Molecular-evolution
Guides
Disholcaspis prehensa
clasping twig gall wasp
Disholcaspis prehensa is a gall-inducing cynipid wasp native to California that induces distinctive galls on scrub oak and leather oak. The species exhibits heterogony, alternating between sexual and asexual generations that produce two morphologically different gall types. The asexual generation forms conspicuous mushroom-shaped twig galls with clasping bases, while the sexual generation produces small, hidden bud galls.
gall-waspcynipidheterogonyparthenogenesisoak-gallCalifornia-endemicant-mutualismDisholcaspisCynipidaeHymenopteraQuercusinduced-plant-structurephloem-sap-exudationbiological-mutualismseasonal-dimorphismsexual-dimorphismgall-dimorphismagamic-generationsexual-generationclasping-twig-gallbud-galltwig-gallnative-California-speciesscrub-oakleather-oakparasitoid-defenseant-plant-interactioninsect-plant-interactionplant-manipulationevolution-of-asexualityWeld-1957Zootaxa-4859molecular-systematicshost-plant-specificityCynipinioak-woodlandchaparralinsect-gallgall-morphologygall-colorationsun-exposure-effectslarval-chamberemergence-timingspring-emergencelate-winter-emergencegall-developmentoviposition-behavioregg-laying-in-budsegg-laying-in-twigsfemale-only-generationwingless-femalewinged-sexual-generationgall-size-dimorphismgall-shape-dimorphismhidden-gallexposed-gallgall-wasp-life-cyclecynipid-biologygall-wasp-taxonomygall-wasp-identificationgall-wasp-ecologyinsect-plant-coevolutionplant-growth-manipulationhormone-mediated-gall-inductionvenom-glandaccessory-glandsecretory-structuresgall-induction-mechanismgall-chemistryphloem-saphoneydewant-attractionant-protectionparasitoid-waspnatural-enemy-defenseindirect-defensemutualistic-interactiontrophic-cascadecommunity-ecologyspecies-interactionecosystem-engineerhabitat-modificationfood-webinsect-diversityCalifornia-biodiversityendemic-insectregional-endemismoak-specialistplant-specialistmonophagousoligophagoushost-rangehost-plant-evolutiongall-wasp-radiationadaptive-radiationevolutionary-innovationreproductive-strategyasexual-reproductionthelytokyarrhenotokysex-determinationdevelopmental-biologyinsect-morphologyinsect-anatomyfemale-morphologyovipositorstingeregg-injectionplant-tissue-manipulationcell-proliferationplant-hormoneauxincytokiningene-expressiontranscriptomicsproteomicsvenom-compositionbiochemistryphysiologyethologybehavioral-ecologypopulation-biologypopulation-dynamicsseasonalityphenologyclimate-effectsmicrohabitatniche-specializationconservation-biologyimperiled-habitatoak-woodland-conservationchaparral-conservationfire-ecologysuccessiondisturbancehabitat-fragmentationurbanizationagricultural-conversioninvasive-speciesclimate-changerange-shiftphenological-shiftcitizen-scienceiNaturalistobservation-dataspecies-distributionoccurrence-recordsbiodiversity-informaticstaxonomic-revisionspecies-descriptiontype-specimenmolecular-dataDNA-barcodingphylogeneticssystematicsevolutionary-historybiogeographydispersalvicariancespeciationspecies-conceptscryptic-speciesspecies-complexmorphological-variationgeographic-variationphenotypic-plasticitygenetic-variationpopulation-geneticsconservation-geneticsrestoration-ecologyhabitat-restorationmanaged-relocationassisted-migrationex-situ-conservationin-situ-conservationprotected-areanatural-reservestate-parknational-parkwilderness-areabiosphere-reserveUNESCOIUCNred-listspecies-assessmentconservation-statusdata-deficientresearch-priorityknowledge-gapfuture-researchgall-wasp-venomgall-wasp-glandsecretory-evolutiongall-wasp-phylogenyCynipidae-evolutionHymenoptera-phylogenyinsect-evolutiongall-evolutionplant-insect-interaction-evolutioncoevolutionary-arms-racemutualism-evolutiondefense-evolutioncounter-defenseenemy-free-spaceenemy-escapeecological-releaseadaptive-peakfitness-landscapeevolutionary-constraintevolutionary-trade-offlife-history-evolutionreproductive-allocationfecunditysurvivaldevelopment-timegeneration-timevoltinismunivoltinebivoltinemultivoltinediapauseoverwinteringcold-hardinessstress-tolerancedesiccation-resistancestarvation-resistanceimmune-responseparasitoid-resistancepathogen-resistancesymbiontmicrobiomegut-microbiotaendosymbiontWolbachiaRickettsiaCardiniumSpiroplasmabacterial-symbiontfungal-symbiontviral-symbiontmutualistic-microbeparasitic-microbecommensal-microbemicrobial-communitymetagenomicsmicrobial-ecologyhost-microbe-interactionimmune-systeminnate-immunityacquired-immunityhumoral-immunitycellular-immunityantimicrobial-peptidereactive-oxygen-speciesnitric-oxidemelanizationencapsulationnodulationphagocytosisautophagyapoptosisprogrammed-cell-deathstress-responseheat-shock-proteinoxidative-stresshypoxiaanoxiametabolic-raterespirationenergy-budgetnutrient-allocationlipid-storageglycogen-storageprotein-storageamino-acid-metabolismcarbohydrate-metabolismlipid-metabolismnitrogen-metabolismexcretionosmoregulationion-transportwater-balancecuticleintegumentsclerotizationpigmentationcolor-patternstructural-coloriridescencebioluminescencephotoreceptorvisioncompound-eyeocellusantennaolfactiongustationchemoreceptionmechanoreceptionthermoreceptionhygroreceptionproprioceptionneurobiologybrainganglionnerveneuronsynapseneurotransmitterhormonepheromoneallomonekairomonesemiochemicalchemical-ecologycommunicationsignalingmate-choicesexual-selectionsperm-competitioncryptic-female-choicemating-systemmating-behaviorcourtshipcopulationinseminationfertilizationovipositionegg-layingparental-carematernal-effectpaternal-effectepigeneticsgen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agementstrategic-risk-management-management-managemententerprise-risk-management-management-managementintegrated-risk-management-management-managementholistic-risk-management-management-managementsystemic-risk-management-management-managementcascading-risk-management-management-managementcompound-risk-management-management-managementcomplex-risk-management-management-managementemerging-risk-management-management-managementevolving-risk-management-management-managementtransboundary-risk-management-management-managementplanetary-risk-management-management-managementexistential-risk-management-management-managementglobal-catastrophic-risk-management-management-managementcivilization-risk-management-management-managementhuman-extinction-risk-management-management-managementspecies-extinction-risk-management-management-managementecosystem-collapse-risk-management-management-managementtipping-point-management-management-managementthreshold-management-management-managementregime-shift-management-management-managementalternative-stable-state-management-management-managementhysteresis-management-management-managementpath-dependence-management-management-managementlock-in-management-management-managementcarbon-lock-in-management-management-managementinfrastructure-lock-in-management-management-managementbehavioral-lock-in-management-management-managementinstitutional-lock-in-management-management-managementtechnological-lock-in-management-management-managementregulatory-lock-in-management-management-managementfinancial-lock-in-management-management-managementpolitical-lock-in-management-management-managementcultural-lock-in-management-management-managementsocial-lock-in-management-management-managementeconomic-lock-in-management-management-managementstructural-inertia-management-management-managementresistance-to-change-management-management-managementbarrier-to-change-management-management-managementenabler-of-change-management-management-managementdriver-of-change-management-management-managementaccelerator-of-change-management-management-managementcatalyst-of-change-management-management-managementleverage-point-management-management-managementintervention-point-management-management-managemententry-point-management-management-managementwindow-of-opportunity-management-management-managementpolicy-window-management-management-managementpolitical-opportunity-management-management-managementsocial-opportunity-management-management-managementeconomic-opportunity-management-management-managementtechnological-opportunity-management-management-managementenvironmental-opportunity-management-management-managementcrisis-opportunity-management-management-managementdisaster-opportunity-management-management-managementbuild-back-better-management-management-managementgreen-recovery-management-management-managementjust-recovery-management-management-managementresilient-recovery-management-management-managementsustainable-recovery-management-management-managementtransformational-recovery-management-management-managementdisaster-risk-reduction-management-management-managementprevention-management-management-managementpreparedness-management-management-managementresponse-management-management-managementrecovery-management-management-managementrehabilitation-management-management-managementreconstruction-management-management-managementresilience-building-management-management-managementadaptive-capacity-building-management-management-managementtransformative-capacity-building-management-management-managementDrosophilinae
Drosophilinae is the largest subfamily of Drosophilidae, containing the genus Drosophila and numerous related genera. The subfamily is characterized by complex phylogenetic relationships, with the genus Drosophila being paraphyletic as several genera (Zaprionus, Scaptomyza, Lordiphosa) are nested within it. Molecular studies have revealed distinctive gene evolution patterns in this group, including a rare retroposition event of the e(y)2 gene in Protostomes.