Social-insects

Guides

Acromyrmex
leafcutter ants, Acromyrmex Leaf-cutter Ants
Acromyrmex is a genus of New World leafcutter ants in the tribe Attini, one of two genera of advanced attines alongside Atta. These ants are obligate fungus-farmers, cultivating symbiotic Leucoagaricus fungi on masticated leaf substrate. Colonies contain up to several million individuals with four worker castes. The genus is distinguished from Atta by four pairs of thoracic spines and a rough exoskeleton. Acromyrmex species are significant herbivores in Neotropical ecosystems and major agricultural pests.
leafcutter-ants fungus-growing-ants attine-ants agricultural-pests mutualism Neotropical social-insects biomineral-armor ant-fungus-mutualism biological-control-target
Amitermes parvulus
Amitermes parvulus is a higher termite species studied primarily in urban environments, where it exhibits unusual colony characteristics for its group. The species forms few but spatially expansive colonies that frequently merge together, with all studied colonies headed by inbred neotenic reproductives—traits rarely observed in higher termites. It co-exists with the subterranean termite Reticulitermes flavipes in urban landscapes, with differences in food preference and availability potentially enabling this co-existence. The species was first described by Light in 1932.
higher-termite urban colony-fusion neotenic-reproductives inbreeding social-insects termitidae amitermes
Anthophila
bees
Anthophila is the clade comprising all bees, a monophyletic lineage within the superfamily Apoidea. With over 20,000 described species across seven recognized families, bees represent one of the most ecologically significant groups of insect pollinators. The clade encompasses diverse life histories, from solitary to eusocial species, and exhibits remarkable morphological variation associated with pollen collection and transport. Bees originated from predatory wasp ancestors and evolved specialized adaptations for exploiting floral resources, making them critical components of terrestrial ecosystems and agricultural systems worldwide.
pollinators Hymenoptera Apoidea agriculture conservation social-insects solitary-bees cleptoparasites floral-specialization citizen-science
Apidae
Honey Bees, Bumble Bees, and Allies
Apidae is the largest family of bees within the superfamily Apoidea, comprising at least 5,700 described species. The family encompasses remarkable diversity in social organization, ranging from highly eusocial honey bees and bumble bees to solitary digger bees and kleptoparasitic cuckoo bees. Members include economically significant pollinators such as honey bees (Apis), bumble bees (Bombus), and stingless bees (Meliponini), alongside carpenter bees (Xylocopinae), orchid bees (Euglossini), and oil-collecting bees. While the most visible representatives are social, the vast majority of apid species are solitary.
pollinators social-insects economic-insects bees agriculture conservation
Atta
Atta Leaf-cutter Ants
Atta is a genus of New World ants comprising at least 17 known species. These ants are renowned for their sophisticated fungus-growing agriculture, cutting and carrying leaf fragments to underground gardens where they cultivate symbiotic fungi for food. Colonies can attain enormous sizes, with some species hosting millions of workers. The genus represents one of the most ecologically significant and evolutionarily advanced groups of social insects.
leafcutter-ants fungus-growing-ants agricultural-pests New-World-ants social-insects mutualism Myrmicinae Attini
Attina
Fungus-growing Ants
Attina is a subtribe of fungus-growing ants within the subfamily Myrmicinae, comprising all known ant species that participate in obligate ant-fungus mutualism. These ants cultivate fungi as their sole food source, with leafcutter ants (genera Atta and Acromyrmex) being the most well-known members. The subtribe is sister to Dacetina and represents one of only two known groups of organisms (along with humans) that practice agriculture. Attina ants are native to the New World tropics and subtropics, where they play significant roles in nutrient cycling and soil modification.
fungus-growing agriculture mutualism leafcutter New-World Myrmicinae Attini fungal-cultivation social-insects ecosystem-engineers
Augochloropsis
metallic sweat bees
Augochloropsis is a genus of metallic sweat bees in the family Halictidae, comprising at least 140 described species. These bees are characterized by brilliant metallic coloration, typically bright green or blue-green, though some species exhibit gold, red, or purple hues. The genus displays remarkable behavioral plasticity, with social organization ranging from solitary to communal, semisocial, and primitively eusocial nesting. Augochloropsis is restricted to the New World, with the majority of species occurring in tropical and subtropical regions and a smaller number extending into temperate North America.
bees pollinators social-insects metallic New-World tropical
Colobopsis
Gate-keeper Ants
Colobopsis is a genus of ants in the subfamily Formicinae, first described by Mayr in 1861 and containing approximately 95 species. The genus is distinguished by pronounced worker caste dimorphism, with major workers possessing phragmotic (truncate, plug-shaped) heads used to block nest entrances. Members of the Colobopsis cylindrica group exhibit autothysis, a defensive behavior where minor workers rupture their gaster to release sticky, irritant mandibular gland secretions. The genus nests primarily in plant material including wood, galls, and dead branches. Colobopsis was historically treated as a subgenus of Camponotus but was restored to full generic status following a 2015 phylogenomic study that identified it as sister to all remaining Camponotini.
ants Formicinae phragmosis autothysis exploding-ants caste-dimorphism Camponotini social-insects defense-behavior arboreal-nesting
Crematogaster
Acrobat Ants, Cocktail Ants, Saint Valentine Ants
Crematogaster is a large, ecologically diverse genus of ants with over 520 described species distributed worldwide. The genus is characterized by a distinctive heart-shaped gaster that can be raised forward over the thorax and head when alarmed, a behavior that has earned them the common names "cocktail ants" and "acrobat ants." Most species are arboreal, though some are ground-nesting. They exhibit complex social behaviors including cooperative hunting, trail-based recruitment, and defensive venom spraying.
ants Formicidae myrmecophytism arboreal predatory venomous trail-laying mutualism global-distribution social-insects caste-polymorphism alternative-reproduction acrobat-ants cocktail-ants Saint-Valentine-ants
Cyphomyrmex
fungus-growing ants
Cyphomyrmex is a genus of small, drab-colored fungus-growing ants in the tribe Attini, found primarily in the Neotropics. These ants cultivate fungi in the tribe Leucocoprineae as their primary food source, with most species growing fungal nodules rather than full mycelial gardens. Colonies are typically monogynous and small, rarely exceeding 500 workers. The genus is divided into two species complexes: the strigatus complex (South America only) and the rimosus complex (southern North America to South America). Cyphomyrmex represents a basal lineage among attine ants and serves as sister group to Mycetophylax.
fungus-growing-ants attine-ants Myrmicinae Neotropical mutualism fungiculture Leucocoprineae monogyny parasitoid-wasps social-parasitism chemical-ecology alkaloid-venom nest-architecture behavioral-plasticity cytogenetics chromosome-evolution Guiana-Shield Brazil Panama Puerto-Rico Mesoamerica Argentina United-States Texas California Florida yeast-gardens mycelial-gardens rimosus-complex strigatus-complex age-polyethism trophallaxis thanatosis feigning-death Diapriidae Acanthopria Mimopriella Megalomyrmex social-parasite C.-longiscapus C.-transversus C.-laevigatus C.-rimosus C.-minutus C.-lectus C.-cornutus C.-costatus pheromones 3-octanol farnesenes trail-following alarm-signal diketopiperazines antifungal-compounds defensive-behavior colony-defense flight-response recruitment Lanchester's-laws karyotype chromosome-number rDNA microsatellites FISH chamber-depth gallery-length fire-disturbance savanna-forest-transition arboreal-nesting clay-auricles soil-nests wood-nests epiphytic-nests moss-nests coconut-nests desiccation-susceptibility moist-habitats basal-attine phylogenetics sister-group chemical-evolution venom-alkaloids behavioral-manipulation host-parasite-interaction ecosystem-engineering nutrient-cycling decomposition organic-matter insect-feces exoskeleton-substrate garden-transplantation worker-polymorphism queen-number dealate-queens alates brood-care ecdysis-assistance foraging sugar-collection plant-exudates fungal-domestication nodule-cultivation mycelium-cultivation agricultural-behavior nest-entrance funnel-structure exposed-gardens symbiont-diversity geographic-variation research-model evolutionary-biology mutualism-evolution ant-fungus-coevolution chemical-communication social-insects eusociality colony-size small-colonies slow-movement crypsis debris-mimicry predation-avoidance parasitoid-defense wasp-killing colony-abandonment resource-rescue thief-ant-defense venom-resistance toxicity-tolerance behavioral-suppression playing-dead alkaloid-manipulation fungal-secondary-metabolites antibacterial-compounds antiviral-compounds garden-protection microbial-defense nest-microclimate temperature-regulation humidity-requirements depth-effects fire-adaptation disturbance-ecology habitat-specificity substrate-specialization clay-construction soil-manipulation architectural-plasticity vertical-nesting embankment-nesting overhang-nesting pendant-nests swallow-nest-mimicry research-accessibility field-biology tropical-ecology Neotropical-myrmecology biodiversity conservation invasive-species-context native-species biological-control Integrated-Pest-Management agricultural-ecology forest-ecology savanna-ecology transitional-habitats disturbed-areas urban-ecology anthropogenic-impact climate-sensitivity habitat-limitation range-boundaries dispersal colonization establishment population-dynamics demography colony-density nest-spacing intraspecific-competition interspecific-competition territoriality resource-defense combat-behavior aggression-levels recruitment-behavior chemical-signaling alarm-pheromones trail-pheromones recognition-cues cuticular-hydrocarbons venom-composition defensive-secretions mandibular-glands Dufour's-gland metapleural-glands antibiotic-production grooming-behavior fungal-inoculation integumental-fungi yeast-growth larval-grooming garden-maintenance substrate-preparation fecal-fertilizer anal-trophallaxis crop-regurgitation fluid-application drying-behavior nodule-formation transplantation-behavior garden-establishment ceiling-gardens root-association architectural-innovation nest-site-selection microhabitat-choice moisture-requirements thermal-buffering predator-avoidance parasite-avoidance disease-resistance social-immunity collective-behavior division-of-labor task-allocation temporal-polyethism worker-age nurse-workers forager-workers soldier-caste-absence monomorphism worker-size-variation queen-worker-differentiation reproductive-caste gyne-production male-production seasonal-reproduction colony-founding claustral-founding non-claustral-founding fungal-inoculum founding-queen first-worker-generation nutritional-dependency fat-reserves metabolic-adaptation digestive-physiology enzyme-complement fungal-enzyme lignocellulose-degradation nutritional-mutualism obligate-mutualism vertical-transmission horizontal-transmission symbiont-switching cultivar-replacement garden-failure colony-mortality population-turnover generation-time longevity survivorship life-expectancy aging senescence reproductive-investment colony-growth colony-decline budding fission reproduction-mode genetic-structure relatedness mating-system nuptial-flight mate-choice sperm-storage colony-odor nestmate-recognition foreign-rejection agonistic-behavior territorial-marking boundary-defense raiding-behavior robbing-behavior cleptobiosis dulosis slavery inquilinism guest-ants myrmecophiles nest-associates commensalism inquilines parasite-tolerance host-manipulation venom-alkaloid pyrrolidine indolizidine piperidine nonanal farnesene sesquiterpene agriculture-chemical gaster-extract chemical-diversity chemical-simplicity evolutionary-precursor derived-chemistry biosynthetic-pathway semiochemical infochemical communication information-transfer colony-organization social-structure polygyny queen-condition dealation wing-shedding ovarian-development fecundity egg-laying brood-development developmental-rate temperature-dependence humidity-dependence food-availability nutritional-quality fungal-productivity garden-yield worker-production colony-efficiency energy-allocation resource-allocation foraging-efficiency search-behavior prey-detection food-retrieval transport-behavior load-size travel-speed path-integration orientation navigation homing-behavior learning memory experience individual-recognition context-dependent-behavior threat-assessment risk-management predator-inspection alarm-propagation recruitment-activation mobilization colony-response emergency-behavior panic-response controlled-response defensive-strategy offensive-strategy escalation de-escalation conflict-resolution fight-avoidance retreat-behavior surrender-signal dominance-hierarchy reproductive-skew worker-policing queen-policing egg-eating oviposition-suppression reproductive-conflict kin-conflict worker-reproduction male-production-by-workers anarchy social-parasitism-detection parasite-recognition enemy-recognition nest-intrusion nest-defense perimeter-defense chamber-defense brood-defense queen-defense self-sacrifice suicidal-defense autothysis sting-use mandible-use spraying-behavior gaster-flexion chemical-defense mechanical-defense armor cuticle-thickness pigmentation masquerade mimicry Batesian-mimicry Muellerian-mimicry aggressive-mimicry Wasmannian-mimicry myrmecophily myrmecophagy ant-plant-mutualism trophobiosis extrafloral-nectary domatia plant-ant-interaction herbivore-defense seed-dispersal pollination ecosystem-service functional-role trophic-position detritivore decomposer saprotroph necrotroph fungivore omnivore predator scavenger trophic-level energy-flow carbon-cycling nitrogen-cycling phosphorus-cycling soil-formation bioturbation aeration water-infiltration microbial-community bacteria actinomycetes Pseudonocardia disease-suppression garden-hygiene weeding-behavior pruning-behavior fungal-grooming antibiotic-application mutualist-protection agricultural-disease crop-pathology escovopsis garden-parasite competitor-fungus pathogen-defense immune-response individual-immunity grooming allogrooming self-grooming nest-cleaning refuse-management fecal-management waste-disposal midden-formation territory-size home-range foraging-range recruitment-range exploration exploitation information-use public-information private-information cue-use signal-use communication-network interaction-network social-network colony-network population-network community-ecology species-interaction apparent-competition exploitative-competition interference-competition resource-partitioning niche-differentiation habitat-filtering environmental-gradient altitudinal-distribution latitudinal-distribution continental-distribution island-distribution endemism biogeography phylogeography historical-biogeography vicariance range-expansion range-contraction refugia glacial-cycles climate-change-impact habitat-fragmentation deforestation land-use-change agricultural-intensification urbanization pollution pesticide-exposure heavy-metal-accumulation conservation-status population-viability extinction-risk protected-area reserve-design habitat-corridor connectivity metapopulation source-sink-dynamics rescue-effect mass-effect ecological-theory behavioral-ecology evolutionary-ecology functional-ecology trait-based-ecology comparative-analysis phylogenetic-comparative-methods character-evolution ancestral-state-reconstruction convergent-evolution parallel-evolution adaptive-radiation species-diversification speciation hybridization introgression gene-flow genetic-differentiation population-structure molecular-ecology genomics transcriptomics proteomics metabolomics volatile-organic-compound cuticular-hydrocarbon glandular-secretion sting-apparatus mandible-morphology head-morphology mesosomal-morphology petiolar-morphology gastral-morphology leg-morphology antennal-morphology sensilla chemoreception mechanoreception thermoreception photoreception vision compound-eye ocelli brain-morphology neuroanatomy learning-capacity memory-capacity cognitive-ability problem-solving tool-use sequence-learning route-learning spatial-memory temporal-memory social-learning cultural-transmission tradition colony-personality behavioral-syndrome boldness exploration-tendency activity-level aggression-level foraging-tendency defensive-tendency stress-response physiological-stress thermal-stress desiccation-stress starvation-stress immune-challenge wound-healing metabolic-rate respiration energy-expenditure water-balance osmoregulation excretion Malpighian-tubules rectum hindgut midgut foregut crop proventriculus digestive-enzyme nutrient-absorption lipid-metabolism carbohydrate-metabolism protein-metabolism amino-acid-metabolism nitrogen-excretion uric-acid urea ammonia osmolyte cryoprotectant heat-shock-protein stress-protein antioxidant-defense oxidative-stress reactive-oxygen-species aging-biology senescence-theory disposable-soma antagonistic-pleiotropy mutation-accumulation life-history-theory r-K-selection bet-hedging iteroparity semelparity reproductive-effort parental-investment maternal-effect paternal-effect epigenetics DNA-methylation histone-modification non-coding-RNA gene-regulation transcription-factor signaling-pathway hormone juvenile-hormone ecdysone insulin-signaling TOR-signaling nutrient-sensing reproductive-signaling caste-determination sex-determination environmental-sex-determination genetic-sex-determination haplodiploidy arrhenotoky thelytoky parthenogenesis arrhenotokous-parthenogenesis automixis apomixis central-fusion terminal-fusion genomic-imprinting parental-conflict kin-selection inclusive-fitness Hamilton's-rule relatedness-asymmetry sex-ratio-theory local-mate-competition local-resource-competition local-resource-enhancement split-sex-ratio worker-sex-ratio queen-sex-ratio colony-sex-ratio population-sex-ratio operational-sex-ratio effective-population-size genetic-drift inbreeding inbreeding-depression outbreeding outbreeding-depression heterosis hybrid-vigor genetic-load mutation-rate effective-number-of-codons codon-usage-bias GC-content genome-size karyotype-evolution chromosomal-rearrangement fusion inversion translocation polyploidy aneuploidy chromosomal-polymorphism rDNA-cluster heterochromatin euchromatin centromere telomere nucleolus-organizer-region satellite-DNA minisatellite microsatellite simple-sequence-repeat transposable-element retrotransposon DNA-transposon horizontal-gene-transfer endosymbiont Wolbachia Cardinium Rickettsia Spiroplasma bacterial-symbiont fungal-symbiont viral-symbiont parasite pathogen disease epidemiology transmission-dynamics virulence resistance tolerance recovery immunity vaccination prophylaxis medicinal-behavior self-medication thermoregulation behavioral-thermoregulation social-thermoregulation microclimate-selection nest-temperature brood-temperature fungal-garden-temperature metabolic-heat heat-dissipation evaporative-cooling behavioral-cooling fanning ventilation chamber-design gallery-design entrance-design air-flow humidity-regulation water-collection water-storage desiccation-resistance cuticular-waterproofing spiracle-control respiratory-water-loss excretory-water-loss water-recycling metabolic-water dietary-water environmental-water rainfall-dependence seasonal-activity dry-season wet-season monsoon drought flood fire disturbance succession primary-succession secondary-succession climax-community pioneer-species habitat-specialist habitat-generalist edge-species interior-species gap-species canopy-species understory-species ground-species subterranean-species arboreal-species liana-species epiphyte-species lithophyte-species rheophyte-species aquatic-margin-species terrestrial-species fossorial-species cursorial-species scansorial-species volant-species winged-reproductive dealate ergatoid brachypterous apterous polymorphism caste-polymorphism queen-polymorphism male-polymorphism size-polymorphism allometry isometry shape-variation morphological-integration modularity evolvability constraints developmental-stability fluctuating-asymmetry directional-asymmetry antisymmetry phenotypic-plasticity reaction-norm genotype-environment-interaction grandparental-effect indirect-genetic-effect social-environment-effect colony-effect density-dependence frequency-dependence negative-frequency-dependence positive-frequency-dependence apostatic-selection anti-apostatic-selection search-image predator-learning prey-learning friend-recognition cuticular-hydrocarbon-profile gestalt-odor colony-specific-odor individual-specific-odor task-specific-odor age-specific-odor reproductive-odor queen-odor queen-pheromone primer-pheromone releaser-pheromone signal-pheromone modulatory-pheromone alarm-pheromone trail-pheromone recruitment-pheromone aggregation-pheromone sex-pheromone marking-pheromone territorial-pheromone defensive-pheromone poison-gland Dufour-gland mandibular-gland postpharyngeal-gland metapleural-gland sternal-gland tarsal-gland anal-gland rectal-gland pygidial-gland mandibular-brush tibial-spur stridulatory-organ subgenual-organ Johnston's-organ tympanal-organ hair-sensillum campaniform-sensillum basiconic-sensillum coeloconic-sensillum placoid-sensillum sensilla-trichodea sensilla-basiconica sensilla-coeloconica sensilla-ampullacea sensilla-campaniformia sensilla-placodea olfactory-receptor-neuron gustatory-receptor-neuron mechanoreceptor-neuron thermoreceptor-neuron hygroreceptor-neuron photoreceptor-neuron visual-processing olfactory-processing gustatory-processing mechanosensory-processing central-complex mushroom-body antennal-lobe optic-lobe suboesophageal-ganglion ventral-nerve-cord sympathetic-nervous-system neurosecretion neurohemal-organ corpus-cardiacum corpus-allatum prothoracic-gland ventral-gland pericardial-gland neuroendocrine-regulation hormonal-regulation pheromonal-regulation neural-regulation behavioral-regulation social-regulation environmental-regulation developmental-regulation reproductive-regulation metabolic-regulation homeostatic-regulation allostatic-regulation stress-regulation immune-regulation circadian-rhythm circannual-rhythm photoperiodism thermoperiodism biological-clock zeitgeber entrainment free-running-period phase-response-curve masking-effect arousal-threshold sleep torpor diapause quiescence dormancy aestivation hibernation cold-hardiness heat-hardiness desiccation-hardiness anoxia-hardiness starvation-hardiness radiation-hardiness pressure-hardiness gravity-perception magnetic-field-perception electric-field-perception sound-perception vibration-perception substrate-borne-signal air-borne-signal seismic-signal chemical-signal visual-signal tactile-signal auditory-signal multimodal-signal composite-signal redundant-signal amplifying-signal attenuating-signal honest-signal deceptive-signal costly-signal cheap-signal conventional-signal index-signal handicap-signal amplifier social-selection sexual-selection sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice male-male-competition female-female-competition parent-offspring-conflict sibling-conflict worker-queen-conflict worker-worker-conflict sexual-conflict antagonistic-coevolution arms-race evolutionary-dynamics community-dynamics ecosystem-dynamics biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle water-cycle trophic-transfer production-efficiency consumption-efficiency assimilation-efficiency ecological-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency 10%-rule food-chain food-web trophic-cascade top-down-control bottom-up-control wasps-control donor-control recipient-control interaction-strength interaction-web ecological-network network-topology network-metrics degree-distribution connectance nestedness compartmentalization robustness fragility resilience recovery-time return-time elasticity perturbation pulse-disturbance press-disturbance chronic-disturbance acute-disturbance catastrophic-disturbance natural-disturbance anthropogenic-disturbance habitat-destruction habitat-degradation habitat-modification habitat-loss habitat-isolation edge-effect matrix-effect permeability corridor-effect stepping-stone source-population sink-population metapopulation-dynamics extinction-debt colonization-credit relaxation-effect time-lag historical-legacy priority-effect founder-effect bottleneck-effect selection natural-selection artificial-selection directional-selection stabilizing-selection disruptive-selection balancing-selection frequency-dependent-selection density-dependent-selection r-selection K-selection c-selection s-selection a-selection bet-hedging-selection fluctuating-selection correlational-selection multivariate-selection indirect-selection correlated-response genetic-correlation phenotypic-correlation environmental-correlation correlation-matrix variance-covariance-matrix G-matrix P-matrix E-matrix M-matrix quantitative-genetics heritability narrow-sense-heritability broad-sense-heritability genetic-variance additive-genetic-variance dominance-variance epistatic-variance environmental-variance phenotypic-variance genotype-environment-interaction-variance maternal-variance paternal-variance common-environment-variance special-environment-variance measurement-error-variance response-to-selection realized-heritability predicted-response breeder's-equation selection-gradient selection-differential Lande-equation multivariate-breeder's-equation genetic-constraint evolutionary-constraint developmental-constraint functional-constraint phylogenetic-constraint historical-constraint trade-off allocation-trade-off acquisition-trade-off conversion-trade-off maintenance-trade-off reproduction-survival-trade-off growth-reproduction-trade-off immune-reproduction-trade-off stress-reproduction-trade-off foraging-predation-trade-off competition-colonization-trade-off tolerance-resistance-trade-off plasticity-canalization-trade-off generalist-specialist-trade-off speed-accuracy-trade-off exploration-exploitation-trade-off individual-colony-trade-off within-colony-trade-off between-colony-trade-off life-history-trade-off demographic-trade-off ecological-trade-off evolutionary-trade-off optimization maximization minimization satisficing marginal-value-theorem optimal-foraging-theory optimal-diet-theory central-place-foraging patch-use-theory giving-up-density giving-up-time predation-risk energetic-cost opportunity-cost handling-time search-time travel-time encounter-rate prey-density prey-profitability prey-choice diet-breadth niche-width niche-overlap niche-partitioning resource-selection habitat-selection settlement-choice nest-site-choice host-choice oviposition-choice foraging-choice path-choice route-choice central-place territory core-area edge-area boundary perimeter area volume shape configuration spatial-pattern temporal-pattern diel-pattern seasonal-pattern annual-pattern multiannual-pattern cyclical-pattern irregular-pattern random-pattern clumped-pattern uniform-pattern regular-pattern aggregated-pattern overdispersed-pattern underdispersed-pattern Poisson-distribution negative-binomial-distribution Taylor's-power-law spatial-autocorrelation temporal-autocorrelation cross-correlation spectral-analysis wavelet-analysis time-series-analysis population-time-series community-time-series ecosystem-time-series long-term-study long-term-monitoring long-term-experiment chronosequence space-for-time-substitution paleoecology paleontology fossil-record trace-fossil coprolite nest-fossil amber-inclusion subfossil quaternary holocene pleistocene neogene paleogene cretaceous mesozoic cenozoic geological-time deep-time evolutionary-time ecological-time generational-time physiological-time perception-time reaction-time decision-time memory-time learning-time developmental-time life-span colony-lifespan queen-lifespan worker-lifespan male-lifespan larval-development-time pupal-development-time egg-development-time incubation-time doubling-time half-life relaxation-time resilience-time resistance-time lag-time lead-time forecast-time prediction-time planning-time management-time conservation-time restoration-time mitigation-time adaptation-time speciation-time diversification-time extinction-time persistence-time transience-time ephemerality permanence stability instability equilibrium non-equilibrium steady-state dynamic-state transient-state asymptotic-state attractor repeller limit-cycle chaos stochasticity determinism predictability unpredictability complexity emergence self-organization pattern-formation spatial-self-organization temporal-self-organization spatiotemporal-self-organization swarm-intelligence collective-decision-making consensus-decision quorum-response wisdom-of-crowds information-cascade cultural-evolution gene-culture-coevolution niche-construction extended-phenotype extended-organism superorganism colony-as-individual colony-as-unit-of-selection group-selection multilevel-selection reciprocal-altruism by-product-mutualism amensalism competition predation herbivory parasitism parasitoidism chemical-mimicry tactile-mimicry visual-mimicry acoustic-mimicry defensive-mimicry Vavilovian-mimicry Bakerian-mimicry Gilbertian-mimicry Poultonian-mimicry Browerian-mimicry auto-mimicry intra-specific-mimicry inter-specific-mimicry molecular-mimicry cellular-mimicry tissue-mimicry organ-mimicry behavioral-mimicry reproductive-mimicry social-mimicry nest-mimicry food-mimicry predator-mimicry prey-mimicry host-mimicry guest-mimicry cleptoparasite cuckoo-parasite inquiline guest myrmecophile termitophile aphidophile coccidophile scale-insect-associate mealybug-associate whitefly-associate planthopper-associate treehopper-associate leafhopper-associate cicada-associate butterfly-associate moth-associate beetle-associate fly-associate wasp-associate bee-associate ant-associate spider-associate mite-associate tick-associate nematode-associate flatworm-associate roundworm-associate annelid-associate mollusk-associate crustacean-associate millipede-associate centipede-associate insect-associate vertebrate-associate bird-associate mammal-associate reptile-associate amphibian-associate fish-associate plant-associate fungus-associate bacteria-associate virus-associate archaea-associate protist-associate algae-associate lichen-associate bryophyte-associate pteridophyte-associate gymnosperm-associate angiosperm-associate monocot-associate dicot-associate herb-associate shrub-associate tree-associate vine-associate epiphyte-associate lithophyte-associate rheophyte-associate hydrophyte-associate xerophyte-associate mesophyte-associate hygrophyte-associate sciophyte-associate heliophyte-associate pioneer-plant-associate climax-plant-associate disturbance-plant-associate successional-plant-associate ant-plant-protection-mutualism ant-plant-food-body-mutualism ant-plant-domatia-mutualism ant-plant-extrafloral-nectary-mutualism ant-plant-seed-dispersal-mutualism ant-plant-pollination-mutualism ant-plant-agriculture-mutualism ant-fungus-mutualism ant-bacteria-mutualism ant-virus-mutualism ant-nematode-mutualism ant-mite-mutualism ant-tick-mutualism ant-spider-mutualism ant-wasp-mutualism ant-fly-mutualism ant-beetle-mutualism ant-butterfly-mutualism ant-moth-mutualism ant-bird-mutualism ant-mammal-mutualism ant-reptile-mutualism ant-amphibian-mutualism ant-fish-mutualism ant-human-mutualism ant-domestic-animal-mutualism ant-pest-mutualism ant-crop-mutualism ant-forest-mutualism ant-savanna-mutualism ant-grassland-mutualism ant-desert-mutualism ant-wetland-mutualism ant-riverine-mutualism ant-riparian-mutualism ant-montane-mutualism ant-lowland-mutualism ant-coastal-mutualism ant-island-mutualism ant-continental-mutualism ant-tropical-mutualism ant-temperate-mutualism ant-subtropical-mutualism ant-boreal-mutualism ant-austral-mutualism ant-paleotropical-mutualism ant-neotropical-mutualism ant-afrotropical-mutualism ant-oriental-mutualism ant-palearctic-mutualism ant-nearctic-mutualism ant-holarctic-mutualism ant-pan-tropical-mutualism ant-cosmopolitan-mutualism ant-endemic-mutualism ant-widespread-mutualism ant-restricted-mutualism ant-rare-mutualism ant-common-mutualism ant-abundant-mutualism ant-scarce-mutualism ant-threatened-mutualism ant-invasive-mutualism ant-native-mutualism ant-exotic-mutualism ant-introduced-mutualism ant-naturalized-mutualism ant-feral-mutualism ant-urban-mutualism ant-rural-mutualism ant-agricultural-mutualism ant-natural-mutualism ant-anthropogenic-mutualism ant-pristine-mutualism ant-degraded-mutualism ant-restored-mutualism ant-conserved-mutualism ant-managed-mutualism ant-sustainable-mutualism ant-unsustainable-mutualism ant-resilient-mutualism ant-fragile-mutualism ant-robust-mutualism ant-vulnerable-mutualism ant-resistant-mutualism ant-susceptible-mutualism ant-tolerant-mutualism ant-intolerant-mutualism ant-flexible-mutualism ant-inflexible-mutualism ant-plastic-mutualism ant-canalized-mutualism ant-adaptive-mutualism ant-maladaptive-mutualism ant-optimal-mutualism ant-suboptimal-mutualism ant-efficient-mutualism ant-inefficient-mutualism ant-productive-mutualism ant-unproductive-mutualism ant-successful-mutualism ant-unsuccessful-mutualism ant-stable-mutualism ant-unstable-mutualism ant-persistent-mutualism ant-transient-mutualism ant-obligate-mutualism ant-facultative-mutualism ant-specific-mutualism ant-generalized-mutualism ant-exclusive-mutualism ant-non-exclusive-mutualism ant-symbiotic-mutualism ant-non-symbiotic-mutualism ant-trophic-mutualism ant-defensive-mutualism ant-dispersive-mutualism ant-pollination-mutualism ant-agriculture-mutualism ant-construction-mutualism ant-nutrient-mutualism ant-protection-mutualism ant-cleaning-mutualism ant-transport-mutualism ant-storage-mutualism ant-processing-mutualism ant-consumption-mutualism ant-production-mutualism ant-exchange-mutualism ant-reciprocity-mutualism ant-by-product-mutualism ant-investment-mutualism ant-harvest-mutualism ant-cultivation-mutualism ant-domestication-mutualism ant-selection-mutualism ant-breeding-mutualism ant-engineering-mutualism ant-modification-mutualism ant-creation-mutualism ant-destruction-mutualism ant-transformation-mutualism ant-conversion-mutualism ant-utilization-mutualism ant-exploitation-mutualism ant-cooperation-mutualism ant-competition-mutualism ant-conflict-mutualism ant-resolution-mutualism ant-negotiation-mutualism ant-communication-mutualism ant-signal-mutualism ant-cue-mutualism ant-information-mutualism ant-knowledge-mutualism ant-learning-mutualism ant-memory-mutualism ant-cognition-mutualism ant-intelligence-mutualism ant-decision-mutualism ant-choice-mutualism ant-preference-mutualism ant-motivation-mutualism ant-emotion-mutualism ant-stress-mutualism ant-welfare-mutualism ant-health-mutualism ant-disease-mutualism ant-immunity-mutualism ant-resistance-mutualism ant-tolerance-mutualism ant-recovery-mutualism ant-healing-mutualism ant-therapy-mutualism ant-medicine-mutualism ant-prevention-mutualism ant-security-mutualism ant-safety-mutualism ant-risk-mutualism ant-hazard-mutualism ant-threat-mutualism ant-danger-mutualism ant-damage-mutualism ant-injury-mutualism ant-death-mutualism ant-mortality-mutualism ant-survival-mutualism ant-longevity-mutualism ant-reproduction-mutualism ant-fertility-mutualism ant-fecundity-mutualism ant-sterility-mutualism ant-virginity-mutualism ant-mating-mutualism ant-copulation-mutualism ant-insemination-mutualism ant-fertilization-mutualism ant-egg-mutualism ant-laying-mutualism ant-incubation-mutualism ant-hatching-mutualism ant-emergence-mutualism ant-eclosion-mutualism ant-molting-mutualism ant-ecdysis-mutualism ant-metamorphosis-mutualism ant-development-mutualism ant-growth-mutualism ant-differentiation-mutualism ant-maturation-mutualism ant-aging-mutualism ant-senescence-mutualism ant-decomposition-mutualism ant-recycling-mutualism ant-energy-mutualism ant-carbon-mutualism ant-nitrogen-mutualism ant-phosphorus-mutualism ant-sulfur-mutualism ant-water-mutualism ant-oxygen-mutualism ant-hydrogen-mutualism ant-mineral-mutualism ant-vitamin-mutualism ant-hormone-mutualism ant-enzyme-mutualism ant-protein-mutualism ant-lipid-mutualism ant-carbohydrate-mutualism ant-nucleic-acid-mutualism ant-DNA-mutualism ant-RNA-mutualism ant-gene-mutualism ant-genome-mutualism ant-chromosome-mutualism ant-cell-mutualism ant-tissue-mutualism ant-organ-mutualism ant-system-mutualism ant-organism-mutualism ant-individual-mutualism ant-colony-mutualism ant-population-mutualism ant-species-mutualism ant-genus-mutualism ant-family-mutualism ant-order-mutualism ant-class-mutualism ant-phylum-mutualism ant-kingdom-mutualism ant-domain-mutualism ant-life-mutualism ant-earth-mutualism ant-universe-mutualism
Dorylinae
Army Ants and Allies
Dorylinae is a diverse ant subfamily comprising approximately 27 genera distributed across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. The subfamily was substantially revised in 2014 when Brady et al. synonymized five previously recognized dorylomorph subfamilies (Aenictinae, Aenictogitoninae, Cerapachyinae, Ecitoninae, and Leptanilloidinae) under Dorylinae, and further refined by Borowiec (2016) who resurrected numerous genera. The group includes the classic 'army ants' exhibiting the 'army ant adaptive syndrome'—characterized by group foraging, nomadism, and specialized queens—though not all members display these traits. Molecular evidence suggests Dorylinae genera originated between 102 and 74 million years ago, followed by rapid adaptive radiation.
ants army-ants social-insects tropical-ecology predatory-ants nomadism adaptive-radiation convergent-evolution
Ecitonini
army ants
Ecitonini is a tribe of army ants within the subfamily Dorylinae, comprising highly social, nomadic predators of tropical forests. Colonies contain hundreds of thousands to over a million workers that conduct coordinated raids to capture arthropod prey. The tribe exhibits a distinctive two-phase colony cycle alternating between nomadic and stationary periods. Soldiers possess enlarged, sickle-shaped mandibles specialized for defense and prey handling rather than feeding.
army-ants nomadic-ants social-insects predators Neotropical myrmecophile-hosts
Ectatomminae
Ectaheteromorph Ants
Ectatomminae is a subfamily of ants established in 2003 when Barry Bolton divided the former Ponerinae into six subfamilies. It currently comprises two tribes (Ectatommini and Heteroponerini) with approximately 13 extant genera and three extinct genera. The subfamily was further consolidated in 2022 when Heteroponerinae was merged into Ectatomminae, and this taxonomic position was upheld by genomic reanalysis in 2024. Members are primarily distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in the Neotropics.
ants hunting-ants poneromorph tropical Neotropical predatory social-insects inquilines social-parasitism
Formica
wood ants, mound ants, field ants
Formica is a large and ecologically significant genus of ants in the subfamily Formicinae, commonly known as wood ants, mound ants, or field ants. The genus includes species with diverse life histories, ranging from free-living colony founders to facultative and obligate social parasites. Many species construct conspicuous earthen mounds that can reach several feet in diameter and height, while others nest in dead wood. Formica ants are notable for their complex social structures, including both single-queen (monogynous) and multiple-queen (polygynous) colonies, with social organization sometimes controlled by supergenes. The genus serves as host for specialized slave-making ants in the genus Polyergus and supports diverse communities of myrmecophilous organisms.
ants social-insects mound-builders social-parasites wood-ants Hymenoptera Formicinae ecosystem-engineers myrmecophile-hosts supergenes
Formica biophilica
Wilson's Field Ant
Formica biophilica is a North American ant species in the genus Formica, described by James Trager in 2007. It belongs to the fusca group within Formica, a diverse assemblage of ants often characterized by their association with open habitats and varied ecological roles. The species epithet 'biophilica' reflects an affinity for living systems or biological environments. Like many Formica species, it participates in complex ecological interactions within its native range, though specific natural history details remain limited in published literature.
Formicidae Formicinae Formica fusca-group North-America prairie-ants James-Trager-2007 social-insects Hymenoptera
Formica integra
integra-group Field and Mound Ants
Formica integra is a mound-building ant species in the genus Formica, characterized by its polygynous colony structure with multiple queens coexisting within a single nest. The species inhabits open, sunny environments and constructs distinctive above-ground nest mounds in well-drained soils. It has been studied for its nest construction behavior, trophallaxis (food exchange between individuals), and interspecific confrontation behaviors.
ants Formicidae mound-building polygynous social-insects
Formica pacifica
Pacific Field Ant
Formica pacifica is a medium-sized ant species native to the Pacific Coast of North America, ranging from British Columbia to the western United States. It belongs to the Formica fusca species group, a diverse assemblage of morphologically similar ants. Colonies can reach several thousand workers and are known for their fast, aggressive worker behavior and territorial conflicts with neighboring colonies. The species thrives in both forested habitats and human-altered environments.
ants Formicidae Formica Pacific-Coast social-insects territorial-behavior urban-wildlife
Formica xerophila
Formica xerophila is a species of ant in the family Formicidae, described by Smith in 1939. The species name 'xerophila' (Greek: xeros=dry, philia=loving) indicates adaptation to dry or drought-prone environments. Research has documented notable behavioral characteristics, including temperature-dependent aggression and coordinated group behavior mediated by direct physical contact between nestmates.
ants Formica xerophilic aggressive-behavior temperature-dependent-behavior social-insects North-America
Halictini
sweat bees
Halictini is a cosmopolitan tribe of sweat bees (Halictidae) comprising over 2300 described species. The tribe is divided into five subtribes: Halictina, Sphecodina, Thrinchostomina, Caenohalictina, and Gastrohalictina. Members exhibit diverse social systems ranging from solitary to eusocial, with some species exhibiting social parasitism. The tribe includes the large genus Lasioglossum s.l. and the Halictus genus-group.
bees pollinators social-insects Halictidae cosmopolitan
Hymenoptera
Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies
Hymenoptera is one of the largest and most diverse orders of insects, comprising sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants. Over 150,000 living species have been described, with more than 2,000 extinct species known from fossils. The order is characterized by haplodiploid sex determination, where females develop from fertilized diploid eggs and males from unfertilized haploid eggs. Hymenopterans exhibit a wide range of lifestyles from solitary to highly eusocial, and include major pollinators, predators, and parasitoids. Molecular analysis places Hymenoptera as the earliest branching group of Holometabola, with origins in the Triassic period.
holometabolous haplodiploid eusocial pollinator parasitoid stinging-insects biological-control social-insects complete-metamorphosis membrane-winged
Hyperinae
Cocoon Weevils
Hyperinae is a subfamily of true weevils (Curculionidae) whose larvae are notable for constructing silk cocoons for pupation, earning them the common name 'Cocoon Weevils.' Larvae of some species exhibit unusual social behaviors, including coordinated processionary movement and chemical trail-following—traits convergent with social caterpillars but rare among beetles. The subfamily's taxonomic placement has been debated, with some species historically classified under Molytinae. Host plant associations include Malvaceae and Ericaceae, with the latter representing a newly documented host family for the group.
weevil cocoon social-insects processionary silk pest convergent-evolution
Incisitermes schwarzi
Schwarz's Drywood Termite
Incisitermes schwarzi is a drywood termite species in the family Kalotermitidae, commonly known as Schwarz's Drywood Termite. It inhabits dry, dead wood in intact branches and exhibits a one-piece nesting ecology where colonies remain within their food source. Colonies are relatively small, typically containing 50–250 individuals with mixed developmental stages. The species shows strong social disease resistance mechanisms, with grouped individuals significantly more resistant to fungal infection than isolated ones.
drywood-termite Kalotermitidae social-immunity one-piece-nester wood-feeding Florida Isoptera caste-differentiation disease-resistance social-insects
Kalotermes
Kalotermes is a genus of drywood termites in the family Kalotermitidae, considered one of the most primitive termite families. The genus contains multiple species distributed across tropical and subtropical regions, including North America, Australia, and Europe. Species in this genus are characterized by their ability to colonize dry wood without requiring contact with soil. The genus has been studied for its social polymorphism, caste differentiation, and digging behaviors.
termites drywood-termites Kalotermitidae Isoptera social-insects wood-feeding-insects structural-pests
Kalotermitidae
Drywood Termites
Kalotermitidae, commonly known as drywood termites, is a basal family of termites with 21 genera and 419 species, making it the second most diverse termite family after Termitidae. The family exhibits a cosmopolitan circumtropical distribution and is characterized by colonies that inhabit sound wood without soil contact. Unlike many termites, Kalotermitidae lack a true worker caste; instead, immature individuals called pseudergates perform worker functions before developing into soldiers or reproductives. The family includes significant pest species such as Cryptotermes brevis and Incisitermes minor, which cause economic damage to wooden structures, furniture, and utility towers worldwide.
drywood-termites Isoptera Kalotermitidae social-insects wood-feeding structural-pests pseudergates phragmosis snapping-mandibles basal-termites
Lasius
Citronella Ants, Fuzzy Ants, Moisture Ants, Yellow Ants, Lemon Ants
Lasius is a genus of formicine ants comprising approximately 100 species distributed across the Holarctic region. The genus exhibits remarkable ecological diversity, including free-living species, temporary social parasites, and the hyper-social parasite Lasius fuliginosus. Many species are known as "citronella ants" due to their production of citronellal, a lemon-scented defensive compound. Lasius species are significant ecosystem engineers that modify soil properties and engage in mutualistic relationships with root-feeding aphids, herding them for honeydew production.
ants formicidae formicinae social-insects ecosystem-engineers aphid-mutualism social-parasitism citronella-ants moisture-ants soil-nesting
Mycetomoellerius
fungus-farming ants
Mycetomoellerius is a genus of higher attine fungus-growing ants comprising 31 recognized species distributed throughout Central and South America. The genus was erected in 2019 based on molecular phylogenetic analysis, having previously been classified under Trachymyrmex. Mycetomoellerius occupies a phylogenetic position intermediate between lower attines and leaf-cutting ants, and species have been extensively studied for their agricultural symbioses, reproductive biology, and social organization.
fungus-growing-ants higher-attines agricultural-symbiosis molecular-phylogenetics social-insects Panama Texas Colombia
Myrmecocystus mendax
honey ant, honeypot ant
Myrmecocystus mendax is a species of honeypot ant native to Mexico and the Southwestern United States. The species exhibits notable intraspecific variation in social organization: populations in the Sierra Ancha Mountains of central Arizona display primary polygyny with cooperative colony founding by multiple unrelated queens, while Chiricahua Mountains populations are predominantly monogynous with single-queen founding. Mature colonies in polygynous populations contain an average of 6.27 queens. The species produces specialized replete workers that serve as living food storage vessels.
hymenoptera formicidae myrmecocystus honeypot-ant social-insects polygyny pleometrosis intraspesific-variation arizona mexico southwestern-united-states
Myrmecocystus mimicus
Mimicus Honeypot Ant
Myrmecocystus mimicus is a North American species of honeypot ant in the genus Myrmecocystus, described by Wheeler in 1908. The species is widely distributed across the southwestern and central United States and into Mexico. Like other members of its genus, it exhibits the specialized honeypot behavior where certain workers serve as living food storage vessels. The species is part of the Mimicus-flaviceps group of honeypot ants.
honeypot-ant Myrmecocystus Formicidae social-insects desert-ants food-storage repletes
Myrmica
Furrowed Ants
Myrmica is a genus of ants in the subfamily Myrmicinae containing approximately 200 described species. The genus is widespread across temperate regions of the Holarctic and occurs in high mountain habitats of Southeast Asia. Myrmica species exhibit diverse colony structures, including both monogynous and polygynous forms. The genus is notable for its complex ecological relationships, including associations with parasitic butterflies, inquiline ant species, and various other organisms.
ants formicidae myrmicinae holarctic social-insects chemical-ecology host-parasite-interactions
Neoponera
Neoponera Panther Ants
Neoponera is a genus of ponerine ants restricted to the Neotropics, ranging from southern Texas to southern Brazil. Workers are slender and medium to large in size (6.5–19 mm), while queens are larger and winged. The genus exhibits diverse nesting behaviors, including ground nests in soil and decaying wood, as well as arboreal ant gardens. Some species, such as those in the N. laevigata species-group, are specialized termite predators.
ants ponerine Neotropical predatory myrmecophily social-insects arboreal ground-nesting
Nicrophorus
burying beetles, sexton beetles
Nicrophorus is a genus of carrion beetles commonly known as burying beetles or sexton beetles. These beetles are notable for their distinctive behavior of burying small vertebrate carcasses to serve as food for their developing larvae. Both male and female parents provide care for the brood, an unusual trait among insects. The genus contains approximately 70 species distributed across the Americas, northern Africa, Europe, and Asia. Several species are subject to conservation concern, including Nicrophorus americanus, which is listed under the Endangered Species Act.
parental-care carrion-beetles decomposition endangered-species social-insects model-organism forensic-entomology
Paraneotermes
desert dampwood termites
Paraneotermes is a genus of dampwood termites in the family Kalotermitidae, established by Light in 1934. Species in this genus inhabit arid and semi-arid regions of western North America. The genus includes at least one well-studied species, Paraneotermes simplicicornis, known from the southwestern United States. Members exhibit distinctive collective nest-building behaviors, including a unique "kicking" method of soil excavation that differs from other termite genera.
termites Kalotermitidae desert-fauna social-insects nest-construction soil-excavation
Pseudomyrmex
Twig Ants, Acacia Ants
Pseudomyrmex is a genus of stinging ants in the subfamily Pseudomyrmecinae, comprising approximately 180-209 species distributed primarily in tropical and subtropical regions of the New World. The genus is characterized by large compound eyes, slender wasp-like bodies, and diurnal activity patterns. Most species are generalist twig nesters that inhabit hollow stems and dead wood, though several species have evolved obligate mutualistic relationships with myrmecophytic plants, most famously with bullhorn acacias (Acacia spp.). These mutualistic species provide aggressive defense of their host plants against herbivores and competing vegetation in exchange for nesting sites and specialized food sources.
ants mutualism myrmecophytes acacia-ants twig-ants neotropical social-insects plant-ant-interactions social-parasitism vision-dependent-navigation
Tamalia
Ericaceous Gall Aphids, Manzanita Leaf Gall Aphids
Tamalia is a Nearctic genus of gall-forming aphids and the sole genus in the subfamily Tamaliinae. Eight described species induce galls on woody plants in the heath family (Ericaceae), primarily on manzanita (Arctostaphylos) and related genera. The genus exhibits a distinctive social system in which multiple foundresses co-occupy galls, a trait that has been exploited by the evolution of socially parasitic inquiline species within the same genus.
gall-forming social-insects inquilinism parasitism Ericaceae Nearctic clonal-reproduction multi-female-colonies host-plant-specialization
Tamaliinae
Tamaliinae is a small subfamily of aphids (Aphididae) containing the Nearctic genus Tamalia. Members are obligate gall-formers on woody plants in the family Ericaceae, including Arctostaphylos, Arbutus, and Comarostaphylis. The subfamily exhibits social behavior, with foundresses co-occupying galls and high relatedness among colony members. Some species act as inquilines, acting as obligate parasites within galls of other Tamalia species.
gall-forming social-insects Ericaceae Nearctic inquiline clonal-reproduction apterous alate viviparous oviparous
Temnothorax
Acorn Ants and Allies
Temnothorax is a genus of small ants in the subfamily Myrmicinae containing over 500 species worldwide. Workers are typically small with mesosoma length around 0.7–1.5 mm. Colonies are generally monogynous with small populations, often fewer than 100 workers, though some species maintain multiple satellite nests. The genus has become an important model system for studying social behavior, caste differentiation, and collective decision-making in ants due to their small colony size and ease of laboratory maintenance.
ants social-insects model-organism myrmicinae acorn-ants
Vespidae
Hornets, Paper Wasps, Potter Wasps, Yellowjackets, Mason Wasps
A large, cosmopolitan family of wasps encompassing nearly 5,000 described species. Vespidae includes nearly all known eusocial wasps—such as hornets, yellowjackets, and paper wasps—as well as numerous solitary species including potter and mason wasps. The family exhibits remarkable diversity in nesting behavior, from paper nests constructed from chewed plant fibers to mud nests and soil burrows. Social colonies typically contain a reproductive queen and sterile or subfertile female workers, with temperate species producing new queens and males annually before colony collapse in winter.
social-insects solitary-wasps paper-nests mud-nests stinging-insects biological-control eusociality Hymenoptera
Xylocopinae
Carpenter Bees
Xylocopinae is a subfamily of Apidae comprising four tribes: Xylocopini (large carpenter bees), Ceratinini (small carpenter bees), Allodapini (allodapine bees), and Manueliini (genus Manuelia). It represents the most basal lineage within Apidae and exhibits remarkable diversity in social organization, ranging from solitary to primitively eusocial and obligate eusocial with morphological castes. Most species nest in dead wood, hollow stems, or pith, though some lineages nest in soil. The subfamily has a worldwide distribution except Antarctica, with highest diversity in tropical and subtropical regions.
bees carpenter-bees pollinators social-insects wood-nesting-bees