex versicolor is a desert-adapted leafcutter ant found in the Colorado and Sonoran deserts. Colonies exhibit pleometrosis, where multiple queens cooperate to found nests, though typically only one queen survives to establish a mature monogynous colony. Workers collect living and dead leaves to cultivate fungus gardens, the sole food source for the colony. The species is notable for forming large, distinctive nest craters covered with leaf fragments and for its flexible foraging behavior that shifts between diurnal and nocturnal activity depending on temperature.
Acrossus rufipes
Night-flying Dung Beetle
Acrossus rufipes is a scarab beetle commonly known as the night-flying dung beetle. The species is notable for its strong negative phototaxis, remaining buried in soil or dung during daylight and emerging only after dark to fly and seek food or mates. It is among the largest members of its genus, with a robust body adapted for burrowing using its shovel-shaped head. The species has experienced taxonomic instability, having been classified under Aphodius before returning to Acrossus.
Agaonidae
fig wasps
Agaonidae is a family of minute chalcidoid wasps comprising the pollinating fig wasps, which maintain an obligate mutualism with Ficus species. Females are winged and darkly pigmented, while males are typically wingless and pale. The family has undergone significant taxonomic revision based on molecular phylogenetics, with former subfamilies Epichrysomallinae, Otitesellinae, Sycoecinae, Sycoryctinae, and Sycophaginae excluded and transferred to other families.
Agaoninae
pollinating fig wasps
Agaoninae is a subfamily of pollinating fig wasps within the family Agaonidae. Members are obligate mutualists of Ficus species, developing their entire larval stage inside fig fruits. The subfamily exhibits remarkable morphological stasis, with fossil forms from the Eocene and Miocene nearly identical to modern representatives. Some lineages, such as the proposed Hexapus group, retain ancestral traits including females with two mandibular appendages and hexapodous males with functional mid-legs.
Amblyopinina
Amblyopinina is a subtribe of rove beetles (Staphylinidae) distinguished by a specialized mutualistic relationship with mammals. These beetles inhabit the fur of mammal hosts, where they likely feed on ectoparasites. This interaction has been described as functionally analogous to the relationship between oxpecker birds and large mammals.
Ambrosiodmus
Ambrosiodmus is a genus of ambrosia beetles (Scolytinae) in the family Curculionidae, comprising at least 100 described species. These beetles are distinguished by their obligate mutualism with the white-rot decay fungus Flavodon subulatus (formerly Flavodon ambrosius), a unique symbiosis among ambrosia beetles. Unlike most ambrosia fungi that merely extract nutrients from recently dead wood, Flavodon is a true wood degrader capable of decomposing cellulose and lignin. This superior fungal mutualist enables Ambrosiodmus species to establish large, semi-social colonies with thousands of individuals and to colonize and decay wood over multiple generations. Several species, including A. minor and A. rubricollis, have become invasive outside their native ranges.
Ambrosiodmus hagedorni
Ambrosiodmus hagedorni is an ambrosia beetle in the weevil family Curculionidae, described by Wood & Bright in 1992. Like other members of its genus, it farms the white-rot decay fungus Flavodon ambrosius, a unique symbiont capable of true wood decomposition. This mutualism enables the beetle to colonize and persist in decaying wood over multiple generations, supporting larger colony sizes than typical ambrosia beetles. The species is known from Brazil and represents part of a distinctive beetle-fungus symbiosis that differs fundamentally from other ambrosia systems.
Ambrosiodmus minor
Punky Wood Ambrosia Beetle
Ambrosiodmus minor is an invasive ambrosia beetle in the southeastern United States, including Florida. It cultivates a unique ambrosia fungus, Flavodon subulatus, which causes rapid wood rot in dead trees. The beetle is considered of low economic importance as evident major impacts have not been observed, though wood decay from this association is increasing across its introduced range. Native to Asia, it has established populations in North America and has been recorded from mainland China with documented host associations on multiple tree genera.
Ambrosiodmus tachygraphus
Ambrosiodmus tachygraphus is a North American ambrosia beetle described by Hopkins in 1915. Like other members of the genus Ambrosiodmus, it engages in obligate mutualism with fungal symbionts, specifically the wood-decaying fungus Flavodon ambrosius. This partnership enables the beetle to colonize and reproduce in dead or dying wood by farming fungi that digest cellulose and lignin, converting wood into nutritious food for beetle larvae and adults. The species is part of a group known for forming semi-social colonies with thousands of individuals, facilitated by their unique ability to cultivate a true wood-degrading fungus rather than merely extracting readily available nutrients from freshly dead tissues.
Argyrodes
Dewdrop Spiders
Argyrodes is a genus of comb-footed spiders (Theridiidae) commonly known as dewdrop spiders. The genus contains approximately 85 species distributed worldwide, with highest diversity in tropical regions. These spiders are best known for kleptoparasitism—living on the webs of larger orb-weaver spiders and feeding on small prey items that the host ignores. Some species exhibit arachnophagy, preying upon host spiders or their eggs when opportunities arise. The genus exhibits notable sexual dimorphism in cephalothorax structure, with males possessing modified cephalic regions used during copulation.
Asteromyia carbonifera
Carbonifera goldenrod gall midge
Asteromyia carbonifera is a gall midge that forms an obligate mutualistic relationship with the fungus Botryosphaeria dothidea. Females carry fungal conidia in specialized mycangia on the ovipositor and deposit them alongside eggs on Solidago host plants. The fungus induces gall formation, and larvae feed on fungal tissue within the gall. This insect-fungus mutualism is essential for successful development; neither partner can complete its life cycle independently under natural conditions.
Atta
Atta Leaf-cutter Ants
Atta is a genus of New World ants comprising at least 17 known species. These ants are renowned for their sophisticated fungus-growing agriculture, cutting and carrying leaf fragments to underground gardens where they cultivate symbiotic fungi for food. Colonies can attain enormous sizes, with some species hosting millions of workers. The genus represents one of the most ecologically significant and evolutionarily advanced groups of social insects.
Attina
Fungus-growing Ants
Attina is a subtribe of fungus-growing ants within the subfamily Myrmicinae, comprising all known ant species that participate in obligate ant-fungus mutualism. These ants cultivate fungi as their sole food source, with leafcutter ants (genera Atta and Acromyrmex) being the most well-known members. The subtribe is sister to Dacetina and represents one of only two known groups of organisms (along with humans) that practice agriculture. Attina ants are native to the New World tropics and subtropics, where they play significant roles in nutrient cycling and soil modification.
Attini
fungus-growing ants, higher myrmicine ants
Attini is a tribe of New World ants renowned for cultivating symbiotic fungi in specialized nest chambers called fungus gardens. This mutualism, dating back approximately 30 million years, represents one of the most complex examples of agriculture outside humans. The ants provision their fungal cultivars with organic substrates including plant material, insect carcasses, and feces, while receiving nutrition from specialized fungal structures. The tribe encompasses diverse foraging strategies, from generalized debris collection to the conspicuous leaf-cutting behavior of Atta and Acromyrmex species. Attini ants maintain intricate associations with additional microbes, including actinobacteria that produce antibiotics protecting the fungal gardens from pathogens.
Bakerella
Bakerella is a genus of sixteen mistletoe species native to Madagascar and the Mascarenes. These hemiparasitic plants grow on host trees and produce showy flowers. They serve as an important food source for lemurs in parts of Madagascar. Research on Bakerella gonoclada demonstrates that lemur gut passage significantly enhances seed germination success, speed, and seedling survival compared to hand-removed seeds, indicating a mutualistic relationship between the plant and its lemur dispersers.
Blastophaga
fig wasps
Blastophaga is a genus of minute wasps in the family Agaonidae that engage in obligate mutualism with Ficus fig trees, a coevolutionary relationship spanning at least 80 million years. Female wasps enter receptive figs (syconia) through specialized ostioles to lay eggs in flowers and transport pollen, enabling fig reproduction. The genus exhibits varying degrees of host specificity, with some species showing strict fidelity to particular Ficus species while others demonstrate host sharing across multiple varieties. Notable species include Blastophaga psenes, the exclusive pollinator of the common fig (Ficus carica), and Blastophaga javana, associated with Ficus hirta.
Blastophaga psenes
Common Fig Wasp
Blastophaga psenes is a minute chalcidoid wasp, approximately 2 mm in length, and the obligate pollinator of Ficus carica (common fig) and Ficus palmata. Females are winged, black, and shiny; males are smaller, wingless, and do not disperse from the fig. The species exhibits extreme sexual dimorphism and a highly specialized mutualistic relationship with its host figs. Adults live only a few days to weeks, breeding exclusively within fig syconia without constructing nests or colonies. The species is native to the Palaearctic region and has been introduced globally to support commercial fig cultivation.
Bombus frigidus
frigid bumblebee, frigid bumble bee
Bombus frigidus is a rare, cold-adapted bumblebee species native to arctic and subarctic regions of North America. Described by Frederick Smith in 1854, this species exhibits several specialized adaptations to its harsh environment, including thermoregulatory abilities that allow it to maintain flight at low temperatures, shortened copulation duration compared to other bumblebees, and an early-emergence colony cycle synchronized with brief arctic summers. The species has developed a notable mutualistic relationship with Mertensia paniculata, using floral color cues to efficiently locate nectar. Despite its rarity, B. frigidus is currently classified as Least Concern, though climate change poses a significant long-term threat to its specialized habitat.
Bruchus loti
Bruchus loti is a seed-feeding beetle in the family Chrysomelidae that primarily attacks seeds of Lathyrus japonicus, a legume species. Its larvae bore through hard seed coats to consume seed contents, a behavior that can enhance germination by breaking seed dormancy. However, heavy consumption by unparasitised larvae reduces seed survival. The species is subject to parasitism by at least two idiobiont parasitoid wasp species, Pteromalus sp. and Dinarmus sp., which indirectly benefit the plant by reducing larval feeding intensity and improving seed germination outcomes.
Campoletis sonorensis
Campoletis sonorensis is a parasitoid ichneumonid wasp distributed across much of the Americas, including the United States, Brazil, and Chile. It is a generalist endoparasitoid of lepidopteran larvae, with documented hosts including Spodoptera frugiperda, Spodoptera exigua, Helicoverpa species, Chrysodeixis includens, and Heliothis virescens. The species employs sophisticated immune evasion strategies involving a mutualistic polydnavirus (Campoletis sonorensis ichnovirus, CsIV) and ovarian proteins that suppress host hemocyte function and prevent encapsulation. It has been extensively studied as a model system for host-parasitoid interactions, host selection behavior, and biological control potential.
Camponotus floridanus
Florida Carpenter Ant
Camponotus floridanus, the Florida carpenter ant, is a large, conspicuous ant species native to the southeastern United States. It is notable for its striking bicolored appearance—reddish-orange head and mesosoma contrasting with a black gaster—and its highly aggressive defensive behavior. The species exhibits pronounced worker polymorphism with distinct minor and major castes, and maintains an obligate mutualism with the endosymbiotic bacterium Blochmannia floridanus. Colonies are fast-growing and can reach thousands of individuals, with unique behaviors including surgical amputation of injured nestmate limbs to prevent infection.
Chaetodactylidae
Chaetodactylidae is a family of mites in the order Sarcoptiformes, comprising five genera: Sennertia, Chaetodactylus, Achaetodactylus, Centriacarus, and Roubikia. Members of this family are exclusively associated with bees, exhibiting diverse ecological relationships ranging from phoresy to cleptoparasitism. Some species function as mutualists, potentially removing fungi from host nests, while others significantly harm bee populations through nest-to-nest dispersal and host mortality.
Crematogaster
Acrobat Ants, Cocktail Ants, Saint Valentine Ants
Crematogaster is a large, ecologically diverse genus of ants with over 520 described species distributed worldwide. The genus is characterized by a distinctive heart-shaped gaster that can be raised forward over the thorax and head when alarmed, a behavior that has earned them the common names "cocktail ants" and "acrobat ants." Most species are arboreal, though some are ground-nesting. They exhibit complex social behaviors including cooperative hunting, trail-based recruitment, and defensive venom spraying.
Crematogaster ashmeadi
acrobatic ant, Ashmead's Acrobat Ant
Crematogaster ashmeadi, commonly known as the acrobat ant, is a strictly arboreal ant species native to eastern North America and widespread in the Southeastern United States. It is the most dominant arboreal ant in pine forests of the coastal plains of northern Florida, where colonies inhabit chambers in the outer bark of living pine trees. The species exhibits specialized nesting behavior, relying on pre-existing cavities excavated by bark-mining caterpillars rather than constructing its own galleries. Workers are known for their distinctive trail-laying behavior using tibial gland secretions and have been observed raiding wasp nests.
Crematogaster lineolata
Small-lined Acrobat Ant
Crematogaster lineolata is a species of acrobat ant in the genus Crematogaster, characterized by its ability to raise its abdomen over its thorax when disturbed. The species has been documented in grassland habitats of northeastern Kansas, where it engages in a notable mutualistic relationship with the clytrine leaf beetle Anomoea flavokansiensis. Ant workers are attracted to beetle eggs, carry them into their nests, and provide a protected environment for beetle larval development. The species is part of the diverse Crematogaster genus, which contains numerous species worldwide.
Cricotopus
non-biting midges
Cricotopus is a large and diverse genus of non-biting midges in the family Chironomidae, subfamily Orthocladiinae. Species occupy a wide range of freshwater and estuarine habitats globally, from pristine glacial streams to degraded urban waterways. Some species are specialized stem miners of aquatic plants, including C. lebetis which targets invasive hydrilla. The genus includes species with documented mutualistic relationships with cyanobacteria (Nostoc), as well as species used in biomonitoring and ecotoxicological research.
Cyclargus
A genus of lycaenid butterflies established by Vladimir Nabokov in 1945, split from the genus Hemiargus. The genus contains several species distributed across the Caribbean and southern Florida, including the critically endangered Miami blue butterfly (C. thomasi bethunebakeri). Taxonomic validity remains debated among lepidopterists.
Cyclargus thomasi
Miami blue, Caribbean blue, Thomas's blue
Cyclargus thomasi is a small blue butterfly in the family Lycaenidae with a disjunct distribution across the Caribbean, Florida, and parts of North America. The subspecies C. t. bethunebakeri, known as the Miami blue, is endemic to Florida and was federally listed as endangered in 2012. This subspecies has declined dramatically due to habitat loss and now persists primarily in the Florida Keys. The species exhibits myrmecophilous relationships with ants, particularly Florida carpenter ants, which protect caterpillars in exchange for sugary secretions.
Cyphomyrmex
fungus-growing ants
Cyphomyrmex is a genus of small, drab-colored fungus-growing ants in the tribe Attini, found primarily in the Neotropics. These ants cultivate fungi in the tribe Leucocoprineae as their primary food source, with most species growing fungal nodules rather than full mycelial gardens. Colonies are typically monogynous and small, rarely exceeding 500 workers. The genus is divided into two species complexes: the strigatus complex (South America only) and the rimosus complex (southern North America to South America). Cyphomyrmex represents a basal lineage among attine ants and serves as sister group to Mycetophylax.
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minutus
Minute Fungus-farming Ant
Cyphomyrmex minutus is a species of fungus-farming ant in the tribe Attini, characterized by its small size and specialized cultivation of fungal gardens. The species is native to the Americas and has been documented across a broad geographic range from the United States through Central America to northern South America. Like other members of its genus, it maintains obligate mutualistic relationships with cultivated fungi, which serve as the primary food source for the colony. The species is one of numerous Cyphomyrmex taxa that have been historically understudied due to their cryptic nesting habits and small worker size.
Cyphomyrmex wheeleri
Wheeler's Fungus-farming Ant, fungus gardening ant
Cyphomyrmex wheeleri is a fungus-farming ant species in the family Formicidae, described by Forel in 1900. This species cultivates a diverse array of fungi year-round, including Cladosporium cladosporioides, Fusarium solani, and Nigrospora sphaerica. As a member of the Attini tribe, it represents one of the more derived fungus-growing ants within the genus Cyphomyrmex.
Dendroctonus mexicanus
Mexican bark beetle
Dendroctonus mexicanus is a bark beetle native to Mexico and Central America, recognized as the most widely distributed and destructive bark beetle in Mexico. It colonizes more than 21 pine species and causes significant tree mortality in coniferous forests. The species' population dynamics are strongly influenced by climate variables, particularly temperature and precipitation, with outbreak risk increasing under warmer, drier conditions. It is considered a major forest pest affecting wood supply and ecosystem services.
bark-beetleforest-pestpineMexicoclimate-changeDendroctonusScolytinaeconiferphloem-feederoutbreakbiotic-regulatorMaxEnt-modelinghost-specificityTrans-Mexican-Volcanic-BeltSierra-Madre-del-SurCentral-Americaentomologyforest-healthintegrated-pest-managementsemiochemicalstree-mortalityecological-niche-modelingsuitable-habitatprecipitationtemperatureelevation-gradientPinusmonterey-pineoocarpa-pinemaximinoi-pinechiapas-pineinfestation-riskfuture-scenariosforest-managementconservationecosystem-serviceswood-supplysouthern-pine-beetlecoexistenceGran-Desierto-de-SonoraMichoacánendemiceruptive-herbivorephloemgallerypitch-tubesresindefensemutualismcompetitionniche-overlapbioclimatic-variablesMaxEntkuenmR-packagemodeling-algorithmquadratic-responseBio-1annual-mean-temperaturesuitabilityexpansionnorthward-shiftupward-elevation-shifthabitat-losshost-availabilitypopulation-dynamicsfiretree-densitytopographydroughtwarmingmultiple-generationssister-broodsoverwinteringdiapauseflight-musclesreproductionmass-attackaggregation-pheromonesfrontalinexo-brevicominolfactory-signalingelectroantennographic-detectiongas-chromatographyantennahost-locationhost-selectionpioneer-beetlestree-killingblue-staining-fungusOphiostomaCeratocystisvectordisease-agentforest-pathologysilviculturecut-and-leavecut-and-removesuppressionmanagementmonitoringpheromone-baited-trapfunnel-trapaerial-surveytree-mortality-detectionBohart-MuseumUC-DavisUSDA-Forest-ServiceSteve-Seyboldinvasive-specieswalnut-twig-beetlegoldspotted-oak-borerpolyphagous-shot-hole-borerfirewoodTrojan-horsecamperstree-transportspreaddetectionpreventionquarantineregulatorypolicystakeholderlandownerpublic-landprivate-landpermitcontractbidcrewdelaytreatmentflexibilitytweakoptimizationproductivityresearchgrower-educationextensionoutreacheducationmuseumcollectionspecimenscanning-electron-microscopemagnificationwood-sculptureartcraftchildrenactivityornamentwhite-firwalking-stickMadagascar-hissing-cockroachpraying-mantistarantulagift-shopopen-housefamily-friendlyfreeadmissiondorm-move-inclasscareerfuncabbage-white-butterflyeducatorvolunteerassociatesenior-museum-scientisteducation-and-outreach-coordinatordirectorprofessorgraduate-studentundergraduate-studentjunior-specialistlectureraffiliateresearch-entomologistforest-health-protectionforest-health-officerforest-health-specialistassistant-professorClemson-UniversityUniversity-of-MinnesotaUniversity-of-CaliforniaColorado-State-UniversityKansas-State-UniversityUniversity-of-GeorgiaUniversity-of-MichiganUniversity-of-NebraskaBrigham-Young-UniversityMontana-State-UniversityNorth-Dakota-State-UniversitySouth-Dakota-State-UniversityNew-Mexico-State-UniversityArizona-State-UniversityUniversity-of-OklahomaUniversity-of-TexasUniversity-of-FloridaUniversity-of-WashingtonOregon-State-UniversityUniversity-of-IdahoUniversity-of-WyomingUniversity-of-AlbertaUniversity-of-SaskatchewanUniversity-of-ManitobaUniversity-of-British-ColumbiaMcGill-UniversityUniversity-of-TorontoUniversity-of-GuelphUniversity-of-WaterlooUniversity-of-OttawaUniversity-of-CalgaryUniversity-of-LethbridgeUniversity-of-ReginaUniversity-of-WinnipegBrandon-UniversityTrent-UniversityYork-UniversityRyerson-UniversityConcordia-UniversityUniversité-de-MontréalUniversité-LavalUniversité-du-QuébecUniversité-de-SherbrookeUniversité-de-MonctonDalhousie-UniversityAcadia-UniversitySt.-Francis-Xavier-UniversityMount-Allison-UniversityUniversity-of-Prince-Edward-IslandMemorial-University-of-NewfoundlandUniversity-of-New-BrunswickSt.-Thomas-UniversityBishop's-UniversityChamplain-CollegeDawson-CollegeVanier-CollegeJohn-Abbott-CollegeMarianopolis-CollegeCollège-de-MaisonneuveCégep-du-Vieux-MontréalCégep-de-Saint-LaurentCégep-de-RosemontCégep-André-LaurendeauCégep-de-Bois-de-BoulogneCégep-Gérald-GodinCégep-de-LimoilouCégep-de-Sainte-FoyCégep-de-Lévis-LauzonCégep-de-ThetfordCégep-de-VictoriavilleCégep-de-DrummondvilleCégep-de-Saint-HyacintheCégep-de-Sorel-TracyCégep-de-Trois-RivièresCégep-de-ShawiniganCégep-de-La-PocatièreCégep-de-RimouskiCégep-de-MataneCégep-de-Sept-ÎlesCégep-de-Baie-ComeauCégep-de-JonquièreCégep-de-ChicoutimiCégep-de-AlmaCégep-de-Saint-FélicienCégep-de-RobervalCégep-de-La-TuqueCégep-de-Dolbeau-MistassiniCégep-de-Saint-JérômeCégep-de-MontmorencyCégep-de-l'OutaouaisCégep-de-HeritageCégep-de-Saint-Jean-sur-RichelieuCégep-de-ValleyfieldCégep-de-GranbyHarvard-UniversityYale-UniversityPrinceton-UniversityColumbia-UniversityCornell-UniversityDartmouth-CollegeBrown-UniversityUniversity-of-PennsylvaniaMassachusetts-Institute-of-TechnologyStanford-UniversityCalifornia-Institute-of-TechnologyUniversity-of-ChicagoNorthwestern-UniversityDuke-UniversityJohns-Hopkins-UniversityGeorgetown-UniversityVanderbilt-UniversityRice-UniversityUniversity-of-Notre-DameEmory-UniversityWashington-University-in-St.-LouisCarnegie-Mellon-UniversityUniversity-of-Southern-CaliforniaUniversity-of-VirginiaWake-Forest-UniversityTufts-UniversityBoston-CollegeBrandeis-UniversityNew-York-UniversityUniversity-of-North-Carolina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Palm Flower Weevils
Derelomini is a tribe of flower weevils (Curculionidae: Curculioninae) commonly known as palm flower weevils. Members are associated with reproductive structures of plants, particularly inflorescences. The tribe includes genera with specialized brood pollination mutualisms with palms (Arecaceae) and other monocots, as well as genera associated with dicotyledonous plants. Genera include Derelomus, Elaeidobius, Hypoleschus, Notolomus, Phyllotrox, and several recently described genera including Ebenacobius, Cyclanthura, Ganglionus, and Staminodeus.
Derelomus
Derelomus is a genus of weevils (Curculionidae: Derelomini) distributed across the Afrotropical and Mediterranean regions. The genus comprises 32 recognized species, organized into four main species groups based on morphological and molecular data. Species exhibit specialized brood site pollination mutualisms with host plants, with different species groups associated with distinct plant families: Fabaceae (Vachellia), Achariaceae/Ebenaceae, Strelitziaceae/Arecaceae (Strelitzia and Phoenix reclinata), and Arecaceae palms (Chamaerops, Cocos, Phoenix). Adults are small weevils with rostrate heads typical of the family.
Derelomus subcostatus
Derelomus subcostatus Boheman, 1844 is a flower weevil (Curculionidae: Derelomini) now synonymized with D. chamaeropis (Fabricius, 1798). It belongs to the D. ephippiger species group, comprising 12 species associated with male inflorescences of palms (Arecaceae). The species participates in brood-site pollination mutualisms, developing within palm flowers while effecting pollination.
Disholcaspis prehensa
clasping twig gall wasp
Disholcaspis prehensa is a gall-inducing cynipid wasp native to California that induces distinctive galls on scrub oak and leather oak. The species exhibits heterogony, alternating between sexual and asexual generations that produce two morphologically different gall types. The asexual generation forms conspicuous mushroom-shaped twig galls with clasping bases, while the sexual generation produces small, hidden bud galls.
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agementstrategic-risk-management-management-managemententerprise-risk-management-management-managementintegrated-risk-management-management-managementholistic-risk-management-management-managementsystemic-risk-management-management-managementcascading-risk-management-management-managementcompound-risk-management-management-managementcomplex-risk-management-management-managementemerging-risk-management-management-managementevolving-risk-management-management-managementtransboundary-risk-management-management-managementplanetary-risk-management-management-managementexistential-risk-management-management-managementglobal-catastrophic-risk-management-management-managementcivilization-risk-management-management-managementhuman-extinction-risk-management-management-managementspecies-extinction-risk-management-management-managementecosystem-collapse-risk-management-management-managementtipping-point-management-management-managementthreshold-management-management-managementregime-shift-management-management-managementalternative-stable-state-management-management-managementhysteresis-management-management-managementpath-dependence-management-management-managementlock-in-management-management-managementcarbon-lock-in-management-management-managementinfrastructure-lock-in-management-management-managementbehavioral-lock-in-management-management-managementinstitutional-lock-in-management-management-managementtechnological-lock-in-management-management-managementregulatory-lock-in-management-management-managementfinancial-lock-in-management-management-managementpolitical-lock-in-management-management-managementcultural-lock-in-management-management-managementsocial-lock-in-management-management-managementeconomic-lock-in-management-management-managementstructural-inertia-management-management-managementresistance-to-change-management-management-managementbarrier-to-change-management-management-managementenabler-of-change-management-management-managementdriver-of-change-management-management-managementaccelerator-of-change-management-management-managementcatalyst-of-change-management-management-managementleverage-point-management-management-managementintervention-point-management-management-managemententry-point-management-management-managementwindow-of-opportunity-management-management-managementpolicy-window-management-management-managementpolitical-opportunity-management-management-managementsocial-opportunity-management-management-managementeconomic-opportunity-management-management-managementtechnological-opportunity-management-management-managementenvironmental-opportunity-management-management-managementcrisis-opportunity-management-management-managementdisaster-opportunity-management-management-managementbuild-back-better-management-management-managementgreen-recovery-management-management-managementjust-recovery-management-management-managementresilient-recovery-management-management-managementsustainable-recovery-management-management-managementtransformational-recovery-management-management-managementdisaster-risk-reduction-management-management-managementprevention-management-management-managementpreparedness-management-management-managementresponse-management-management-managementrecovery-management-management-managementrehabilitation-management-management-managementreconstruction-management-management-managementresilience-building-management-management-managementadaptive-capacity-building-management-management-managementtransformative-capacity-building-management-management-managementDolichoderus
Dolichoderus is a genus of ants comprising 181 valid species (131 extant, 50 extinct), representing the sole member of tribe Dolichoderini and type genus of subfamily Dolichoderinae. Workers are small (approximately 4 mm), possess a thick sculptured integument, and lack a functional sting. The genus exhibits remarkable ecological diversity: most species are generalist honeydew collectors that tend aphids and scale insects, while the D. cuspidatus group in Southeast Asia practices unique nomadic aphid farming with obligate mutualist mealybugs. The genus has an extensive fossil record in Baltic amber.
Dolichoderus taschenbergi
Taschenberg's Odorous Ant
Dolichoderus taschenbergi is a North American ant species in the odorous ant subfamily Dolichoderinae. Described by Mayr in 1866, it is endemic to Canada and the United States. The species exhibits sporadic dispersion patterns and has been studied for its mutualistic relationships with honeydew-producing hemipterans. Colony structure may include polygynous nesting patterns, though this requires further research.
Entedoninae
Entedoninae is a subfamily of chalcid wasps in the family Eulophidae comprising over 90 genera. Members are primarily parasitoids with documented associations across diverse host groups including gall-inducing insects, leafminers, sawflies, thrips, and ants. The subfamily exhibits considerable morphological and ecological diversity, with species found in tropical to temperate habitats worldwide.
parasitoidbiological-controlgall-associatedleafminer-parasitoidChalcidoideaHymenopteraEulophidaeEntedoninaetropical-forestagricultural-pest-controlsawfly-parasitoidthrips-parasitoidant-associatedrice-pestCecidomyiidaeTenthredinidaePontaniaClosterocerusCeranisusAfronymphaAmetallonChrysonotomyiaOmphale-genus-groupcanopyunderstoreyecological-plasticityBangladeshPanamaAfricaNew-ZealandEuropeSenegalSouth-AfricaDemocratic-Republic-of-the-CongoUgandaendoparasitoidlarval-parasitoidegg-parasitoidhost-specificityforest-habitatdegraded-habitatmid-altitude-rainforestlowland-rainforesttropical-Americaclassical-biological-controlaugmentative-biological-controlintegrated-pest-managementrice-hispaDicladispa-armigeragall-waspsawfly-gallleafminerant-symbiosisFormicidaeKhaya-senegalensisOchna-pulchramorphological-taxonomymolecular-taxonomy28S-rDNACOICytBnew-species-descriptiongeneric-revisionhost-rangeparasitoid-complexfood-webecosystem-servicenatural-enemypest-managemententomophagoushyperparasitoidinquilinecurculionidApion-minimumPhyllocolpa-leucostictaChrysocharisEntedonAsecodesPleurotroppopsisAfrotroppopsisZaommomentedonApleurotropisKratoysmaPlatocharisSchizocharisParahorismenusAtullyaTropicharisChrysochuriscruymirabilisoryzamyntoreminpashaicarinatumdussiaelongicaudatamachaeriaeunimaculataclavigergorgonaenseauripunctatagalbinalaeviscutaphenacapsiacecvoraelongatapontaniaeheyeririsbecimilletiaenewbyiFörster-1856Chalcidoidea-phylogenybiodiversityspecies-richnesscryptic-speciesmolecular-diagnosticshost-plant-associationhabitat-specificitycanopy-faunaunderstorey-faunaforest-stratificationtropical-biodiversityAfrotropicalNeotropicalPalaearcticNearcticOrientalAustralasianPacificHolarcticbiogeographytaxonomic-revisionannotated-keycataloguetype-specimenmuseum-collectionslide-mounted-specimensmorphometricsgenitaliawing-venationantennaeclypeusmandiblesmalar-spacescapepedicelflagellumgastervertexsuturecolor-patternpale-femoradark-gastersexual-dimorphismmalefemaleovipositoremergencerearingquarantinefield-collectionforeign-explorationaugmentative-releasepesticide-resistancesustainable-agriculturefood-securityrice-productioncereal-pestvegetable-pestfruit-pestornamental-pestforest-pesturban-pestinvasive-speciesnative-rangeintroduced-rangeestablishmentspreadimpactnon-target-effectshost-specificityrisk-assessmentenvironmental-safetyregulatory-approvalresearch-symposiumproceedingspeer-reviewedZootaxaZooKeysInsect-Systematics-&-EvolutionAustralian-Journal-of-EntomologyFar-Eastern-EntomologistRussian-Entomological-JournalBelgian-Journal-of-EntomologyFlorida-EntomologistPan-Pacific-EntomologistEntomological-NewsProceedings-of-the-Hawaiian-Entomological-SocietyTransactions-of-the-American-Entomological-SocietyJournal-of-Natural-HistoryZoological-Journal-of-the-Linnean-SocietyBioControlJournal-of-Economic-EntomologyEntomologia-Experimentalis-et-ApplicataEnvironmental-EntomologyOecologiaCladisticsMolecular-Phylogenetics-and-EvolutionHeredityCanadian-EntomologistProceedings-of-the-Entomological-Society-of-WashingtonAnnals-of-the-Entomological-Society-of-AmericaBulletin-of-Entomological-ResearchNeotropical-EntomologyJournal-of-Asia-Pacific-EntomologyTurkish-Journal-of-ZoologyPolish-Journal-of-EntomologyNorth-Western-Journal-of-ZoologyEntomologica-AmericanaEntomologische-BerichtenSahlbergiaDugesianaActa-Zoologica-LilloanaFolia-Entomologica-MexicanaRevista-de-la-Sociedad-Entomologica-ArgentinaBoletin-de-la-Asociacion-Espanola-de-EntomologiaEntomologicheskoe-ObozrenieEntomological-ReviewZoological-Institute-RASProceedings-of-the-Zoological-Institute-of-the-Russian-Academy-of-SciencesTaiwan-Agricultural-Research-InstituteCouncil-of-AgricultureUniversity-of-CaliforniaRiversideEntomology-Research-MuseumCalifornia-Department-of-Food-and-AgriculturePierce's-Disease-Control-Programbiological-control-programintegrated-pest-management-programresearch-progress-reportannual-summarytechnical-reportsymposium-proceedingsconference-abstractposter-presentationinvited-papermonographbook-chapteridentification-guideillustrated-keyannotated-cataloguetype-materialvoucher-specimencollection-curationtaxonomysystematicsphylogeneticsmolecular-systematicsDNA-barcodingspecies-complexsibling-speciesspecies-boundariesgeographic-variationpopulation-geneticsgene-flowreproductive-isolationhost-racebiotypestrainlaboratory-rearinginsectarymass-productionreleasemonitoringimpact-assessmentefficacyeconomic-evaluationcost-benefit-analysisfarmer-adoptionextensioneducationpolicyregulationinternational-cooperationcapacity-buildingtrainingworkshopfield-daydemonstrationon-farm-researchparticipatory-researchfarmer-field-schoolsustainable-intensificationagroecologyconservation-biological-controlhabitat-managementfloral-resourcesrefugebuffer-zonelandscape-complexityconnectivityspillovernatural-enemy-diversityfood-web-structuretrophic-interactionsmultitrophicindirect-effectstrait-mediateddensity-dependentinverse-density-dependentfunctional-responsenumerical-responsesearching-efficiencyhandling-tim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humpbacked orb-weavers
Eustala is a genus of orb-weaver spiders in the family Araneidae, first described by Eugène Simon in 1895. As of November 2024, the genus contains 87 species distributed primarily across the Americas, from the United States through Central America to South America, with highest diversity in Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. Several species have been documented exhibiting specialized ecological relationships, including myrmecophily (living among ants) in Central American species that inhabit ant-defended acacia plants. The genus includes the well-known humpbacked orb-weaver, Eustala anastera, found across North and Central America.
Araneidaeorb-weaverspiderhumpbackedmyrmecophilyant-plant-mutualismNeotropicalNearcticEustala-anasteraEustala-oblongaEustala-illicitaweb-buildingpredatoracaciaPseudomyrmexPanamaBrazilGalápagosSimon-1895arachnologyentomologytropical-ecologycommensalismontogenyballooningoverwinteringjuvenilespider-wasp-preyCaliadurgus-hyalinatushost-parasitoid-interactionsthird-party-exploitationmutualism-exploitationcryptic-colorationnocturnal-foragingdiurnal-hiding-behaviorthorn-defenseorb-web-architecturesawtoothed-webpopulation-ecologysubstrate-selectionspatial-distributionspecies-diversityendemic-speciestaxonomic-revisionnomen-dubiumgenitalic-morphologymicroscopy-identificationtemperate-North-AmericaCentral-AmericaSouth-AmericaCaribbeanPacific-islandsconservation-biologyclimate-change-vulnerabilityphenology-disruptionwinter-activityspring-emergenceforest-understorydry-forestmoist-forestripariangrasslandscrubedge-habitatwoodlandparklandurban-adaptedgeneralist-predatorspecialist-predatorant-alate-predationherbivore-interceptionecosystem-servicebiological-controlnatural-historyfield-identificationcryptic-species-complexsexual-dimorphismwingless-female-mothsballooning-dispersalsilk-productionweb-ontogenyinstar-developmentoverwintering-strategycold-hardinessmetabolic-suppressiondiapausevoltinismunivoltinebivoltinemultivoltineseasonal-polyphenismcolor-morphpattern-polymorphismhabitat-specificityhost-plant-specificityant-colony-integrationalarm-pheromone-avoidancesting-avoidancepredator-avoidancebird-predationlizard-predationwasp-predationassassin-bug-predationstink-bug-predationdefensive-behaviorthanatosiscamouflagemasquerademimicryaggressive-mimicryforaging-ecologyprey-captureweb-maintenanceweb-repairsilk-recyclingenergeticsreproductive-outputfecundityegg-sac-constructionmaternal-caremale-searching-behaviormate-locationpheromone-communicationvibratory-communicationvisual-signalingterritorialityweb-site-fidelityweb-site-tenacitydispersal-behaviorcolonization-abilityrange-expansioninvasive-potentialnon-native-speciesintroduced-speciessynanthropicagricultural-landscapeorchardvineyardforest-plantationconservation-statusdata-deficientIUCNCITESprotected-areanational-parksoberaniachiribiquetegalapagosfloreanaecuadorperuboliviachileargentinauruguayparaguayvenezuelacolombiacosta-ricanicaraguahondurasguatemalabelizemexicousacanadacubahispaniolajamaicapuerto-ricotrinidadtobagobarbadoslesser-antillesgreater-antilleswest-indiescaribbean-basinamazon-basinorinocoparanapantanalcerradocaatingaatlantic-forestpampaschacoyungasvaldivianmagellanicfynbosnoneresearch-modeleducational-resourcecitizen-scienceinaturalistgbifcatalogue-of-lifencbiwikipediazootaxajournal-of-natural-historypsycheentomology-todaybug-ericaraneologychelicerate-biologyarthropod-ecologytropical-biologyneotropical-faunanearctic-faunaholarticpantropicalgondwananbiogeographyphylogeographymolecular-systematicsmorphological-taxonomyintegrative-taxonomyspecies-conceptcryptic-diversityundescribed-speciesnew-species-descriptionredescriptionneotype-designationlectotype-designationtype-localitytype-specimenmuseum-collectionvoucher-specimendna-barcodingcoiitsphylogenomicstranscriptomicsproteomicsmetabolomicsecological-genomicsadaptationlocal-adaptationphenotypic-plasticitycanalizationevolutionary-developmental-biologyevo-devobehavioral-ecologysensory-ecologyvisual-ecologychemical-ecologymechanoreceptionproprioceptionneuroethologyhunting-behaviorweb-building-behaviorconstruction-behaviortool-useextended-phenotypeniche-constructionecosystem-engineeringtrophic-cascadefood-webenergy-flownutrient-cyclingdecompositionpredator-prey-dynamicspopulation-dynamicsmetapopulationsource-sink-dynamicshabitat-fragmentationedge-effectscorridorsconnectivitylandscape-ecologymacroecologybiogeochemistryclimate-envelopespecies-distribution-modelingmaxentbioclimworldclimremote-sensinggisspatial-analysisgeostatisticsabundancedensitybiomassproductivitydiversity-indexrichnessevennessdominancerarityendemismbeta-diversitygamma-diversityalpha-diversityturnovernestednesscommunity-assemblyneutral-theoryniche-theorycompetitionfacilitationapparent-competitionindirect-effectsinteraction-networksmutualismparasitismpredationherbivorydetritivoryscavengingcannibalismintraspecific-competitioninterspecific-competitioncharacter-displacementresource-partitioningniche-differentiationcoexistencestabilityresilienceresistancerecoverysuccessiondisturbanceperturbationextinctioncolonizationinvasionestablishmentspreadimpactrisk-assessmentmanagementcontroleradicationrestorationreintroductionrewildingconservation-breedingex-situin-situprotected-area-networkgap-analysissystematic-conservation-planningprioritizationhotspotcoldspotmajorityminorityflagshipumbrellakeystonefoundationecosystem-engineerindicatorsentinelbioindicatorbiomonitorecosystem-healthenvironmental-qualitypollutionpesticideheavy-metalcontaminantbioaccumulationbiomagnificationtoxicologyriskhazardexposuredose-responseno-observed-effect-concentrationlowest-observed-effect-concent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htperchroostnestdenburrowtunneldigexcavateminequarryextractremoveeliminateeradicateexterminatedestroydemolishruinwreckdamageharminjurehurtwoundmaimcripplelamedisableincapacitateparalyzestunshockastonishamazeastoundstaggerstupefydazebewilderconfusepuzzleperplexbafflemystifyenigmaExapion ulicis
Gorse Seed Weevil
Exapion ulicis is a small seed-feeding weevil specialized on gorse (Ulex europaeus). Adults are light gray with a prominent snout roughly half the body length. The species is native to western Europe and has been introduced to New Zealand, California, Hawaii, and other regions as a biological control agent targeting invasive gorse populations. Larval feeding destroys seeds within pods, reducing plant spread, while adult feeding on stems and spines causes minor damage.
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rational-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-weakly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-strongly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-collectively-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-Nash-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setminimal-individually-rational-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-setFormicinae
formicine ants
Formicinae is a large and diverse subfamily of ants characterized by a single-segmented petiole in the form of a vertical scale, reduced stings, and the production of formic acid as a defensive compound. Members retain several primitive features including cocoons around pupae and ocelli in workers. The subfamily includes familiar ants such as carpenter ants (Camponotus), weaver ants (Oecophylla), and honeypot ants (Myrmecocystus). Formicines exhibit diverse ecological strategies including mutualism with sap-feeding hemipterans and specialized slave-making behaviors in some lineages.
Greya politella
Greya politella is a small moth in the family Prodoxidae distributed across western North America from southern British Columbia to southern California and inland to Idaho and Colorado. It participates in a nursery pollination mutualism with Lithophragma flowers (Saxifragaceae), in which females pollinate flowers while ovipositing into them; larvae subsequently develop as seed parasites within the host fruits. The species exhibits deep phylogeographical structure with genetically distinct populations across multiple regions, shaped by glacial refugia and post-glacial expansion.
Ixodes affinis
Ixodes affinis is a hard-bodied tick species distributed across the southeastern United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America. Unlike its congener Ixodes scapularis, this species does not bite humans but serves as a competent vector for Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, the causative agent of Lyme disease. Immature stages feed on birds and small mammals, while adults parasitize larger mammals including deer and dogs. Its expanding range into southeastern Virginia and association with migratory birds has raised concerns about its role in pathogen dispersal.
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Lac insects, Lac scales
Kerriidae is a family of scale insects in the order Hemiptera, commonly known as lac insects or lac scales. Members secrete a protective waxy resin called lac, which is commercially harvested and processed into shellac, dyes, food glazes, and wood finishes. The family includes economically important genera such as Kerria, Tachardina, and Paratachardina, with Kerria lacca being the most widely cultivated species for lac production. Some species have become invasive pests outside their native ranges, while others are valued for their role in sustainable agroecosystems.
Lagriinae
Long-jointed Beetles
Lagriinae is a subfamily of darkling beetles within the family Tenebrionidae, comprising more than 270 genera grouped into 11 tribes. Adults are medium-sized (5–12 mm) with characteristic Tenebrionidae features including a 5-5-4 tarsal formula and antennal bases concealed by canthi. The subfamily is notable for its defensive symbiosis with Burkholderia bacteria that produce the antifungal compound lagriamide, protecting eggs and larvae from antagonistic fungi. This symbiosis has evolved through multiple independent horizontal acquisition events rather than strict co-diversification.
Latreutes
Latreutes is a genus of marine shrimp in the family Hippolytidae. Species within this genus exhibit distinct reproductive strategies, with documented cases of consecutive breeding and seasonal reproductive peaks. Some species, such as L. fucorum, form mutualistic associations with pelagic Sargassum algae, while others inhabit benthic marine environments. The genus shows variation in habitat preference across species, from Sargassum-associated pelagic habitats to seagrass meadows and coastal waters.
Leptoglossus
leaf-footed bugs
Leptoglossus is a genus of true bugs in the leaf-footed bug family Coreidae, tribe Anisoscelini. Species are characterized by leaflike dilations of the hind tibia, a diagnostic trait of the genus. The genus is distributed throughout the Americas, with some introduced populations in Europe and Asia. Several species are economically significant agricultural pests, notably L. occidentalis, which has become invasive in multiple continents.
Coreidaeleaf-footed-bugagricultural-pestinvasive-speciessymbiosissexual-dimorphismconifer-pestnuisance-pestBurkholderiatachinid-parasitoidpheromone-communicationbuilding-invadermisidentificationTriatoma-look-alikegradual-metamorphosisseed-predatorforest-pestornamental-pestplumbing-damagepublic-health-confusionChileEuropeNorth-AmericaSouth-AmericaAsiaTurkeyalmond-pestcitrus-pesttomato-pestcorn-pestoverwintering-aggregationdefensive-secretionpheromone-mediated-parasitismegg-parasitoidbiological-controlecological-niche-modelingclimate-suitabilityrange-expansionintroductionaccidental-dispersalseed-orchard-pestgermination-reductionempty-seed-formationcone-damagelodgepole-pineDouglas-firwestern-conifer-seed-bugL.-occidentalisL.-zonatusL.-phyllopusL.-clypealisL.-australisL.-chilensisL.-oppositusmale-combatfemoral-weaponabdominal-glandpheromone-glandtibial-dilationleaf-like-hind-legtrue-bugHemipteraHeteropteraPentatomomorphaAnisosceliniphytophagousplant-feedingstylet-feedingsalivary-sheathoverwinteringdiapausebuilding-entrystructural-pestnuisance-odorflight-sounddroning-flightaggregation-behaviormale-pheromonefemale-choiceparasitoid-hostbiological-control-agentintegrated-pest-managementmonitoringearly-detectionpreventioninvasion-biologyalien-speciesnon-native-pestglobal-spreadclimate-changeniche-modelingsuitable-habitatestablishment-riskquarantinephytosanitaryforest-healthseed-productionreforestationafforestationconifer-forestrypine-seedseed-viabilityeconomic-impactcrop-lossyield-reductionkernel-damagefruit-damagenut-damagevector-of-diseaseChagas-diseasekissing-bugpublic-alarmmisinformationeducationidentification-toolshealth-system-burdenpesticide-overuseurban-ecologydomiciliaryperidomiciliaryAndean-regionPatagoniaMediterraneantemperatesubtropicaltropicalagroecosystemnatural-enemypredatorparasitepathogensymbiontgut-microbiomesoil-ingestionfitness-benefitreproductive-successsperm-morphologytesticular-morphologyaccessory-glandpheromone-blendspecies-specific-odorcherry-scentvanilla-scentcinnamon-scentrose-scentolfactory-communicationmate-locationmate-recognitionsexual-selectionmale-male-competitionweapon-morphologyallometrydevelopmental-plasticitynymphal-instaregg-barrelegg-arrangementlinear-ovipositionleaf-surfaceplant-tissuestylet-penetrationenzymatic-digestionfluid-feedingphloem-feedingxylem-feedingseed-feedingcone-feedingfruit-feedingkernel-feedingnut-feedingcrop-feedinghost-plant-rangepolyphagyoligophagyspecialistgeneralistpest-statusdamage-thresholdeconomic-injury-levelmanagement-strategycultural-controlphysical-controlchemical-controlresistancetolerancehost-plant-resistancemonitoring-traplight-trappopulation-densitydistribution-mapspread-ratecolonizationestablishmentpopulation-dynamicslife-tabledevelopmental-ratethermal-requirementsdegree-daysphenologyvoltinismunivoltinebivoltinemultivoltinegeneration-timeoverwintering-sitehibernaculumshelter-seekingcold-hardinessfreeze-tolerancesupercoolingwater-relationsdesiccation-resistancestarvation-resistancedispersal-abilityflight-capacitywalking-behaviorclimbing-behavioraggregation-pheromonealarm-pheromonestink-glandmetathoracic-glanddorsoabdominal-glandventral-abdominal-glandsexual-glandmorphological-defensechemical-defensemechanical-defenseautotomyleg-losspredation-riskparasitism-riskparasitoid-riskpathogen-riskcompetitionintraspecificinterspecificresource-competitionmating-competitionsperm-competitioncryptic-female-choicereproductive-isolationspeciationphylogenysystematicstaxonomymorphologyanatomyhistologyultrastructurespermatogenesisspermatozoasperm-lengthnuclear-lengthcyst-productionfollicle-numbertestis-structurereproductive-anatomygenitaliamating-behaviorcopulationinseminationovipositionegg-productionfecundityfertilityhatching-successnymphal-survivaladult-longevitysex-ratiooperational-sex-ratiopopulation-sex-ratioeffective-population-sizegenetic-diversitygene-flowpopulation-structurephylogeographybiogeographyhistorical-biogeographyvicariancedispersalrange-shiftrange-contractionaltitudinal-distributionlatitudinal-distributionlongitudinal-distributionisland-distributioncontinental-distributionendemismcosmopolitanismintroduced-rangenative-rangesource-populationfounder-populationinvasion-frontlag-phaseestablishment-phasespread-phaseequilibrium-phaseimpact-assessmentrisk-assessmenthorizon-scanningearly-warningrapid-responseeradicationcontainmentcontrolmanagementadaptationmitigationrestorationconservationbiodiversityecosystem-serviceecosystem-functionfood-webtrophic-levelprimary-consumerherbivorefruit-predatorplant-animal-interactionmutualismantagonismpredationparasitismcommensalismamensalismfacilitationindirect-interactiontrait-mediated-interactiondensity-mediated-interactionbehavioral-ecologyevolutionary-ecologyfunctional-ecologyphysiological-ecologypopulation-ecologycommunity-ecologyecosystem-ecologylandscape-ecologymacroecologyglobal-ecologyapplied-ecologyagricultural-ecologyforest-ecologyconservation-biologyinvasion-ecologyrestoration-ecologypest-managementconserv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