Host-manipulation

Guides

Acrotaphus
Acrotaphus is a genus of spider-attacking parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, subfamily Pimplinae, tribe Ephialtini. The genus contains 27 described species distributed across the New World, with particularly high diversity in the Neotropics including the Brazilian Amazon. These wasps are ectoparasitoids of orb-weaver spiders in the families Araneidae and Tetragnathidae. A defining characteristic of the genus is the ability to induce behavioral modification in host spiders, causing them to construct specialized "cocoon webs" that support and protect the wasp pupae.
parasitoid spider-parasitoid host-manipulation cocoon-web ectoparasitoid polysphinctine Ichneumonidae Pimplinae New-World Neotropical behavioral-manipulation orb-weaver-spider
Ampulex
cockroach wasps, jewel wasps
Ampulex is a large cosmopolitan genus of cockroach-hunting wasps in the family Ampulicidae, comprising over 130 species concentrated in tropical regions of the Old World. Fewer than 15 species occur in the New World, and fewer than 5 are native to Europe or the United States. The genus is notable for its specialized parasitoid biology: females sting cockroaches with venom that induces a state of hypokinesia—suppressed escape response and reduced locomotion without paralysis—then lead the subdued host to a shelter, lay eggs on its legs, and seal it inside where the larva consumes the living host. The emerald jewel wasp Ampulex compressa is the best-studied species and has spread globally alongside its host cockroaches.
parasitoid cockroach-predator venom hypokinesia zombie-wasp neurobiology-model tropical Old-World jewel-wasp emerald-cockroach-wasp Ampulicidae innate-behavior host-manipulation antimicrobial-defense sexual-dimorphism cocoon-defense
Asphondylia borrichiae
Asphondylia borrichiae is a gall midge (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) that induces galls at the apical meristems of its host plant Borrichia frutescens. The larvae develop and pupate entirely within these galls. During development, immature stages are attacked by a guild of parasitic wasps, with Galeopsomyia haemon and Torymus umbilicatus being the most common parasitoids. Research has demonstrated that abiotic factors affecting host plant characteristics, particularly gall diameter, significantly influence the composition of the parasitoid community attacking this midge.
gall-midge Cecidomyiidae parasitoid Borrichia-frutescens coastal endophytic-fungi host-manipulation top-down-effects ecological-speciation
Braconidae
braconid wasps, braconids
Braconidae is a family of parasitoid wasps, the second-largest family in Hymenoptera with approximately 17,000 described species and estimates of 30,000–50,000 total species. Members are primarily internal or external parasitoids of other insects, with larvae developing in or on hosts including caterpillars, beetle larvae, aphids, and other insects. Many species possess polydnaviruses—virus-like particles derived from ancient viral integration—that suppress host immune defenses. The family is divided into about 47 subfamilies, informally grouped into cyclostomes and noncyclostomes based on mouthpart morphology. Braconids are economically significant as biological control agents against agricultural and forestry pests.
parasitoid biological-control Hymenoptera Ichneumonoidea polydnavirus insect-parasitoid agricultural-pest-management host-manipulation coevolution
Cotesia congregata
Hornworm Parasitoid Wasp
Cotesia congregata is a gregarious endoparasitoid wasp and a model organism in insect physiology research. Females oviposit eggs into caterpillar hosts, primarily tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta) and tomato hornworm (Manduca quinquemaculata), simultaneously injecting a symbiotic polydnavirus (CcBV) and venom. The virus suppresses host immune defenses and disrupts development, allowing wasp larvae to complete their growth inside the living host. Mature larvae emerge through the host cuticle and spin white silk cocoons on the exterior surface. The wasp exhibits post-emergence learning of host plant cues, with a critical learning window of 0–4 hours after adult emergence.
parasitoid polydnavirus biological-control model-organism gregarious endoparasitoid host-manipulation bracovirus Manduca hornworm
Cyphomyrmex
fungus-growing ants
Cyphomyrmex is a genus of small, drab-colored fungus-growing ants in the tribe Attini, found primarily in the Neotropics. These ants cultivate fungi in the tribe Leucocoprineae as their primary food source, with most species growing fungal nodules rather than full mycelial gardens. Colonies are typically monogynous and small, rarely exceeding 500 workers. The genus is divided into two species complexes: the strigatus complex (South America only) and the rimosus complex (southern North America to South America). Cyphomyrmex represents a basal lineage among attine ants and serves as sister group to Mycetophylax.
fungus-growing-ants attine-ants Myrmicinae Neotropical mutualism fungiculture Leucocoprineae monogyny parasitoid-wasps social-parasitism chemical-ecology alkaloid-venom nest-architecture behavioral-plasticity cytogenetics chromosome-evolution Guiana-Shield Brazil Panama Puerto-Rico Mesoamerica Argentina United-States Texas California Florida yeast-gardens mycelial-gardens rimosus-complex strigatus-complex age-polyethism trophallaxis thanatosis feigning-death Diapriidae Acanthopria Mimopriella Megalomyrmex social-parasite C.-longiscapus C.-transversus C.-laevigatus C.-rimosus C.-minutus C.-lectus C.-cornutus C.-costatus pheromones 3-octanol farnesenes trail-following alarm-signal diketopiperazines antifungal-compounds defensive-behavior colony-defense flight-response recruitment Lanchester's-laws karyotype chromosome-number rDNA microsatellites FISH chamber-depth gallery-length fire-disturbance savanna-forest-transition arboreal-nesting clay-auricles soil-nests wood-nests epiphytic-nests moss-nests coconut-nests desiccation-susceptibility moist-habitats basal-attine phylogenetics sister-group chemical-evolution venom-alkaloids behavioral-manipulation host-parasite-interaction ecosystem-engineering nutrient-cycling decomposition organic-matter insect-feces exoskeleton-substrate garden-transplantation worker-polymorphism queen-number dealate-queens alates brood-care ecdysis-assistance foraging sugar-collection plant-exudates fungal-domestication nodule-cultivation mycelium-cultivation agricultural-behavior nest-entrance funnel-structure exposed-gardens symbiont-diversity geographic-variation research-model evolutionary-biology mutualism-evolution ant-fungus-coevolution chemical-communication social-insects eusociality colony-size small-colonies slow-movement crypsis debris-mimicry predation-avoidance parasitoid-defense wasp-killing colony-abandonment resource-rescue thief-ant-defense venom-resistance toxicity-tolerance behavioral-suppression playing-dead alkaloid-manipulation fungal-secondary-metabolites antibacterial-compounds antiviral-compounds garden-protection microbial-defense nest-microclimate temperature-regulation humidity-requirements depth-effects fire-adaptation disturbance-ecology habitat-specificity substrate-specialization clay-construction soil-manipulation architectural-plasticity vertical-nesting embankment-nesting overhang-nesting pendant-nests swallow-nest-mimicry research-accessibility field-biology tropical-ecology Neotropical-myrmecology biodiversity conservation invasive-species-context native-species biological-control Integrated-Pest-Management agricultural-ecology forest-ecology savanna-ecology transitional-habitats disturbed-areas urban-ecology anthropogenic-impact climate-sensitivity habitat-limitation range-boundaries dispersal colonization establishment population-dynamics demography colony-density nest-spacing intraspecific-competition interspecific-competition territoriality resource-defense combat-behavior aggression-levels recruitment-behavior chemical-signaling alarm-pheromones trail-pheromones recognition-cues cuticular-hydrocarbons venom-composition defensive-secretions mandibular-glands Dufour's-gland metapleural-glands antibiotic-production grooming-behavior fungal-inoculation integumental-fungi yeast-growth larval-grooming garden-maintenance substrate-preparation fecal-fertilizer anal-trophallaxis crop-regurgitation fluid-application drying-behavior nodule-formation transplantation-behavior garden-establishment ceiling-gardens root-association architectural-innovation nest-site-selection microhabitat-choice moisture-requirements thermal-buffering predator-avoidance parasite-avoidance disease-resistance social-immunity collective-behavior division-of-labor task-allocation temporal-polyethism worker-age nurse-workers forager-workers soldier-caste-absence monomorphism worker-size-variation queen-worker-differentiation reproductive-caste gyne-production male-production seasonal-reproduction colony-founding claustral-founding non-claustral-founding fungal-inoculum founding-queen first-worker-generation nutritional-dependency fat-reserves metabolic-adaptation digestive-physiology enzyme-complement fungal-enzyme lignocellulose-degradation nutritional-mutualism obligate-mutualism vertical-transmission horizontal-transmission symbiont-switching cultivar-replacement garden-failure colony-mortality population-turnover generation-time longevity survivorship life-expectancy aging senescence reproductive-investment colony-growth colony-decline budding fission reproduction-mode genetic-structure relatedness mating-system nuptial-flight mate-choice sperm-storage colony-odor nestmate-recognition foreign-rejection agonistic-behavior territorial-marking boundary-defense raiding-behavior robbing-behavior cleptobiosis dulosis slavery inquilinism guest-ants myrmecophiles nest-associates commensalism inquilines parasite-tolerance host-manipulation venom-alkaloid pyrrolidine indolizidine piperidine nonanal farnesene sesquiterpene agriculture-chemical gaster-extract chemical-diversity chemical-simplicity evolutionary-precursor derived-chemistry biosynthetic-pathway semiochemical infochemical communication information-transfer colony-organization social-structure polygyny queen-condition dealation wing-shedding ovarian-development fecundity egg-laying brood-development developmental-rate temperature-dependence humidity-dependence food-availability nutritional-quality fungal-productivity garden-yield worker-production colony-efficiency energy-allocation resource-allocation foraging-efficiency search-behavior prey-detection food-retrieval transport-behavior load-size travel-speed path-integration orientation navigation homing-behavior learning memory experience individual-recognition context-dependent-behavior threat-assessment risk-management predator-inspection alarm-propagation recruitment-activation mobilization colony-response emergency-behavior panic-response controlled-response defensive-strategy offensive-strategy escalation de-escalation conflict-resolution fight-avoidance retreat-behavior surrender-signal dominance-hierarchy reproductive-skew worker-policing queen-policing egg-eating oviposition-suppression reproductive-conflict kin-conflict worker-reproduction male-production-by-workers anarchy social-parasitism-detection parasite-recognition enemy-recognition nest-intrusion nest-defense perimeter-defense chamber-defense brood-defense queen-defense self-sacrifice suicidal-defense autothysis sting-use mandible-use spraying-behavior gaster-flexion chemical-defense mechanical-defense armor cuticle-thickness pigmentation masquerade mimicry Batesian-mimicry Muellerian-mimicry aggressive-mimicry Wasmannian-mimicry myrmecophily myrmecophagy ant-plant-mutualism trophobiosis extrafloral-nectary domatia plant-ant-interaction herbivore-defense seed-dispersal pollination ecosystem-service functional-role trophic-position detritivore decomposer saprotroph necrotroph fungivore omnivore predator scavenger trophic-level energy-flow carbon-cycling nitrogen-cycling phosphorus-cycling soil-formation bioturbation aeration water-infiltration microbial-community bacteria actinomycetes Pseudonocardia disease-suppression garden-hygiene weeding-behavior pruning-behavior fungal-grooming antibiotic-application mutualist-protection agricultural-disease crop-pathology escovopsis garden-parasite competitor-fungus pathogen-defense immune-response individual-immunity grooming allogrooming self-grooming nest-cleaning refuse-management fecal-management waste-disposal midden-formation territory-size home-range foraging-range recruitment-range exploration exploitation information-use public-information private-information cue-use signal-use communication-network interaction-network social-network colony-network population-network community-ecology species-interaction apparent-competition exploitative-competition interference-competition resource-partitioning niche-differentiation habitat-filtering environmental-gradient altitudinal-distribution latitudinal-distribution continental-distribution island-distribution endemism biogeography phylogeography historical-biogeography vicariance range-expansion range-contraction refugia glacial-cycles climate-change-impact habitat-fragmentation deforestation land-use-change agricultural-intensification urbanization pollution pesticide-exposure heavy-metal-accumulation conservation-status population-viability extinction-risk protected-area reserve-design habitat-corridor connectivity metapopulation source-sink-dynamics rescue-effect mass-effect ecological-theory behavioral-ecology evolutionary-ecology functional-ecology trait-based-ecology comparative-analysis phylogenetic-comparative-methods character-evolution ancestral-state-reconstruction convergent-evolution parallel-evolution adaptive-radiation species-diversification speciation hybridization introgression gene-flow genetic-differentiation population-structure molecular-ecology genomics transcriptomics proteomics metabolomics volatile-organic-compound cuticular-hydrocarbon glandular-secretion sting-apparatus mandible-morphology head-morphology mesosomal-morphology petiolar-morphology gastral-morphology leg-morphology antennal-morphology sensilla chemoreception mechanoreception thermoreception photoreception vision compound-eye ocelli brain-morphology neuroanatomy learning-capacity memory-capacity cognitive-ability problem-solving tool-use sequence-learning route-learning spatial-memory temporal-memory social-learning cultural-transmission tradition colony-personality behavioral-syndrome boldness exploration-tendency activity-level aggression-level foraging-tendency defensive-tendency stress-response physiological-stress thermal-stress desiccation-stress starvation-stress immune-challenge wound-healing metabolic-rate respiration energy-expenditure water-balance osmoregulation excretion Malpighian-tubules rectum hindgut midgut foregut crop proventriculus digestive-enzyme nutrient-absorption lipid-metabolism carbohydrate-metabolism protein-metabolism amino-acid-metabolism nitrogen-excretion uric-acid urea ammonia osmolyte cryoprotectant heat-shock-protein stress-protein antioxidant-defense oxidative-stress reactive-oxygen-species aging-biology senescence-theory disposable-soma antagonistic-pleiotropy mutation-accumulation life-history-theory r-K-selection bet-hedging iteroparity semelparity reproductive-effort parental-investment maternal-effect paternal-effect epigenetics DNA-methylation histone-modification non-coding-RNA gene-regulation transcription-factor signaling-pathway hormone juvenile-hormone ecdysone insulin-signaling TOR-signaling nutrient-sensing reproductive-signaling caste-determination sex-determination environmental-sex-determination genetic-sex-determination haplodiploidy arrhenotoky thelytoky parthenogenesis arrhenotokous-parthenogenesis automixis apomixis central-fusion terminal-fusion genomic-imprinting parental-conflict kin-selection inclusive-fitness Hamilton's-rule relatedness-asymmetry sex-ratio-theory local-mate-competition local-resource-competition local-resource-enhancement split-sex-ratio worker-sex-ratio queen-sex-ratio colony-sex-ratio population-sex-ratio operational-sex-ratio effective-population-size genetic-drift inbreeding inbreeding-depression outbreeding outbreeding-depression heterosis hybrid-vigor genetic-load mutation-rate effective-number-of-codons codon-usage-bias GC-content genome-size karyotype-evolution chromosomal-rearrangement fusion inversion translocation polyploidy aneuploidy chromosomal-polymorphism rDNA-cluster heterochromatin euchromatin centromere telomere nucleolus-organizer-region satellite-DNA minisatellite microsatellite simple-sequence-repeat transposable-element retrotransposon DNA-transposon horizontal-gene-transfer endosymbiont Wolbachia Cardinium Rickettsia Spiroplasma bacterial-symbiont fungal-symbiont viral-symbiont parasite pathogen disease epidemiology transmission-dynamics virulence resistance tolerance recovery immunity vaccination prophylaxis medicinal-behavior self-medication thermoregulation behavioral-thermoregulation social-thermoregulation microclimate-selection nest-temperature brood-temperature fungal-garden-temperature metabolic-heat heat-dissipation evaporative-cooling behavioral-cooling fanning ventilation chamber-design gallery-design entrance-design air-flow humidity-regulation water-collection water-storage desiccation-resistance cuticular-waterproofing spiracle-control respiratory-water-loss excretory-water-loss water-recycling metabolic-water dietary-water environmental-water rainfall-dependence seasonal-activity dry-season wet-season monsoon drought flood fire disturbance succession primary-succession secondary-succession climax-community pioneer-species habitat-specialist habitat-generalist edge-species interior-species gap-species canopy-species understory-species ground-species subterranean-species arboreal-species liana-species epiphyte-species lithophyte-species rheophyte-species aquatic-margin-species terrestrial-species fossorial-species cursorial-species scansorial-species volant-species winged-reproductive dealate ergatoid brachypterous apterous polymorphism caste-polymorphism queen-polymorphism male-polymorphism size-polymorphism allometry isometry shape-variation morphological-integration modularity evolvability constraints developmental-stability fluctuating-asymmetry directional-asymmetry antisymmetry phenotypic-plasticity reaction-norm genotype-environment-interaction grandparental-effect indirect-genetic-effect social-environment-effect colony-effect density-dependence frequency-dependence negative-frequency-dependence positive-frequency-dependence apostatic-selection anti-apostatic-selection search-image predator-learning prey-learning friend-recognition cuticular-hydrocarbon-profile gestalt-odor colony-specific-odor individual-specific-odor task-specific-odor age-specific-odor reproductive-odor queen-odor queen-pheromone primer-pheromone releaser-pheromone signal-pheromone modulatory-pheromone alarm-pheromone trail-pheromone recruitment-pheromone aggregation-pheromone sex-pheromone marking-pheromone territorial-pheromone defensive-pheromone poison-gland Dufour-gland mandibular-gland postpharyngeal-gland metapleural-gland sternal-gland tarsal-gland anal-gland rectal-gland pygidial-gland mandibular-brush tibial-spur stridulatory-organ subgenual-organ Johnston's-organ tympanal-organ hair-sensillum campaniform-sensillum basiconic-sensillum coeloconic-sensillum placoid-sensillum sensilla-trichodea sensilla-basiconica sensilla-coeloconica sensilla-ampullacea sensilla-campaniformia sensilla-placodea olfactory-receptor-neuron gustatory-receptor-neuron mechanoreceptor-neuron thermoreceptor-neuron hygroreceptor-neuron photoreceptor-neuron visual-processing olfactory-processing gustatory-processing mechanosensory-processing central-complex mushroom-body antennal-lobe optic-lobe suboesophageal-ganglion ventral-nerve-cord sympathetic-nervous-system neurosecretion neurohemal-organ corpus-cardiacum corpus-allatum prothoracic-gland ventral-gland pericardial-gland neuroendocrine-regulation hormonal-regulation pheromonal-regulation neural-regulation behavioral-regulation social-regulation environmental-regulation developmental-regulation reproductive-regulation metabolic-regulation homeostatic-regulation allostatic-regulation stress-regulation immune-regulation circadian-rhythm circannual-rhythm photoperiodism thermoperiodism biological-clock zeitgeber entrainment free-running-period phase-response-curve masking-effect arousal-threshold sleep torpor diapause quiescence dormancy aestivation hibernation cold-hardiness heat-hardiness desiccation-hardiness anoxia-hardiness starvation-hardiness radiation-hardiness pressure-hardiness gravity-perception magnetic-field-perception electric-field-perception sound-perception vibration-perception substrate-borne-signal air-borne-signal seismic-signal chemical-signal visual-signal tactile-signal auditory-signal multimodal-signal composite-signal redundant-signal amplifying-signal attenuating-signal honest-signal deceptive-signal costly-signal cheap-signal conventional-signal index-signal handicap-signal amplifier social-selection sexual-selection sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice male-male-competition female-female-competition parent-offspring-conflict sibling-conflict worker-queen-conflict worker-worker-conflict sexual-conflict antagonistic-coevolution arms-race evolutionary-dynamics community-dynamics ecosystem-dynamics biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle water-cycle trophic-transfer production-efficiency consumption-efficiency assimilation-efficiency ecological-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency 10%-rule food-chain food-web trophic-cascade top-down-control bottom-up-control wasps-control donor-control recipient-control interaction-strength interaction-web ecological-network network-topology network-metrics degree-distribution connectance nestedness compartmentalization robustness fragility resilience recovery-time return-time elasticity perturbation pulse-disturbance press-disturbance chronic-disturbance acute-disturbance catastrophic-disturbance natural-disturbance anthropogenic-disturbance habitat-destruction habitat-degradation habitat-modification habitat-loss habitat-isolation edge-effect matrix-effect permeability corridor-effect stepping-stone source-population sink-population metapopulation-dynamics extinction-debt colonization-credit relaxation-effect time-lag historical-legacy priority-effect founder-effect bottleneck-effect selection natural-selection artificial-selection directional-selection stabilizing-selection disruptive-selection balancing-selection frequency-dependent-selection density-dependent-selection r-selection K-selection c-selection s-selection a-selection bet-hedging-selection fluctuating-selection correlational-selection multivariate-selection indirect-selection correlated-response genetic-correlation phenotypic-correlation environmental-correlation correlation-matrix variance-covariance-matrix G-matrix P-matrix E-matrix M-matrix quantitative-genetics heritability narrow-sense-heritability broad-sense-heritability genetic-variance additive-genetic-variance dominance-variance epistatic-variance environmental-variance phenotypic-variance genotype-environment-interaction-variance maternal-variance paternal-variance common-environment-variance special-environment-variance measurement-error-variance response-to-selection realized-heritability predicted-response breeder's-equation selection-gradient selection-differential Lande-equation multivariate-breeder's-equation genetic-constraint evolutionary-constraint developmental-constraint functional-constraint phylogenetic-constraint historical-constraint trade-off allocation-trade-off acquisition-trade-off conversion-trade-off maintenance-trade-off reproduction-survival-trade-off growth-reproduction-trade-off immune-reproduction-trade-off stress-reproduction-trade-off foraging-predation-trade-off competition-colonization-trade-off tolerance-resistance-trade-off plasticity-canalization-trade-off generalist-specialist-trade-off speed-accuracy-trade-off exploration-exploitation-trade-off individual-colony-trade-off within-colony-trade-off between-colony-trade-off life-history-trade-off demographic-trade-off ecological-trade-off evolutionary-trade-off optimization maximization minimization satisficing marginal-value-theorem optimal-foraging-theory optimal-diet-theory central-place-foraging patch-use-theory giving-up-density giving-up-time predation-risk energetic-cost opportunity-cost handling-time search-time travel-time encounter-rate prey-density prey-profitability prey-choice diet-breadth niche-width niche-overlap niche-partitioning resource-selection habitat-selection settlement-choice nest-site-choice host-choice oviposition-choice foraging-choice path-choice route-choice central-place territory core-area edge-area boundary perimeter area volume shape configuration spatial-pattern temporal-pattern diel-pattern seasonal-pattern annual-pattern multiannual-pattern cyclical-pattern irregular-pattern random-pattern clumped-pattern uniform-pattern regular-pattern aggregated-pattern overdispersed-pattern underdispersed-pattern Poisson-distribution negative-binomial-distribution Taylor's-power-law spatial-autocorrelation temporal-autocorrelation cross-correlation spectral-analysis wavelet-analysis time-series-analysis population-time-series community-time-series ecosystem-time-series long-term-study long-term-monitoring long-term-experiment chronosequence space-for-time-substitution paleoecology paleontology fossil-record trace-fossil coprolite nest-fossil amber-inclusion subfossil quaternary holocene pleistocene neogene paleogene cretaceous mesozoic cenozoic geological-time deep-time evolutionary-time ecological-time generational-time physiological-time perception-time reaction-time decision-time memory-time learning-time developmental-time life-span colony-lifespan queen-lifespan worker-lifespan male-lifespan larval-development-time pupal-development-time egg-development-time incubation-time doubling-time half-life relaxation-time resilience-time resistance-time lag-time lead-time forecast-time prediction-time planning-time management-time conservation-time restoration-time mitigation-time adaptation-time speciation-time diversification-time extinction-time persistence-time transience-time ephemerality permanence stability instability equilibrium non-equilibrium steady-state dynamic-state transient-state asymptotic-state attractor repeller limit-cycle chaos stochasticity determinism predictability unpredictability complexity emergence self-organization pattern-formation spatial-self-organization temporal-self-organization spatiotemporal-self-organization swarm-intelligence collective-decision-making consensus-decision quorum-response wisdom-of-crowds information-cascade cultural-evolution gene-culture-coevolution niche-construction extended-phenotype extended-organism superorganism colony-as-individual colony-as-unit-of-selection group-selection multilevel-selection reciprocal-altruism by-product-mutualism amensalism competition predation herbivory parasitism parasitoidism chemical-mimicry tactile-mimicry visual-mimicry acoustic-mimicry defensive-mimicry Vavilovian-mimicry Bakerian-mimicry Gilbertian-mimicry Poultonian-mimicry Browerian-mimicry auto-mimicry intra-specific-mimicry inter-specific-mimicry molecular-mimicry cellular-mimicry tissue-mimicry organ-mimicry behavioral-mimicry reproductive-mimicry social-mimicry nest-mimicry food-mimicry predator-mimicry prey-mimicry host-mimicry guest-mimicry cleptoparasite cuckoo-parasite inquiline guest myrmecophile termitophile aphidophile coccidophile scale-insect-associate mealybug-associate whitefly-associate planthopper-associate treehopper-associate leafhopper-associate cicada-associate butterfly-associate moth-associate beetle-associate fly-associate wasp-associate bee-associate ant-associate spider-associate mite-associate tick-associate nematode-associate flatworm-associate roundworm-associate annelid-associate mollusk-associate crustacean-associate millipede-associate centipede-associate insect-associate vertebrate-associate bird-associate mammal-associate reptile-associate amphibian-associate fish-associate plant-associate fungus-associate bacteria-associate virus-associate archaea-associate protist-associate algae-associate lichen-associate bryophyte-associate pteridophyte-associate gymnosperm-associate angiosperm-associate monocot-associate dicot-associate herb-associate shrub-associate tree-associate vine-associate epiphyte-associate lithophyte-associate rheophyte-associate hydrophyte-associate xerophyte-associate mesophyte-associate hygrophyte-associate sciophyte-associate heliophyte-associate pioneer-plant-associate climax-plant-associate disturbance-plant-associate successional-plant-associate ant-plant-protection-mutualism ant-plant-food-body-mutualism ant-plant-domatia-mutualism ant-plant-extrafloral-nectary-mutualism ant-plant-seed-dispersal-mutualism ant-plant-pollination-mutualism ant-plant-agriculture-mutualism ant-fungus-mutualism ant-bacteria-mutualism ant-virus-mutualism ant-nematode-mutualism ant-mite-mutualism ant-tick-mutualism ant-spider-mutualism ant-wasp-mutualism ant-fly-mutualism ant-beetle-mutualism ant-butterfly-mutualism ant-moth-mutualism ant-bird-mutualism ant-mammal-mutualism ant-reptile-mutualism ant-amphibian-mutualism ant-fish-mutualism ant-human-mutualism ant-domestic-animal-mutualism ant-pest-mutualism ant-crop-mutualism ant-forest-mutualism ant-savanna-mutualism ant-grassland-mutualism ant-desert-mutualism ant-wetland-mutualism ant-riverine-mutualism ant-riparian-mutualism ant-montane-mutualism ant-lowland-mutualism ant-coastal-mutualism ant-island-mutualism ant-continental-mutualism ant-tropical-mutualism ant-temperate-mutualism ant-subtropical-mutualism ant-boreal-mutualism ant-austral-mutualism ant-paleotropical-mutualism ant-neotropical-mutualism ant-afrotropical-mutualism ant-oriental-mutualism ant-palearctic-mutualism ant-nearctic-mutualism ant-holarctic-mutualism ant-pan-tropical-mutualism ant-cosmopolitan-mutualism ant-endemic-mutualism ant-widespread-mutualism ant-restricted-mutualism ant-rare-mutualism ant-common-mutualism ant-abundant-mutualism ant-scarce-mutualism ant-threatened-mutualism ant-invasive-mutualism ant-native-mutualism ant-exotic-mutualism ant-introduced-mutualism ant-naturalized-mutualism ant-feral-mutualism ant-urban-mutualism ant-rural-mutualism ant-agricultural-mutualism ant-natural-mutualism ant-anthropogenic-mutualism ant-pristine-mutualism ant-degraded-mutualism ant-restored-mutualism ant-conserved-mutualism ant-managed-mutualism ant-sustainable-mutualism ant-unsustainable-mutualism ant-resilient-mutualism ant-fragile-mutualism ant-robust-mutualism ant-vulnerable-mutualism ant-resistant-mutualism ant-susceptible-mutualism ant-tolerant-mutualism ant-intolerant-mutualism ant-flexible-mutualism ant-inflexible-mutualism ant-plastic-mutualism ant-canalized-mutualism ant-adaptive-mutualism ant-maladaptive-mutualism ant-optimal-mutualism ant-suboptimal-mutualism ant-efficient-mutualism ant-inefficient-mutualism ant-productive-mutualism ant-unproductive-mutualism ant-successful-mutualism ant-unsuccessful-mutualism ant-stable-mutualism ant-unstable-mutualism ant-persistent-mutualism ant-transient-mutualism ant-obligate-mutualism ant-facultative-mutualism ant-specific-mutualism ant-generalized-mutualism ant-exclusive-mutualism ant-non-exclusive-mutualism ant-symbiotic-mutualism ant-non-symbiotic-mutualism ant-trophic-mutualism ant-defensive-mutualism ant-dispersive-mutualism ant-pollination-mutualism ant-agriculture-mutualism ant-construction-mutualism ant-nutrient-mutualism ant-protection-mutualism ant-cleaning-mutualism ant-transport-mutualism ant-storage-mutualism ant-processing-mutualism ant-consumption-mutualism ant-production-mutualism ant-exchange-mutualism ant-reciprocity-mutualism ant-by-product-mutualism ant-investment-mutualism ant-harvest-mutualism ant-cultivation-mutualism ant-domestication-mutualism ant-selection-mutualism ant-breeding-mutualism ant-engineering-mutualism ant-modification-mutualism ant-creation-mutualism ant-destruction-mutualism ant-transformation-mutualism ant-conversion-mutualism ant-utilization-mutualism ant-exploitation-mutualism ant-cooperation-mutualism ant-competition-mutualism ant-conflict-mutualism ant-resolution-mutualism ant-negotiation-mutualism ant-communication-mutualism ant-signal-mutualism ant-cue-mutualism ant-information-mutualism ant-knowledge-mutualism ant-learning-mutualism ant-memory-mutualism ant-cognition-mutualism ant-intelligence-mutualism ant-decision-mutualism ant-choice-mutualism ant-preference-mutualism ant-motivation-mutualism ant-emotion-mutualism ant-stress-mutualism ant-welfare-mutualism ant-health-mutualism ant-disease-mutualism ant-immunity-mutualism ant-resistance-mutualism ant-tolerance-mutualism ant-recovery-mutualism ant-healing-mutualism ant-therapy-mutualism ant-medicine-mutualism ant-prevention-mutualism ant-security-mutualism ant-safety-mutualism ant-risk-mutualism ant-hazard-mutualism ant-threat-mutualism ant-danger-mutualism ant-damage-mutualism ant-injury-mutualism ant-death-mutualism ant-mortality-mutualism ant-survival-mutualism ant-longevity-mutualism ant-reproduction-mutualism ant-fertility-mutualism ant-fecundity-mutualism ant-sterility-mutualism ant-virginity-mutualism ant-mating-mutualism ant-copulation-mutualism ant-insemination-mutualism ant-fertilization-mutualism ant-egg-mutualism ant-laying-mutualism ant-incubation-mutualism ant-hatching-mutualism ant-emergence-mutualism ant-eclosion-mutualism ant-molting-mutualism ant-ecdysis-mutualism ant-metamorphosis-mutualism ant-development-mutualism ant-growth-mutualism ant-differentiation-mutualism ant-maturation-mutualism ant-aging-mutualism ant-senescence-mutualism ant-decomposition-mutualism ant-recycling-mutualism ant-energy-mutualism ant-carbon-mutualism ant-nitrogen-mutualism ant-phosphorus-mutualism ant-sulfur-mutualism ant-water-mutualism ant-oxygen-mutualism ant-hydrogen-mutualism ant-mineral-mutualism ant-vitamin-mutualism ant-hormone-mutualism ant-enzyme-mutualism ant-protein-mutualism ant-lipid-mutualism ant-carbohydrate-mutualism ant-nucleic-acid-mutualism ant-DNA-mutualism ant-RNA-mutualism ant-gene-mutualism ant-genome-mutualism ant-chromosome-mutualism ant-cell-mutualism ant-tissue-mutualism ant-organ-mutualism ant-system-mutualism ant-organism-mutualism ant-individual-mutualism ant-colony-mutualism ant-population-mutualism ant-species-mutualism ant-genus-mutualism ant-family-mutualism ant-order-mutualism ant-class-mutualism ant-phylum-mutualism ant-kingdom-mutualism ant-domain-mutualism ant-life-mutualism ant-earth-mutualism ant-universe-mutualism
Dasineura
Dasineura is a genus of gall midges in the family Cecidomyiidae. Species in this genus are known for inducing galls on various host plants, including woody shrubs and trees. Some species are significant agricultural pests, such as Dasineura jujubifolia on jujube, which can reduce yields by at least 20%. The genus exhibits diverse gall morphologies, from simple leaf galls to complex flower-like structures formed by developmental reprogramming of host tissues.
gall-midge Cecidomyiidae plant-parasite agricultural-pest biological-control host-manipulation developmental-reprogramming
Dinocampus
Dinocampus is a genus of braconid wasps in the subfamily Euphorinae. The genus contains at least 25 described species, with Dinocampus coccinellae being the most extensively studied. Members of this genus are endoparasitoids of lady beetles (Coccinellidae), exhibiting complex host manipulation behaviors including the induction of partial paralysis that causes hosts to guard developing wasp cocoons. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution and has been recorded from multiple continents.
parasitoid braconid lady-beetle-parasite host-manipulation biological-control viral-symbiont cosmopolitan
Dinocampus coccinellae
Ladybird Parasitoid Wasp
Dinocampus coccinellae is a solitary braconid wasp that parasitizes lady beetles (Coccinellidae). The female wasp deposits a single egg into the host's abdomen, where the larva develops through four instars over 18–27 days before emerging. Upon emergence, the larva paralyzes the host and spins a cocoon attached to the ladybird's legs. The paralyzed host remains alive, twitching occasionally, and serves as a protective bodyguard that deters predators with its bright coloration and defensive movements. Approximately 25% of hosts recover after the wasp completes development. The wasp is notable for co-injecting Dinocampus coccinellae paralysis virus (DcPV) with its egg, which facilitates host manipulation.
parasitoid braconid lady-beetle-parasite host-manipulation Dinocampus-coccinellae-paralysis-virus parthenogenesis zombie-host biological-control hyperparasitism phenotypic-plasticity
Eucelatoria
Eucelatoria is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) comprising approximately 70 species distributed throughout the Western Hemisphere from southern Canada to northern Argentina. The genus is characterized by distinctive reproductive morphology in females of certain species groups, notably the sword-like piercer found in the E. ferox species group. Species within this genus are parasitoids of Lepidoptera larvae, with documented host associations including Noctuidae (Helicoverpa zea, Heliothis virescens, Heliothis armigera) and Crambidae caterpillars. Several species, particularly E. bryani, have been extensively studied for their potential as biological control agents of agricultural pests.
Tachinidae parasitoid biological-control Lepidoptera New-World gregarious oviposition-piercer host-manipulation agricultural-pest-management
Eucelatoria bryani
Eucelatoria bryani is a gregarious endoparasitoid tachinid fly native to North America. It parasitizes larval stages of noctuid moths, particularly Helicoverpa zea and Heliothis virescens. The species exhibits sophisticated host manipulation, accelerating host burrowing behavior to ensure pupariation in protected soil environments. It has been extensively studied for its potential as a biological control agent against agricultural pests.
parasitoid tachinid biological-control Helicoverpa-zea Heliothis-virescens host-manipulation gregarious North-America agricultural-pest-management
Euderus
Euderus is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Eulophidae, comprising approximately 77 species with cosmopolitan distribution. The genus is notable for including parasitoid species that manipulate host behavior, most prominently E. set, the "crypt-keeper wasp," which induces gall wasps to create head-plugged exit holes that facilitate parasitoid emergence. In North America alone, the genus contains 25 species arranged in five subgenera. Species exhibit striking metallic coloration ranging from olive green to turquoise to iridescent blue.
parasitoid host-manipulation gall-wasp biological-control metallic-coloration chalcid-wasp
Eulophus
Eulophus is a genus of chalcidoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species are gregarious ectoparasitoids, primarily attacking lepidopteran larvae. The genus has been extensively studied for its biological control potential, particularly E. pennicornis against the tomato moth Lacanobia oleracea. Wasp larvae feed externally on host caterpillars and possess sophisticated host manipulation capabilities including developmental arrest and immune suppression.
ectoparasitoid biological-control gregarious host-manipulation Lepidoptera-parasitoid Eulophidae Chalcidoidea
Hormaphis
witch hazel aphids, palm aphids
Hormaphis is a genus of gall-forming aphids in the family Aphididae, containing at least three described species distributed mainly in eastern North America. The genus includes the witch hazel cone gall aphid (H. hamamelidis), which induces distinctive cone-shaped galls on witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana). Species in this genus exhibit complex host plant manipulation, including alteration of host phenolic metabolism to create favorable gall environments. The life cycle involves a bet-hedging strategy where eggs hatch before host budbreak to ensure gall formation opportunities.
gall-forming aphid witch-hazel phenolic-manipulation bet-hedging fundatrix Hemiptera Aphididae eastern-North-America host-manipulation condensed-tannins
Physocephala tibialis
thick-headed fly
Physocephala tibialis is a parasitoid fly in the family Conopidae that develops within the abdomens of bees, particularly bumble bees (Bombus spp.). Adults are primarily black with yellow facial markings and thin white abdominal stripes, and are frequently observed near flowering plants where they locate hosts. The species exhibits remarkable host manipulation, inducing infected bees to bury themselves before death, which protects the developing pupa underground.
parasitoid host-manipulation bumble-bee-parasite Diptera Conopidae behavioral-ecology pollinator-health North-America
Pimplinae
Pimplinae is a worldwide subfamily of parasitoid wasps within Ichneumonidae. Members are primarily parasitoids of Holometabola, especially Lepidoptera pupae, with some species attacking spider egg sacs and adults. The subfamily includes 72 genera organized into four tribes: Delomeristini, Ephialtini, Pimplini, and Theroniini. Species are generally sturdy black wasps with orange markings and possess a diagnostic box-like first tergite with the spiracle positioned anterior to the middle.
parasitoid Ichneumonidae biological-control spider-parasitism urban-ecology seasonal-polymorphism Eocene-fossil host-manipulation idiobiont Holometabola-parasitoid Lepidoptera-pupae-parasitoid wood-boring-wasp bioindicator Hymenoptera
Tetraneura
elm-grass root aphids, woolly elm aphids
Tetraneura is a genus of gall-forming aphids in the family Aphididae, comprising more than 30 described species. These aphids are heteroecious, alternating between primary hosts in the genus Ulmus (elms), where they induce characteristic galls on leaves, and secondary hosts in the family Poaceae (grasses), where they feed on roots. The genus is notable for complex host manipulation, with species capable of altering host plant biochemistry to create nutritional sinks within galls. Several species, including the alien T. nigriabdominalis, are expanding their ranges in Europe and pose potential threats to cereal crops such as maize.
gall-forming heteroecious holocyclic pest alien-species climate-change host-manipulation biochemical-manipulation jasmonic-acid agricultural-pest
Toxoneuron
Toxoneuron is a genus of koinobiont endoparasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae. The best-studied species, Toxoneuron nigriceps, is a specialist parasitoid of the tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens). Members of this genus develop internally within host larvae, with a distinctive post-egression feeding phase where larvae feed externally on host tissues before pupation. The genus exhibits sophisticated host manipulation mechanisms including polydnavirus-mediated immune suppression and teratocyte-derived physiological regulation.
parasitoid biological-control agricultural-pest-management host-manipulation polydnavirus teratocytes koinobiont Braconidae Heliothis-virescens tobacco-budworm
Toxoneuron nigriceps
Toxoneuron nigriceps is a koinobiont endoparasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae. It is highly host-specific to the tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens, and historically provided substantial natural biological control in agricultural systems. The species exhibits complex host manipulation strategies including injection of polydnavirus, venom, and ovarian proteins during oviposition, followed by a distinctive postegression feeding phase where larvae exit the host to feed externally on liquefied tissues before pupation.
parasitoid koinobiont biological-control Heliothis-virescens tobacco-budworm polydnavirus host-manipulation postegression-feeding Braconidae
Zatypota
Zatypota is a genus of ichneumonid wasps comprising at least 40 described species, distributed across Europe, Asia, and the Americas. All species are koinobiont ectoparasitoids of spiders, primarily targeting theridiid spiders though some species parasitize linyphiids and araneids. The genus is notable for inducing behavioral manipulation in host spiders, causing them to construct specialized "cocoon webs" that protect the developing wasp larva. Several species have been documented as hosts for hyperparasitoid chalcidid wasps, forming complex three-trophic-level interactions.
parasitoid spider-parasitoid behavioral-manipulation polysphinctine cocoon-web extended-phenotype host-manipulation ectoparasitoid koinobiont sex-allocation hyperparasitism
Zatypota alborhombarta
Zatypota alborhombarta is an ichneumonid parasitoid wasp in the subfamily Pimplinae and clade Polysphincta. It is a koinobiont ectoparasite of adult theridiid spiders, including Cryptachaea jequirituba and Achaearanea tingo. The wasp induces host behavioral modification to construct a protective 'cocoon web'—a simplified, reinforced web structure that shelters the developing parasitoid larva. This manipulation represents a sophisticated host-parasitoid interaction involving the repetition of specific web-building behavioral subroutines.
parasitoid behavioral-manipulation host-manipulation cocoon-web Polysphincta theridiid-spider-parasite koinobiont ectoparasite