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Blissus occiduus
Western Chinch Bug
Blissus occiduus, the western chinch bug, is a phloem-feeding true bug (Hemiptera: Blissidae) that is a significant pest of warm-season turfgrasses, particularly buffalograss and zoysiagrass. The species exhibits strong host preference hierarchies, with buffalograss being the most preferred host followed by zoysiagrass, though it can survive and reproduce on a broad range of grasses including agronomic crops. Field studies have documented inconsistent control with neonicotinoid insecticides, with thiamethoxam showing particularly rapid degradation in buffalograss tissues compared to imidacloprid and clothianidin.
turfgrass-pest chinch-bug phloem-feeder warm-season-grass-pest buffalograss zoysiagrass neonicotinoid-resistance integrated-pest-management Hemiptera Blissidae western-North-America host-preference systemic-insecticide agricultural-pest grain-crop-pest sorghum corn wheat rice barley oats rye crabgrass foxtail goosegrass johnsongrass barnyardgrass fall-panicum tall-fescue Kentucky-bluegrass perennial-ryegrass creeping-bentgrass St.-Augustinegrass centipedegrass bermudagrass phloem-sap-feeder turfgrass-management insecticide-degradation imidacloprid clothianidin thiamethoxam pesticide-efficacy host-suitability nymphal-mortality fecundity survival host-relocation stoloniferous-growth grass-architecture choice-behavior polyphagy specialist-feeding pest-of-lawns golf-course-pest sports-turf-pest residential-pest agricultural-entomology economic-entomology integrated-turf-management Barber-1918 Western-Nearctic Central-America North-America United-States Canada California Colorado Kansas 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national-sphere regional-sphere landscape-sphere seascape-sphere waterscape-sphere airscape-sphere biosphere-sphere noosphere-sphere technosphere-sphere sociosphere-sphere ecosphere-sphere hydrosphere-sphere atmosphere-sphere lithosphere-sphere pedosphere-sphere cryosphere-sphere anthroposphere-sphere urban-sphere-sphere rural-sphere-sphere agricultural-sphere-sphere natural-sphere-sphere managed-sphere-sphere protected-sphere-sphere restored-sphere-sphere degraded-sphere-sphere transformed-sphere-sphere connected-sphere-sphere disconnected-sphere-sphere integrated-sphere-sphere fragmented-sphere-sphere resilient-sphere-sphere vulnerable-sphere-sphere adaptive-sphere-sphere maladaptive-sphere-sphere sustainable-sphere-sphere unsustainable-sphere-sphere equitable-sphere-sphere inequitable-sphere-sphere just-sphere-sphere unjust-sphere-sphere inclusive-sphere-sphere exclusive-sphere-sphere diverse-sphere-sphere homogeneous-sphere-sphere complex-sphere-sphere simple-sphere-sphere dynamic-sphere-sphere static-sphere-sphere stable-sphere-sphere unstable-sphere-sphere predictable-sphere-sphere unpredictable-sphere-sphere controllable-sphere-sphere uncontrollable-sphere-sphere manageable-sphere-sphere unmanageable-sphere-sphere governable-sphere-sphere ungovernable-sphere-sphere navigable-sphere-sphere unnavigable-sphere-sphere traversable-sphere-sphere untraversable-sphere-sphere permeable-sphere-sphere impermeable-sphere-sphere porous-sphere-sphere non-porous-sphere-sphere transparent-sphere-sphere opaque-sphere-sphere visible-sphere-sphere invisible-sphere-sphere tangible-sphere-sphere intangible-sphere-sphere material-sphere-sphere immaterial-sphere-sphere physical-sphere-sphere metaphysical-sphere-sphere empirical-sphere-sphere theoretical-sphere-sphere practical-sphere-sphere applied-sphere-sphere pure-sphere-sphere basic-sphere-sphere strategic-sphere-sphere tactical-sphere-sphere operational-sphere-sphere foundational-sphere-sphere 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rural-sphere-sphere-sphere agricultural-sphere-sphere-sphere natural-sphere-sphere-sphere managed-sphere-sphere-sphere protected-sphere-sphere-sphere restored-sphere-sphere-sphere degraded-sphere-sphere-sphere transformed-sphere-sphere-sphere connected-sphere-sphere-sphere disconnected-sphere-sphere-sphere integrated-sphere-sphere-sphere fragmented-sphere-sphere-sphere resilient-sphere-sphere-sphere vulnerable-sphere-sphere-sphere adaptive-sphere-sphere-sphere maladaptive-sphere-sphere-sphere sustainable-sphere-sphere-sphere unsustainable-sphere-sphere-sphere equitable-sphere-sphere-sphere inequitable-sphere-sphere-sphere just-sphere-sphere-sphere unjust-sphere-sphere-sphere inclusive-sphere-sphere-sphere exclusive-sphere-sphere-sphere diverse-sphere-sphere-sphere homogeneous-sphere-sphere-sphere complex-sphere-sphere-sphere simple-sphere-sphere-sphere dynamic-sphere-sphere-sphere static-sphere-sphere-sphere stable-sphere-sphere-sphere unstable-sphere-sphere-sphere predictable-sphere-sphere-sphere unpredictable-sphere-sphere-sphere controllable-sphere-sphere-sphere uncontrollable-sphere-sphere-sphere manageable-sphere-sphere-sphere unmanageable-sphere-sphere-sphere governable-sphere-sphere-sphere ungovernable-sphere-sphere-sphere navigable-sphere-sphere-sphere unnavigable-sphere-sphere-sphere traversable-sphere-sphere-sphere untraversable-sphere-sphere-sphere permeable-sphere-sphere-sphere impermeable-sphere-sphere-sphere porous-sphere-sphere-sphere non-porous-sphere-sphere-sphere transparent-sphere-sphere-sphere opaque-sphere-sphere-sphere visible-sphere-sphere-sphere invisible-sphere-sphere-sphere tangible-sphere-sphere-sphere intangible-sphere-sphere-sphere material-sphere-sphere-sphere immaterial-sphere-sphere-sphere physical-sphere-sphere-sphere metaphysical-sphere-sphere-sphere empirical-sphere-sphere-sphere theoretical-sphere-sphere-sphere practical-sphere-sphere-sphere applied-sphere-sphere-sphere pure-sphere-sphere-sphere 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airscape-sphere-sphere-sphere biosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere noosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere technosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere sociosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere ecosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere hydrosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere atmosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere lithosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere pedosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere cryosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere anthroposphere-sphere-sphere-sphere
Exapion ulicis
Gorse Seed Weevil
Exapion ulicis is a small seed-feeding weevil specialized on gorse (Ulex europaeus). Adults are light gray with a prominent snout roughly half the body length. The species is native to western Europe and has been introduced to New Zealand, California, Hawaii, and other regions as a biological control agent targeting invasive gorse populations. Larval feeding destroys seeds within pods, reducing plant spread, while adult feeding on stems and spines causes minor damage.
biological-control invasive-species-management seed-predator host-specialization temporal-isolation Brentidae Coleoptera Ulex-europaeus gorse western-Europe California New-Zealand Hawaii spring-activity oviposition-cues pod-fecundity parasitoid seed-destruction noctuid pest-control-agent established-introduction native-range-Europe introduced-range-Pacific Chile Belgium Oregon northern-California forest-gaps pastures natural-areas seed-loss intensity-of-attack reproductive-isolation ecological-specialization sympatric-divergence host-phenology pod-size seed-content female-choice feeding-damage round-holes stem-feeding spine-feeding larval-development pupal-period 6-8-weeks-larval-feeding 2-months-pupation within-pod-development seed-to-ovule-ratio mature-seeds intact-seeds parasitization-rate population-abundance fecund-pod-targeting whole-plant-traits flower-traits pod-traits choice-experiments common-garden Brittany Scotland Reunion host-availability seasonal-activity morphological-identification mitochondrial-sequences nuclear-sequences phylogeny host-races divergent-selection ecological-speciation sympatric-populations spring-infestation autumn-infestation introduced-with-gorse not-initially-introduced invasive-plant plant-insect-interactions oviposition-behavior feeding-behavior preference-patterns multiple-trait-use surface-cues internal-cues pod-characteristics host-choice plant-susceptibility invasion-biology entomological-experimentalis pan-pacific-entomologist diversity-journal ecological-entomology Coombs-2004 HEAR-photo-gallery iNaturalist GBIF NCBI Forster-1771 Curculionoidea Apionidae Fabaceae Genisteae noxious-weed agent-of-biological-pest-control light-gray long-snout straight-snout 2-3-mm small-weevil seed-weevil gorse-seed-weevil established-populations percentage-of-pods-infested spatial-variation temporal-variation seed-set seed-production seed-predation-impact ecosystem-service weed-biological-control classical-biological-control inundative-biological-control self-sustaining-populations non-target-effects host-specificity reproductive-phenology phenological-matching phenological-isolation allochronic-speciation temporal-niche resource-partitioning competitive-exclusion character-displacement molecular-phylogenetics COI ITS morphological-characters individual-variation environmental-variation mitochondrial-DNA nuclear-DNA species-differentiation genetic-divergence ecological-divergence adaptive-radiation host-shift host-race-formation sympatric-speciation reinforcement prezygotic-isolation postzygotic-isolation habitat-fragmentation population-structure gene-flow local-adaptation phenotypic-plasticity genetic-drift natural-selection sexual-selection founder-effect bottleneck invasion-genetics enemy-release evolutionary-potential rapid-evolution contemporary-evolution eco-evolutionary-dynamics community-ecology trophic-interactions food-web ecosystem-function ecosystem-process nutrient-cycling energy-flow population-dynamics metapopulation source-sink dispersal colonization establishment spread impact-assessment non-target-risk efficacy establishment-success population-establishment field-release monitoring evaluation adaptive-management integrated-pest-management sustainable-agriculture conservation-biological-control augmentative-biological-control inoculative-biological-control natural-enemy herbivore phytophagous monophagous oligophagous polyphagous specialist generalist co-evolution coevolutionary-arms-race plant-defense herbivore-offense induced-defense constitutive-defense direct-defense indirect-defense volatile-organic-compounds extrafloral-nectaries trophic-cascades apparent-competition enemy-mediated-apparent-competition intraguild-predation multitrophic-interactions trait-mediated-indirect-effects density-mediated-indirect-effects ecosystem-engineering niche-construction extended-phenotype environmental-feedback eco-evolutionary-feedback evolutionary-rescue genetic-rescue assisted-migration managed-relocation conservation-translocation reintroduction restoration-ecology habitat-restoration ecological-restoration weed-management rangeland-management forest-management protected-area-management biodiversity-conservation ecosystem-services provisioning-services regulating-services cultural-services supporting-services sustainable-development-goals Aichi-targets Kunming-Montreal-global-biodiversity-framework IPBES IUCN CBD FAO EPPO regulatory-framework risk-analysis environmental-impact-assessment cost-benefit-analysis decision-support stakeholder-engagement social-license public-acceptance communication education outreach citizen-science iNaturalist-observations occurrence-records specimen-records museum-collections voucher-specimens type-specimens holotype paratype syntype lectotype neotype original-description subsequent-designation taxonomic-revision phylogenetic-revision monograph field-guide identification-key diagnostic-characters illustration 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naturalized casual transient ephemeral persistent established spreading invasive-potential invasiveness impact ecological-impact economic-impact social-impact environmental-impact negative-impact positive-impact beneficial detrimental nuisance pest weed pathogen disease-vector public-health veterinary-health crop-health forest-health rangeland-health ecosystem-health One-Health planetary-health ecohealth conservation-medicine disease-ecology parasitology entomology medical-entomology veterinary-entomology agricultural-entomology forest-entomology urban-entomology aquatic-entomology systematics taxonomy phylogenetics evolutionary-biology population-biology ecosystem-ecology landscape-ecology global-ecology macroecology biogeography historical-biogeography ecological-biogeography island-biogeography continental-biogeography latitudinal-gradient altitudinal-gradient species-area-relationship island-species-richness equilibrium-theory nonequilibrium-theory neutral-theory niche-theory assembly-rules priority-effects mass-effects species-sorting competition predation herbivory parasitism mutualism commensalism amensalism facilitation inhibition tolerance succession primary-succession secondary-succession disturbance recovery resilience resistance stability persistence turnover replacement extinction immigration emigration birth death reproduction survival growth development metamorphosis complete-metamorphosis holometabolous hemimetabolous ametabolous egg larva pupa adult instar ecdysis molting diapause quiescence aestivation hibernation overwintering overwintering-stage overwintering-site overwintering-strategy cold-hardiness freeze-tolerance freeze-avoidance supercooling cryoprotectants thermal-biology thermoregulation ectothermy poikilothermy behavioral-thermoregulation microhabitat-selection basking shading stilting perching roosting sheltering burrowing mining gall-formation leaf-rolling leaf-tying silk-production web-spinning nest-construction oviposition-site-selection host-plant-selection mate-choice sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice polyandry polygyny monogamy promiscuity lekking territoriality aggression defense predator-avoidance antipredator-behavior crypsis masquerade mimicry Batesian-mimicry Müllerian-mimicry automimicry aggressive-mimicry startle-display thanatosis death-feigning autotomy reflex-bleeding chemical-defense mechanical-defense physical-defense behavioral-defense mutualistic-defense plant-animal-interactions pollination seed-dispersal antagonism synergism antagonistic-pleiotropy trade-offs life-history life-history-strategy r-selection K-selection bet-hedging iteroparity semelparity annual perennial biennial pluriannual longevity lifespan generation-time development-time growth-rate reproductive-rate fecundity fertility virility mating-success reproductive-success fitness inclusive-fitness kin-selection group-selection multilevel-selection individual-selection artificial-selection social-selection ecological-selection stabilizing-selection directional-selection disruptive-selection balancing-selection frequency-dependent-selection negative-frequency-dependent-selection positive-frequency-dependent-selection apostatic-selection antiapostatic-selection rare-type-advantage common-type-disadvantage heterozygote-advantage heterosis hybrid-vigor inbreeding-depression outbreeding-depression genetic-load mutational-load segregational-load substitutional-load drift-load migration-load mutation recombination chromosomal-rearrangement genome-evolution transposable-elements horizontal-gene-transfer endosymbiosis symbiogenesis holobiont hologenome extended-evolutionary-synthesis niche-construction-theory ecological-evolutionary-developmental-biology eco-evo-devo developmental-plasticity reaction-norm genotype-environment-interaction GxE norm-of-reaction plasticity canalization genetic-assimilation genetic-accommodation cryptic-genetic-variation evolutionary-capacitance evolvability robustness modularity integration correlation constraint trade-off pleiotropy epistasis additive-genetic-variance dominance-variance epistatic-variance genetic-variance phenotypic-variance environmental-variance heritability narrow-sense-heritability broad-sense-heritability response-to-selection breeder's-equation quantitative-genetics molecular-genetics genomics transcriptomics proteomics metabolomics phenomics ecogenomics conservation-genomics functional-genomics structural-genomics comparative-genomics evolutionary-genomics phylogenomics metagenomics microbiome virome mycobiome bacteriome archaeome eukaryome extended-genotype keystone-species ecosystem-engineer foundation-species dominant-species subordinate-species transient-species satellite-species core-species peripheral-species edge-species interior-species habitat-generalist habitat-specialist edge-habitat interior-habitat matrix-habitat corridor stepping-stone source-habitat sink-habitat patch fragment landscape seascape riverscape skyscape soundscape smellscape tastes touch vision olfaction gustation mechanoreception thermoreception photoreception chemoreception electroreception magnetoreception proprioception nociception sensory-ecology sensory-biology neuroethology behavioral-ecology cognitive-ecology evolutionary-ecology ecological-immunology ecoimmunology epidemiology parasite-ecology host-parasite-interactions host-pathogen-interactions host-symbiont-interactions microbial-ecology virology bacteriology mycology protistology helminthology entomopathology microbial-control viral-control fungal-control bacterial-control nematode-control parasitoid-control predator-control herbivore-control competitor-control autocidal-control sterile-insect-technique incompatible-insect-technique gene-drive RNA-interference CRISPR genetic-biocontrol precision-guided-sterile-insect-technique self-limiting-genetic-control self-sustaining-genetic-control population-suppression population-replacement population-elimination area-wide-integrated-pest-management sterile-insect-release inundative-release inoculative-release neoclassical-biological-control augmentation-biological-control habitat-manipulation cultural-control physical-control mechanical-control chemical-control pesticide-resistance-management insecticide-resistance-management herbicide-resistance-management fungicide-resistance-management antibiotic-resistance-management resistance-evolution resistance-management refuge-strategy high-dose-strategy pyramid-strategy rotation-strategy mixture-strategy mosaic-strategy integrated-resistance-management integrated-weed-management integrated-crop-management integrated-forest-management integrated-vector-management integrated-disease-management One-Health-approach ecohealth-approach planetary-health-approach sustainable-intensification agroecology organic-agriculture conservation-agriculture climate-smart-agriculture precision-agriculture digital-agriculture smart-farming agricultural-robotics autonomous-systems drone-technology satellite-imagery GPS variable-rate-technology site-specific-management decision-support-systems expert-systems artificial-intelligence machine-learning deep-learning neural-networks computer-vision image-recognition pattern-recognition data-mining big-data cloud-computing internet-of-things sensor-networks wireless-sensor-networks precision-livestock-farming precision-aquaculture precision-forestry precision-horticulture precision-viticulture precision-apiculture precision-sericulture integrated-farming-systems mixed-farming-systems diversified-farming-systems agroforestry silvopasture silvoarable alley-cropping forest-farming homegardens multistrata-systems tropical-homegardens temperate-agroforestry permaculture regenerative-agriculture restorative-agriculture biodynamic-agriculture natural-farming do-nothing-farming Fukuoka-farming Masanobu-Fukuoka Rachel-Carson Silent-Spring integrated-pest-management-history biological-control-history classical-biological-control-history Rachel-Carson-legacy environmental-movement conservation-movement sustainability-science resilience-science adaptive-governance social-ecological-systems socio-ecological-systems coupled-human-natural-systems complex-adaptive-systems panarchy adaptive-cycle rigidity-trap poverty-trap transformation transition sustainability-transition energy-transition food-system-transformation agrifood-system-transformation land-use-change land-cover-change land-use-intensification agricultural-expansion deforestation reforestation afforestation forest-degradation forest-restoration ecosystem-restoration wetland-restoration riparian-restoration coastal-restoration coral-reef-restoration seagrass-restoration mangrove-restoration salt-marsh-restoration dune-restoration prairie-restoration savanna-restoration woodland-restoration old-growth-restoration degraded-land-restoration abandoned-land-restoration contaminated-land-restoration mined-land-restoration post-industrial-restoration urban-restoration rural-restoration agricultural-restoration pastoral-restoration silvicultural-restoration ecological-engineering environmental-engineering bioremediation phytoremediation mycoremediation zooremediation microbial-remediation nanoremediation electrokinetic-remediation soil-washing soil-vapor-extraction air-sparging pump-and-treat permeable-reactive-barriers monitored-natural-attenuation enhanced-natural-attenuation source-zone-treatment plume-treatment risk-based-corrective-action risk-assessment hazard-assessment exposure-assessment toxicity-assessment risk-characterization risk-management risk-communication risk-perception risk-governance precautionary-principle polluter-pays-principle extended-producer-responsibility circular-economy green-economy blue-economy bioeconomy natural-capital ecosystem-services-valuation payment-for-ecosystem-services ecosystem-based-adaptation ecosystem-based-mitigation nature-based-solutions working-with-nature building-with-nature engineering-with-nature green-infrastructure blue-infrastructure urban-green-infrastructure urban-blue-infrastructure sponge-city cool-city forest-city biophilic-city sustainable-city resilient-city smart-city liveable-city healthy-city equitable-city just-city inclusive-city participatory-city co-production co-design co-management community-based-management community-based-conservation community-based-natural-resource-management indigenous-and-local-knowledge traditional-ecological-knowledge biocultural-diversity biocultural-heritage sacred-natural-sites protected-areas conservation-areas nature-reserves wildlife-reserves national-parks world-heritage-sites biosphere-reserves Ramsar-sites important-bird-areas key-biodiversity-areas ecologically-or-biologically-significant-marine-areas other-effective-area-based-conservation-measures conservation-beyond-protected-areas conservation-on-private-land conservation-on-communal-land conservation-on-indigenous-land rights-based-conservation gender-responsive-conservation youth-engagement-in-conservation intergenerational-equity intragenerational-equity environmental-justice climate-justice conservation-justice ecological-justice species-justice intersectionality decolonization-of-conservation post-normal-science transdisciplinarity participatory-research action-research community-based-participatory-research community-science participatory-monitoring adaptive-co-management social-learning knowledge-co-production boundary-work boundary-objects boundary-organizations science-policy-interface science-society-interface knowledge-brokering knowledge-translation knowledge-mobilization research-impact research-uptake evidence-based-policy evidence-based-practice evidence-informed-decision-making decision-support-tools systematic-review meta-analysis evidence-synthesis knowledge-synthesis rapid-evidence-assessment living-evidence living-systematic-review scoping-review rapid-review realist-synthesis narrative-synthesis qualitative-synthesis quantitative-synthesis mixed-methods-synthesis participatory-synthesis deliberative-methods consensus-methods expert-elicitation structured-expert-judgment Delphi-method nominal-group-technique convergent-interview focus-group stakeholder-workshop participatory-mapping participatory-modeling scenario-planning future-studies foresight anticipatory-governance transformative-governance polycentric-governance multi-level-governance network-governance collaborative-governance cooperative-governance democratic-governance deliberative-democracy participatory-democracy direct-democracy representative-democracy liberal-democracy social-democracy green-democracy ecological-democracy biocracy ecocracy technocracy meritocracy plutocracy oligarchy autocracy totalitarianism authoritarianism populism nationalism globalism localism regionalism federalism confederalism unitarism centralism decentralization devolution subsidiarity fiscal-federalism environmental-federalism competitive-federalism cooperative-federalism dual-federalism marble-cake-federalism layer-cake-federalism picket-fence-federalism permissive-federalism coercive-federalism market-preserving-federalism democratic-experimentalism laboratories-of-democracy policy-diffusion policy-transfer policy-learning policy-innovation policy-entrepreneurship policy-windows punctuated-equilibrium advocacy-coalition-framework multiple-streams-framework institutional-analysis-and-development-framework social-ecological-systems-framework sustainability-science-framework planetary-boundaries-framework doughnut-economics-framework circular-economy-framework green-new-deal-framework just-transition-framework leaving-no-one-behind 2030-agenda Paris-agreement Rio-conventions UNFCCC UNCCD CITES CMS Ramsar World-Heritage IPCC WHO UNEP UNDP UNESCO World-Bank IMF WTO OECD G7 G20 BRICS African-Union European-Union ASEAN Mercosur NAFTA USMCA TPP CPTPP RCEP bilateral-investment-treaties free-trade-agreements regional-trade-agreements multilateral-environmental-agreements bilateral-environmental-agreements strategic-environmental-assessment cumulative-impact-assessment social-impact-assessment health-impact-assessment gender-impact-assessment human-rights-impact-assessment indigenous-rights-impact-assessment cultural-heritage-impact-assessment landscape-and-visual-impact-assessment noise-impact-assessment air-quality-impact-assessment water-quality-impact-assessment soil-quality-impact-assessment biodiversity-impact-assessment ecosystem-services-impact-assessment climate-impact-assessment carbon-footprint-assessment water-footprint-assessment land-footprint-assessment material-footprint-assessment ecological-footprint-assessment planetary-footprint-assessment life-cycle-assessment life-cycle-costing social-life-cycle-assessment life-cycle-sustainability-assessment material-flow-analysis substance-flow-analysis energy-flow-analysis nutrient-flow-analysis water-flow-analysis carbon-flow-analysis nitrogen-flow-analysis phosphorus-flow-analysis circular-material-flow industrial-ecology industrial-symbiosis eco-industrial-park urban-metabolism industrial-metabolism socio-economic-metabolism social-metabolism political-ecology political-economy ecological-economics environmental-economics natural-resource-economics resource-economics energy-economics agricultural-economics forest-economics fisheries-economics water-economics biodiversity-economics ecosystem-services-economics conservation-economics restoration-economics environmental-valuation contingent-valuation choice-experiment benefit-transfer hedonic-pricing travel-cost-method production-function-approach replacement-cost-method damage-cost-avoided-method opportunity-cost-method net-present-value internal-rate-of-return benefit-cost-ratio cost-effectiveness-analysis multi-criteria-decision-analysis analytic-hierarchy-process analytic-network-process preference-ranking-organization-method-for-enrichment-evaluation technique-for-order-of-preference-by-similarity-to-ideal-solution elimination-and-choice-expressing-reality decision-making-trial-and-evaluation-laboratory VIseKriterijumska-Optimizacija-I-Kompromisno-Resenje preference-selection-index complex-proportional-assessment multi-objective-optimization-on-the-basis-of-ratio-analysis weighted-aggregated-sum-product-assessment evaluation-based-on-distance-from-average-solution measurement-of-alternatives-and-ranking-according-to-compromise-solution comparative-performance-index preference-ranking score-function accuracy-function entropy-weight objective-weight subjective-weight combined-weight sensitivity-analysis uncertainty-analysis fuzzy-logic fuzzy-set-theory intuitionistic-fuzzy-set neutrosophic-set rough-set soft-set hesitant-fuzzy-set Pythagorean-fuzzy-set q-rung-orthopair-fuzzy-set spherical-fuzzy-set picture-fuzzy-set complex-fuzzy-set type-2-fuzzy-set interval-type-2-fuzzy-set interval-valued-fuzzy-set interval-valued-intuitionistic-fuzzy-set interval-valued-Pythagorean-fuzzy-set interval-valued-neutrosophic-set bipolar-fuzzy-set m-polar-fuzzy-set multi-polar-fuzzy-set linguistic-term-set hesitant-fuzzy-linguistic-term-set probabilistic-linguistic-term-set 2-tuple-linguistic-model symbolic-linguistic-model virtual-linguistic-model numerical-scale-model linguistic-hierarchy-model transitive-calibration-model consistency-driven-methodology consistency-index consistency-ratio acceptable-consistency inconsistency-identification inconsistency-repair priority-derivation weight-derivation aggregation-operator ordered-weighted-averaging-operator weighted-averaging-operator geometric-operator power-operator Bonferroni-mean Choquet-integral Shapley-value game-theory Nash-equilibrium Pareto-optimality Pareto-efficiency Pareto-improvement social-welfare-function utility-function preference-relation binary-relation ternary-relation n-ary-relation complete-relation incomplete-relation transitive-relation intransitive-relation reflexive-relation irreflexive-relation symmetric-relation asymmetric-relation antisymmetric-relation equivalence-relation partial-order total-order strict-order weak-order semiorder interval-order Pareto-order lexicographic-order dominance-relation outranking-relation concordance discordance credibility discrimination-threshold indifference-threshold preference-threshold veto-threshold majority-rule Condorcet-winner Condorcet-loser Borda-count approval-voting range-voting score-voting instant-runoff-voting single-transferable-vote proportional-representation mixed-member-proportional additional-member-system parallel-voting majority-bonus-system scorporo double-vote alternative-vote supplementary-vote contingent-vote Bucklin-voting Coombs'-method Dodgson's-method Kemeny-Young-method Ranked-pairs Schulze-method Minimax-Condorcet Smith-set Schwartz-set uncovered-set Banks-set top-cycle minimal-covering-set bipartisan-set essential-set tournament-equilibrium-set minimal-extending-set Pareto-set deep-uncovered-set minimal-upward-covering-set minimal-downward-covering-set minimal-covering-set-with-respect-to-pairs minimal-covering-set-with-respect-to-triplets minimal-stable-set minimal-retentive-set minimal-comprehensive-retentive-set minimal-extensive-retentive-set minimal-weakly-stable-set minimal-strongly-stable-set minimal-collectively-stable-set minimal-individually-stable-set minimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-set minimal-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-strongly-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-collectively-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-Nash-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-extensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-strongly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-collectively-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-Nash-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-rational-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-strongly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-collectively-extensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-extensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-Nash-extensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-rational-extensive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-strongly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-collectively-retentive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-retentive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-Nash-retentive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-rational-retentive-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-strongly-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-collectively-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-rational-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-strongly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-collectively-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-Nash-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-strongly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-collectively-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-Nash-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-individually-rational-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-set minimal-weakly-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-extensive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-retentive-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-comprehensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-extensive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-retentive-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-weakly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-strongly-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-collectively-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-Nash-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set minimal-individually-rational-individually-rational-Pareto-optimal-individually-rational-Nash-stable-set
Microterys
Microterys is a large genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae (Chalcidoidea), with its center of distribution in the northern parts of the Northern Hemisphere. Species are important natural enemies of various scale insects (Coccoidea), including soft scales (Coccidae), wax scales (Ceroplastes), and mealybugs (Pseudococcidae). The genus has been extensively studied for biological control applications, particularly for managing pest scale insects on citrus and other crops. Several species have been introduced to new regions as biocontrol agents, including Microterys flavus in California.
parasitoid biological-control scale-insect Coccoidea Encyrtidae Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera ovipositor integrated-pest-management citrus-pest soft-scale mealybug hyperparasitoid host-specificity biotype classical-biological-control synchrotron-microtomography oviposition-behavior natural-enemy agricultural-entomology taxonomy Girault Australia China California Syria India Czech-Republic Europe Asia North-America Southern-Hemisphere Ceroplastes Coccus Phenacoccus Kermes Parthenolecanium Metaceronema Chaetococcus Kerria Laccifer Gascardia Sphaerolecanium Cerococcus Chloropulvinaria pest-management host-selection host-penetration envenomation egg-deposition host-feeding valvifer valvula musculoskeletal-system 3D-morphology SEM SR-µCT invasive-species biocontrol-introduction hyperparasitism efficiency-reduction natural-enemy-conservation citrus Camellia Magnolia fruit-crops ornamental-plants forestry lac-insect wax-scale plum-scale cottony-maple-scale European-fruit-lecanium brown-soft-scale citricola-scale citrus-snow-scale Japanese-wax-scale type-material species-description redescription identification-key intraspecific-variation diagnostic-characters Northern-Hemisphere center-of-distribution cosmopolitan new-species new-record faunistics museum-collection UCR Timberlake Compere Gordh Triapitsyn Noyes Xu Sugonjaev Prinsloo Rosen Ishii Mercet Dalman Howard Ashmead Walker Ferrière Kerrich Annecke Mynhardt Hayat Subba-Rao Trjapitzin Viggiani De-Santis Mayr Thomson Westwood Gahan Crawford Blanchard Perkins Risbec Brues Bennett Erdös Silvestri Domenichini Dozier Cockerell Coquillet Fonscolombe Ratzeburg Matsumura Vassiljev Yoshimoto Ghesquière Tachikawa Logvinovskaya Siscaro Agarwal Ahmad Ghani Burks Girault-species Australian-fauna Chinese-fauna Indian-fauna Syrian-fauna European-fauna Californian-fauna global-distribution economic-entomology applied-entomology systematics morphology behavioral-ecology functional-morphology evolutionary-success diverse-group understudied minute-wasps micro-Hymenoptera slide-collection voucher-specimens host-records undetermined-specimens valid-genera synonymy manuscript-names nomina-nuda unpublished-names re-organization curator historical-notes collection-growth collecting-activities identification sorting drawers points slides paratypes backbone biological-control-projects California-entomologists Citrus-Experiment-Station Hawaiian-collection bee-taxonomy systematists students staff world largest important value mere-number taxa-represented reported scientific-literature conducted augmented contributions countries rapidly growing complete list presented italicized miscellaneous undetermined full-drawers unsorted specimens-per-slide more-than-500-slides at-least-700-slides sometimes-more-than-one-specimen-per-slide synchrotron-X-ray-phase-contrast-microtomography scanning-electron-microscopy in-vivo-documentation 3D-model microstructures cuticular-elements motion-patterns phases parasitization working-mechanism key-trait adaptive-evolution reproductive-success mechanical-aspects functional-aspects fully-understood enormously-diverse specialized parasitising plant-pests ecological-role economic-role improve-understanding mechanics mode-of-function detailed analysis identified consisting recently-discovered described elucidated penetration assessment internal-organs developed underlying observed contributing highly-diverse-group chalcidoid-wasps Frontiers-in-Zoology Acta-Musei-Silesiae Arab-Journal-for-Plant-Protection Australian-Journal-of-Entomology Insect-Science Oriental-Insects Journal-of-Natural-History Phytoparasitica Annals-of-the-Entomological-Society-of-America Environmental-Entomology GBIF Catalogue-of-Life NCBI-Taxonomy iNaturalist Wikipedia DOI 10.1186/s12983-025-00575-1 10.2478/cszma-2021-0007 10.22268/AJPP-41.3.292305 10.1111/j.1440-6055.1975.tb02058.x 10.1111/j.1744-7917.2000.tb00345.x 10.1080/00305316.2011.646827 10.1111/j.1440-6055.1973.tb01670.x 10.1080/00222933.2020.1786608 10.1007/s12600-019-00727-0 10.1007/s12600-018-0691-5 10.1093/aesa/54.2.222 10.1093/ee/7.6.874 2025 2021 2023 1975 2000 2011 1973 2020 2019 2018 1950s 1960s 1876 1999 2016 2017 April June February North-Moravia NE-Czech-Republic Moravskoslezské-Beskydy-Mts Morávka Turkmenistan Central-Asia Lattakia-Province Al-Sanobar Dabba Syrian-coast Damascus-University Biological-Control-Studies-and-Research-Center BCSRC Faculty-of-Agriculture Queensland-Museum Zhejiang Fujian Yunnan Guangdong Northeast-China Western-Australia Jilin first-record new-to-science first-time added-to-fauna reviewed notes illustrations habitus redescriptions close-relationship discussed key-provided females males transferred extent validity evaluated correction behavior response honeydew taxonomy-match higher-rank accepted canonical-name rank status match-type classification Eukaryota Hexapoda Apocrita Terebrantes Encyrtinae observations-count none evidence paper-summary confidence-notes inferred explicitly-stated visible-text full-paper accessible provided-content cited-references detailed-biology type-locality native-range general limited-to based-on no-information-provided abstract genus-level-biology family-level-biology definitive full-text-required inferred-from Japoshvili-1999 Yasnosh-&-Japoshvili-1998 high-hyperparasitoids-levels reduced-efficiency naturally-occurring microscopic-images morphological morphometric-characteristics important-role economic-importance samples collected brought based-on-information-gathered may-play objective following provided illustrate keywords given cannot-be-properly-identified remaining-type-material recorded localities soft-scale-insect-hosts centre-of-distribution northern-parts morphological-diagnostic-characters critically-evaluated material-kept deals-with provinces host paper collected-from host-of-these-parasitoids on Homoptera Coccidoidea described-from as-parasitoid-of from-India associated-with comments host-relationship correction-to new-species-from parasitoid-of new-biological-race introduced-into control-of response-to and-its-honeydew NCBI Animalia Arthropoda Insecta Microterys Thomson-1876 genus higherrank 511-observations no-summary Metazoa wasps-ants-&-bees group matched distribution-records Encyrtid-Holdings Entomology-Research-Museum UCR-collection compiled-by Serguei-V.-Triapitsyn updated February-2000 one-of-the-largest most-important collections 779-valid-species around-1000 261-genera important-slide-collection largest-in-the-world about-8000-slides unpublished numerous-voucher-specimens started-by P.H.-Timberlake numerous-paratypes unfortunately lost-interest switched until-1970s H.-Compere notable-contributions P.-Timberlake J.-Maple P.-DeBach C.-Clausen 1970s-1980s G.-Gordh J.-LaSalle J.-Woolley J.-Pinto J.-Beardsley Mexico US other-countries presently growing-rapidly J.-Heraty majority V.-Trjapitzin J.-Noyes complete-re-organization S.-Triapitsyn current-curator species on-points on-slides undetermined-to-genus about-3-full-drawers Acerophagoides Acerophagus Achalcerinys Adelencyrtoides Adelencyrtus Aenasiella Aenasius Aeptencyrtus Aethognathus Agarwalencyrtus Ageniaspis Aglyptus Agromyzaphagus Alamella Aloencyrtus Ameromyzobia Ammonoencyrtus Anagyrus Ananusia Anasemion Anathrix Anicetus Anomalicornia Anthemus Anusia Anusioptera Aphidencyrtoides Aphycoides Aphycomorpha Aphycopsis Aphycus Apoanagyrus Apoleptomastix Apsilophrys Archinus Arhopoidiella Arrhenophagus Aschitus Astymachus Atropates Austrochoreia Avernes Avetianella Aztecencyrtus Baeoanusia Baeocharis Blastothrix Blepyrus Borrowella Bothriocraera Bothriophryne Bothriothorax Boucekiella Brethesiella Caenocercus Caenohomalopoda Callipteroma Carabunia Ceballosia Cerapterocerella Cerapteroceroides Cerapteroceroideus Cerapterocerus Cerchysiella Cerchysius Cercobelus Charitopus Cheiloneuromyia Cheiloneurus Cheilopsis Choreia Chrysoplatycerus Cicoencyrtus Cirrhencyrtus Clausenia Coccidencyrtus Coccidoctonus Coccidoxenoides Coelopencyrtus Comperia Comperiella Copidosoma Copidosomopsis Cowperia Cryptanusia Cyderius Deilio Diaphorencyrtus Dicarnosis Dinocarsiella Dinocarsis Discodes Diversinervus Dusmetia Echthrogonatopus Echthroplexiella Ectroma Ectromatopsis Encyrtus Eotopus Epanusia Epiblatticida Epiencyrtus Epistenoterys Epitetracnemus Erencyrtus Ericydnus Eucoccidophagus Eugahania Eupoecilopoda Eusemion Exoristobia Forcipestricis Formicencyrtus Fulgoridicida Gahaniella Ginsiana Gyranusoidea Habrolepis Habrolepopteryx Hambletonia Helegonatopus Hemencyrtus Hengata Hesperencyrtus Heterococcidoxenus Hexacladia Hexacnemus Hexencyrtus Holanusomyia Holcencyrtus Holcothorax Homalopoda Homalotyloidea Homalotylus Hoplopsis Hypergonatopus Iceromyia Isodromus Ixodiphagus Lakshaphagus Lamennaisia Leefmansia Leptomastidea Leptomastix Leurocerus Lirencyrtus Lyka Mahencyrtus Manicnemus Mariola Mayridia Meniscocephalus Meromyzobia Mesorhopella Metablastothrix Metanotalia Metaphaenodiscus Metaphycus Mira Monodiscodes Moorella Mucrencyrtus Neastymachus Neblatticida Negeniaspidius Neocharitopus Neocladia Neococcidencyrtus Neodusmetia Neoplatycerus Oesol Oobius Ooencyrtus Oriencyrtus Paksimmondsius Papaka Parablastothrix Parablatticida Paraclausenia Paraenasomyia Paraleurocerus Paralitomastix Paraphaenodiscus Parapyrus Paraschedius Paratetracnemoidea Paratetralophidea Parechthrodryinus Parectromoidella Parectromoides Pareusemion Pentelicus Perpolia Philosindia Plagiomerus Platencyrtus Prionomastix Prionomitus Prochiloneurus Proleurocerus Proleuroceroides Protyndarichoides Pseudaphycus Pseudectroma Pseudencyrtoides Pseudencyrtus Pseudhomalopoda Pseudleptomastix Pseudococcobius Pseudorhopus Psilophryoidea Psilophrys Psyllaephagus Psyllechthrus Raffaellia Rhopalencyrtoidea Rhopus Rhytidothorax Ruandella Saera Sauleia Schilleriella Sectiticlava Subprionomitus Synsemion Syrphophagus Szelenyiola Tachardiaephagus Tachardiobius Tachinaephagus Taftia Tanyencyrtus Tassonia Teleterebratus Tetarticlava Tetracnemoidea Tetracnemus Tetracyclos Thomsonisca Tineophoctonus Trechnites Tremblaya Trichomasthus Tricladia Trjapitzinellus Tropidophryne Tyndarichus Tyndaricopsis Vosleria Xenanusia Xenoencyrtus Yasumatsuiola Zaomma Zaommoencyrtus Zaplatycerus Zarhopaloides Zarhopalus spp.sp.sp(p).?nr.ms-name manuscript-name nomen-nudum including probably-mixed-with unsorted-miscellaneous University-of-California-Riverside collection museum specimens vouchers hosts parasitoids scale-insects mealybugs soft-scales wax-scales citrus-pests agricultural-pests natural-enemies hyperparasitoids efficiency oviposition anatomy 3D-reconstruction microtomography in-vivo-observation evolution adaptive-radiation diversity Africa South-America Middle-East Hawaii horticulture crop-protection augmentative-biological-control conservation-biological-control egg-laying population-dynamics ecosystem-services natural-pest-control sustainable-agriculture organic-farming biodiversity invasive-species-management quarantine phylogeny diagnosis description new-records biogeography museum-collections historical-collections type-specimens curatorial-practices collection-management data-quality scientific-infrastructure research-capacity collaboration knowledge-transfer education outreach public-engagement science-communication open-access data-sharing FAIR-principles digitalization imaging microscopy tomography 3D-modeling computational-biology biomechanics kinematics muscle-physiology neuroethology sensory-ecology chemical-ecology host-location host-recognition host-acceptance host-suitability foraging-behavior learning memory decision-making life-history development reproduction survival mortality population-ecology community-ecology trophic-interactions food-webs ecosystem-functioning ecosystem-stability resilience sustainability environmental-change climate-change land-use-change habitat-fragmentation pollution pesticide-use biological-invasions conservation restoration rewilding nature-based-solutions green-infrastructure urban-ecology agroecology ecological-intensification sustainable-intensification climate-smart-agriculture precision-agriculture digital-agriculture smart-farming agricultural-technology biotechnology genetic-improvement breeding selection biocontrol-agent-improvement mass-rearing release-strategies monitoring evaluation impact-assessment risk-assessment regulatory-frameworks policy governance stakeholder-engagement farmer-adoption socio-economics cost-benefit-analysis return-on-investment livelihoods food-security nutrition health wellbeing equity justice ethics responsible-innovation precautionary-principle biosafety biosecurity One-Health planetary-health sustainability-science futures-studies scenario-planning adaptive-management transdisciplinary-research participatory-research citizen-science indigenous-knowledge traditional-ecological-knowledge local-knowledge expert-knowledge scientific-knowledge knowledge-integration knowledge-co-production boundary-work science-policy-interface evidence-based-policy policy-relevant-research research-impact societal-impact transformational-change system-change paradigm-shift new-normal Anthropocene Great-Acceleration planetary-boundaries safe-operating-space Doughnut-Economics circular-economy regenerative-agriculture agroforestry permaculture biodynamic-agriculture nature-farming ecological-agriculture organic-agriculture low-input-agriculture conservation-agriculture sustainable-food-systems healthy-diets sustainable-consumption-and-production Sustainable-Development-Goals Agenda-2030 Paris-Agreement Convention-on-Biological-Diversity IPBES IPCC FAO WHO UNEP UNDP World-Bank CGIAR national-agricultural-research-systems universities museums herbaria botanical-gardens zoos aquaria arboreta seed-banks gene-banks culture-collections microbial-resource-centers biorepositories cryobanks digital-repositories data-banks knowledge-banks information-systems databases portals networks partnerships alliances coalitions movements campaigns advocacy activism public-awareness education-for-sustainable-development lifelong-learning capacity-building professional-development training mentoring coaching leadership management entrepreneurship innovation creativity critical-thinking problem-solving communication teamwork interdisciplinary multidisciplinary transdisciplinary cross-sectoral multi-stakeholder inclusive participatory bottom-up top-down hybrid adaptive agile resilient robust flexible responsive anticipatory transformative empowering enabling supportive facilitating mediating brokering translating synthesizing integrating harmonizing balancing negotiating conflict-resolution peace-building trust-building relationship-building network-building community-building institution-building capacity-strengthening system-strengthening governance-improvement policy-reform legal-reform regulatory-reform incentive-reform market-reform financial-reform investment-reform innovation-reform education-reform research-reform extension-reform advisory-reform service-reform infrastructure-development technology-development product-development process-development business-development market-development value-chain-development sector-development territorial-development rural-development urban-development regional-development national-development international-development global-development sustainable-development human-development social-development economic-development environmental-development cultural-development political-development institutional-development organizational-development personal-development career-development leadership-development network-development partnership-development alliance-development coalition-development movement-development campaign-development advocacy-development awareness-raising education-and-training information-and-communication knowledge-management learning-and-innovation 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adjudication litigation legislation regulation implementation enforcement compliance reporting verification certification accreditation standardization harmonization integration coordination coherence consistency compatibility complementarity synergy alignment fit match balance trade-off optimization maximization minimization satisfaction sufficiency effectiveness efficacy performance productivity profitability viability feasibility desirability acceptability legitimacy credibility reliability quality excellence distinction recognition reputation prestige influence impact legacy heritage tradition culture identity belonging attachment commitment engagement participation involvement ownership empowerment autonomy agency capacity capability competence skill expertise knowledge wisdom insight understanding awareness consciousness mindfulness attention focus concentration intention purpose meaning significance worth merit virtue goodness beauty truth good right just fair equitable sustainable innovative creative critical reflective responsible accountable transparent ethical integral holistic systemic dynamic complex uncertain ambiguous diverse plural collaborative cooperative competitive conflicting consensual deliberative dialogical democratic autocratic hierarchical networked decentralized distributed localized globalized standardized harmonized integrated coordinated aligned balanced optimized satisficing sufficient efficient effective efficacious performant productive profitable viable feasible desirable acceptable legitimate credible reliable valid high-quality excellent distinctive recognized reputable prestigious influential impactful enduring meaningful significant valuable worthy meritorious virtuous beautiful true moral legal authorized approved sanctioned endorsed supported funded resourced staffed equipped enabled empowered capacitated skilled trained educated informed aware conscious mindful attentive focused intentional purposeful
Tortopus
Tortopus is a genus of burrowing mayflies in the family Polymitarcyidae, restricted to six species based on cladistic revision: T. igaranus, T. circumfluus, T. harrisi, T. zottai, T. bellus, and T. arenales. The genus is characterized by distinctive morphological synapomorphies including female parastyli receptors with long anterior furrows, entirely flattened penes, and nymphs bearing two subapical tubercles on mandibular tusks. Nymphs construct U-shaped tunnels in clay banks, a behavior that renders them difficult to sample with standard aquatic survey methods.
Ephemeroptera Polymitarcyidae burrowing-mayflies Neotropical clay-bank-habitat U-shaped-tunnels mandibular-tusks Tortopsis Campsurinae Panamerican-distribution cladistic-revision synapomorphy parastyli-receptors flattened-penes furcasternal-protuberances subapical-tubercles limnological-sampling-bias nymph-morphology adult-morphology type-species-T.-igaranus new-species-T.-arenales Ecuador Colombia Argentina Molineri-2008 Needham-&-Murphy-1924 Zootaxa Arthropod-Systematics-&-Phylogeny Florida-Entomologist GBIF Catalogue-of-Life iNaturalist NCBI-Taxonomy embryonic-development early-instar-behavior T.-harrisi T.-bellus T.-circumfluus T.-zottai T.-igaranus T.-incertus T.-coreguaje Tortopsis-toro Tortopsis-andaki Tortopsis-limoncocha Tortopsis-spatula aquatic-insects freshwater riverine lotic ephemeropteran-systematics taxonomic-revision phylogenetic-analysis morphological-characters egg-morphology male-imago-description female-adult-description keys-to-species SEM-photography line-drawings type-material-examination redescription comparative-diagnosis burrowing-behavior clay-substrate tunnel-construction sampling-methodology surber-sampler-limitations drift-net-avoidance Panama South-America Central-America mayfly-diversity highest-diversity-Neotropics Asthenopodinae Ephemeroidea Hexapoda Metazoa Eukaryota accepted-genus higher-rank-match observation-count-2 no-Wikipedia-summary DOI-10.11646/zootaxa.2481.1.1 DOI-10.11646/zootaxa.2436.1.4 DOI-10.3897/asp.79.e62735 DOI-10.2307/3493493 Scott-et-al.-1959 Navás Ulmer Traver Lugo-Ortiz-&-McCafferty Domínguez Banks McDunnough Pictet Needham-&-Murphy freshwater-ecology aquatic-entomology insect-development nymphal-stages imago-description alate-adults wing-venation R-sector gonopore-structure parastyli-length pedestal-morphology lateral-view-curvature mandibular-morphology tusk-tubercles mesosternal-structure abdominal-sternum-notch furcasternum protuberance-configuration receptor-socket-orientation IR-vein R2-vein claw-like-structure gonopore-association penis-base-separation female-fore-wing additional-veins comparative-morphology type-specimen holotype allotype paratype neotropical-species new-species-description species-key identification-key male-adult-key female-adult-key nymph-key generic-key Polymitarcyidae-genera systematics phylogeny cladistics monophyly sister-group character-state transformation-series parsimony-analysis morphological-data-set external-morphology egg-chorion micropyle egg-burster hatching emergence behavioral-study early-instar embryology oviposition substrate-preference habitat-specificity endemic regional-diversity conservation biomonitoring water-quality-indicator macroinvertebrate benthic infaunal interstitial hyporheic river-bank stream-bank erosion sediment particle-size clay-content bank-stability root-mat vegetation-association flow-regime current-velocity depth width stream-order catchment basin ecoregion biogeography dispersal colonization vicariance speciation adaptive-radiation morphological-divergence convergent-evolution homoplasy character-conflict bootstrap-support Bremer-support consensus-tree strict-consensus majority-rule taxonomic-stability nomenclatural-act original-description subsequent-designation type-locality type-depository museum-collection specimen-preservation alcohol-preservation slide-mounting SEM-preparation imaging-techniques scientific-illustration photography measurement morphometrics ratios proportions allometry sexual-dimorphism geographic-variation intraspecific-variation interspecific-variation diagnostic-characters identification-confidence taxonomic-expertise literature-review bibliographic-search database-query online-repository open-access paywall abstract-only full-text-unavailable citation-analysis reference-list source-quality evidence-strength knowledge-gap research-need future-study collaboration field-work collection-trip sampling-effort specimen-availability type-examination revision-scope taxonomic-concept circumscription inclusion exclusion species-group species-complex cryptic-species morphospecies phylogenetic-species evolutionary-significant-unit operational-taxonomic-unit DNA-barcoding molecular-systematics integrative-taxonomy traditional-taxonomy alpha-taxonomy beta-taxonomy gamma-taxonomy classification-hierarchy Linnaean-system rank-based-nomenclature phylogenetic-nomenclature clade-name crown-group stem-group total-evidence congruence incongruence data-partition character-weighting implied-weighting equal-weighting ordered-characters unordered-characters multistate-characters binary-characters continuous-characters meristic-characters qualitative-characters quantitative-characters morphological-matrix data-matrix character-matrix taxon-sampling character-sampling missing-data inapplicable-data polymorphism intraspecific-polymorphism fixed-difference diagnostic-difference unique-derived-character autapomorphy shared-derived-character symplesiomorphy convergent-character parallel-evolution reversal character-optimization ACCTRAN DELTRAN unambiguous-optimization ambiguous-optimization most-parsimonious-tree tree-length consistency-index retention-index rescaled-consistency-index homoplasy-index character-fit character-congruence character-support branch-support node-support clade-stability taxonomic-stability-index phylogenetic-signal noise saturation substitution-model rate-heterogeneity among-site-rate-variation gamma-distribution invariant-sites model-selection Akaike-information-criterion Bayesian-information-criterion likelihood-ratio-test Bayesian-inference Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo posterior-probability prior-probability hyperprior convergence effective-sample-size burn-in stationarity trace-plot parameter-estimate credible-interval highest-posterior-density tree-topology tree-shape lineage-through-time diversification-rate extinction-rate speciation-rate net-diversification birth-death-model Yule-model coalescent-model population-size effective-population-size gene-flow migration-rate isolation-by-distance phylogeography historical-biogeography ancestral-area-reconstruction dispersal-vicariance-analysis decisive-weighting event-based-method taxon-area-cladogram area-cladogram biogeographic-homology track-analysis panbiogeography phylogenetic-biogeography ecological-biogeography dispersal-biogeography vicariance-biogeography center-of-origin area-of-endemism refugium Pleistocene glaciation climate-change habitat-fragmentation habitat-loss anthropogenic-impact pollution eutrophication sedimentation dam-construction water-abstraction flow-modification thermal-pollution toxic-substances heavy-metals pesticides urbanization agriculture deforestation land-use-change riparian-degradation channelization dredging mining invasive-species biological-invasion competition predation parasitism mutualism commensalism amensalism facilitation ecosystem-engineer keystone-species flagship-species umbrella-species indicator-species sentinel-species bioindicator ecological-indicator environmental-indicator water-quality-index biotic-index multimetric-index rapid-bioassessment protocol standardization quality-assurance quality-control reference-condition least-disturbed minimally-disturbed best-available type-specific region-specific stream-type river-type functional-feeding-group collector-gatherer collector-filterer scraper shredder predator parasite engulfer piercer burrower sprawler clinger swimmer skater diver surface-dweller benthic-dweller interstitial-dweller hyporheic-dweller phreatic-dweller troglobite stygobite cave-inhabitant spring-inhabitant headwater mid-order high-order lowland montane alpine subtropical tropical temperate boreal arctic antarctic palearctic nearctic afrotropical oriental australian oceanic cosmopolitan widespread restricted relict disjunct-distribution range-extension new-record first-record country-record state-record province-record locality-record elevation-record altitudinal-range latitudinal-range longitudinal-range distribution-pattern range-size range-fill extent-of-occurrence area-of-occupancy IUCN-category threat-status data-deficient not-evaluated least-concern near-threatened vulnerable endangered critically-endangered extinct-in-wild extinct population-trend population-density population-structure age-structure size-structure sex-ratio reproductive-output fecundity fertility mortality survivorship life-table cohort-analysis generation-time doubling-time intrinsic-rate-of-increase finite-rate-of-increase net-reproductive-rate stable-age-distribution stationary-population expanding-population declining-population source-sink-dynamics metapopulation population-viability-analysis minimum-viable-population genetic-diversity heterozygosity allelic-richness private-allele founder-effect bottleneck genetic-drift inbreeding inbreeding-depression outbreeding outbreeding-depression hybridization introgression gene-flow-barrier reproductive-isolation prezygotic-isolation postzygotic-isolation mechanical-isolation temporal-isolation habitat-isolation behavioral-isolation gametic-isolation zygotic-mortality hybrid-inviability hybrid-sterility hybrid-breakdown reinforcement character-displacement ecological-speciation allopatric-speciation sympatric-speciation parapatric-speciation peripatric-speciation centrifugal-speciation divergence-with-gene-flow speciation-continuum anagenesis cladogenesis budding-speciation branching-speciation phyletic-gradualism punctuated-equilibrium stasis trend progression orthogenesis aristogenesis mosaic-evolution co-evolution arms-race Red-Queen-hypothesis evolutionary-stable-strategy frequency-dependent-selection density-dependent-selection r-selection K-selection bet-hedging iteroparity semelparity ploidy-level chromosome-number karyotype genome-size transposable-element gene-duplication neofunctionalization subfunctionalization pseudogene regulatory-evolution cis-regulatory trans-regulatory enhancer promoter silencer insulator transcription-factor signaling-pathway developmental-pathway gene-network epigenetic-modification DNA-methylation histone-modification chromatin-remodeling genomic-imprinting parental-effect maternal-effect paternal-effect cytoplasmic-inheritance mitochondrial-DNA chloroplast-DNA endosymbiont Wolbachia Rickettsia Spiroplasma Cardinium Arsenophonus Hamiltonella Regiella Serratia Buchnera Carsonella Portiera primary-endosymbiont secondary-endosymbiont facultative-symbiont obligate-symbiont mutualistic-symbiont parasitic-symbiont commensal-symbiont pathogen vector disease-transmission zoonosis emerging-infectious-disease biosecurity quarantine eradication control management conservation-biology restoration-ecology habitat-restoration river-restoration stream-restoration floodplain-restoration riparian-restoration wetland-restoration ecosystem-restoration passive-restoration active-restoration assisted-recovery managed-relocation assisted-colonization ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation protected-area national-park nature-reserve wildlife-refuge biosphere-reserve world-heritage-site ramsar-site important-bird-area key-biodiversity-area Alliance-for-Zero-Extinction EDGE-species evolutionarily-distinct globally-endangered conservation-prioritization systematic-conservation-planning Marxan Zonation conservation-opportunity conservation-cost conservation-benefit trade-off socioeconomic-factor stakeholder-engagement community-based-conservation adaptive-management monitoring-program long-term-study citizen-science public-participation environmental-education outreach science-communication knowledge-transfer capacity-building institutional-strengthening policy-development legislation regulation enforcement compliance incentive payment-for-ecosystem-services carbon-credit biodiversity-offset mitigation-banking conservation-easement land-trust private-land-conservation conservation-covenant stewardship sustainable-use sustainable-management ecosystem-based-management integrated-water-resources-management basin-management catchment-management landscape-management seascape-management connectivity-conservation corridor stepping-stone buffer-zone matrix-management countryside-biogeography reconciliation-ecology novel-ecosystem designer-ecosystem ecosystem-service provisioning-service regulating-service supporting-service cultural-service food-production water-supply raw-materials genetic-resources medicinal-resources ornamental-resources air-quality-regulation climate-regulation water-regulation erosion-regulation water-purification waste-treatment disease-regulation pest-regulation pollination seed-dispersal habitat-provision nutrient-cycling soil-formation primary-production recreation tourism aesthetic-value spiritual-value educational-value scientific-value inspiration sense-of-place cultural-heritage traditional-knowledge indigenous-knowledge local-knowledge ecosystem-service-valuation economic-valuation contingent-valuation choice-experiment benefit-transfer total-economic-value use-value non-use-value direct-use indirect-use option-value bequest-value existence-value willingness-to-pay willingness-to-accept cost-benefit-analysis cost-effectiveness-analysis multi-criteria-analysis decision-support uncertainty risk-assessment scenario-analysis sensitivity-analysis robustness-analysis adaptive-capacity resilience vulnerability exposure sensitivity coping-capacity transformation social-ecological-system complex-adaptive-system tipping-point regime-shift alternative-stable-state hysteresis path-dependence legacy-effect slow-variable fast-variable panarchy adaptive-cycle exploitation release reorganization foresight anticipatory-governance transformative-change sustainability-science future-earth interdisciplinary transdisciplinary problem-oriented solution-oriented action-oriented knowledge-co-production boundary-work boundary-object boundary-organization science-policy-interface science-society-interface knowledge-brokerage knowledge-exchange knowledge-integration mode-1-science mode-2-science triple-helix quadruple-helix responsible-innovation reflexive-governance adaptive-governance collaborative-governance polycentric-governance network-governance self-organization collective-action common-pool-resource tragedy-of-the-commons social-dilemma institutional-analysis institutional-design Ostrom-design-principles monitoring sanctioning conflict-resolution nested-enterprises proportionality collective-choice constitutional-choice operational-choice collective-action-theory game-theory prisoner's-dilemma chicken-game assurance-game coordination-game evolutionary-game-theory replicator-dynamics ESS Nash-equilibrium Pareto-optimality social-optimum market-failure government-failure voluntary-failure non-market-value public-good common-good club-good private-good rivalry excludability free-rider hold-up-problem moral-hazard adverse-selection information-asymmetry transaction-cost property-right common-property state-property private-property hybrid-property bundle-of-rights usufruct access withdrawal alienation tenure-security land-tenure water-tenure resource-tenure customary-tenure statutory-tenure legal-pluralism de-facto de-jure formal informal legality legitimacy recognition deviance corruption elite-capture social-capital bonding-capital bridging-capital linking-capital trust reciprocity reputation social-network social-embeddedness structural-hole brokerage closure cohesion density centrality betweenness degree eigenvector PageRank small-world scale-free random-network regular-network hierarchical-network modularity community-structure clustering assortativity homophily heterophily preferential-attachment fitness-model network-evolution network-dynamics temporal-network multilayer-network multiplex-network bipartite-network affiliation-network one-mode-network two-mode-network adjacency-matrix edge-list graph-theory vertex edge node link tie connection path cycle tree forest component giant-component percolation phase-transition criticality self-organized-criticality power-law heavy-tail Pareto-distribution lognormal-distribution exponential-distribution Poisson-distribution binomial-distribution normal-distribution Gaussian-distribution statistical-distribution probability-distribution cumulative-distribution probability-density-function cumulative-distribution-function survival-function hazard-function moment mean median mode variance standard-deviation coefficient-of-variation skewness kurtosis quantile percentile decile quartile interquartile-range range minimum maximum outlier robust-statistic parametric-test non-parametric-test hypothesis-testing null-hypothesis alternative-hypothesis significance-level p-value confidence-interval type-I-error type-II-error statistical-power effect-size sample-size sampling-design experimental-design observational-study quasi-experiment natural-experiment randomized-controlled-trial before-after-control-impact BACI impact-assessment environmental-impact-assessment strategic-environmental-assessment cumulative-impact-assessment social-impact-assessment health-impact-assessment life-cycle-assessment carbon-footprint water-footprint ecological-footprint material-flow-analysis substance-flow-analysis energy-analysis exergy-analysis emergy-analysis input-output-analysis environmentally-extended-input-output social-accounting-matrix computable-general-equilibrium agent-based-model system-dynamics-model Bayesian-network structural-equation-model path-analysis factor-analysis principal-component-analysis cluster-analysis discriminant-analysis canonical-correspondence-analysis redundancy-analysis non-metric-multidimensional-scaling ordination classification regression-analysis linear-regression nonlinear-regression generalized-linear-model generalized-additive-model mixed-effects-model multilevel-model hierarchical-model Bayesian-hierarchical-model state-space-model hidden-Markov-model time-series-analysis spatial-analysis geostatistics kriging variogram spatial-autocorrelation Moran's-I Geary's-c Getis-Ord-Gi local-indicator-of-spatial-association LISA hot-spot cold-spot spatial-cluster spatial-outlier edge-effect boundary-effect modifiable-areal-unit-problem MAUP ecological-fallacy atomistic-fallacy cross-scale-inference upscaling downscaling scaling-law allometric-scaling fractal fractal-dimension self-similarity multi-fractal lacunarity roughness texture pattern process pattern-process-relationship neutral-model null-model randomization-test permutation-test bootstrap jackknife cross-validation model-averaging model-comparison information-criterion Bayesian-model-averaging ensemble-modeling consensus-model prediction forecast projection scenario narrative-scenario quantitative-scenario storyline shared-socioeconomic-pathway representative-concentration-pathway emission-scenario climate-scenario impact-scenario adaptation-scenario mitigation-scenario transformation-scenario backcasting forecasting trend-extrapolation expert-judgment Delphi-method participatory-modeling stakeholder-analysis influence-diagram conceptual-model mental-model system-archetype leverage-point intervention-point policy-instrument economic-instrument regulatory-instrument voluntary-instrument information-instrument market-based-instrument command-and-control-instrument subsidy tax charge fee levy deposit-refund tradable-permit emission-trading carbon-tax biodiversity-banking conditional-cash-transfer community-based-natural-resource-management joint-forest-management co-management adaptive-co-management transboundary-management international-regime global-governance multilateral-environmental-agreement convention treaty cartagena-protocol nagoya-protocol Aichi-target sustainable-development-goal SDG post-2020-global-biodiversity-framework 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socio-technical-transition multi-level-perspective niche-innovation regime landscape transition-management strategic-niche-management transition-experiment living-lab real-world-laboratory urban-living-lab rural-living-lab sustainability-transition fundamental-change system-innovation directionality reflexivity responsiveness anticipation learning-by-doing doing-by-learning social-learning organizational-learning policy-learning transformative-capacity capacity-development institutional-learning evolutionary-governance institutional-change path-dependency lock-in carbon-lock-in technological-lock-in institutional-lock-in behavioral-lock-in cultural-lock-in unlocking destabilization phase-out divestment stranded-asset just-transition transition-pathway transition-scenario deep-decarbonization net-zero carbon-neutral climate-neutral nature-positive biodiversity-positive restoration-positive regenerative circular doughnut-economics planetary-boundary safe-operating-space environmental-ceiling social-foundation intergenerational-equity intragenerational-equity distributive-justice procedural-justice recognition-justice environmental-justice climate-justice energy-justice water-justice food-justice spatial-justice territorial-justice ecological-justice species-justice intersectionality adaptation mitigation sustainability sustainable-development well-being human-development capability-approach human-security environmental-security climate-security water-security food-security energy-security livelihood-security disaster-risk-reduction climate-change-adaptation climate-change-mitigation loss-and-damage climate-finance green-climate-fund adaptation-fund global-environment-facility biodiversity-finance nature-finance blended-finance impact-investment ESG environmental-social-governance sustainable-finance green-bond social-bond sustainability-bond blue-bond nature-bond biodiversity-credit offset inset nature-based-credit ecosystem-service-credit payment-for-results results-based-payment conditional-payment performance-based-payment outcome-based-payment environmental-service-payment PSA PES REDD REDD+AFOLU LULUCF NAMA NAMC NDC NAP NBSAP national-adaptation-plan national-biodiversity-strategy-and-action-plan nationally-determined-contribution nationally-appropriate-mitigation-action intended-nationally-determined-contribution long-term-low-emission-development-strategy net-zero-target carbon-budget remaining-carbon-budget emission-gap adaptation-gap finance-gap implementation-gap ambition-loop ratchet-mechanism global-stocktake transparency-framework enhanced-transparency-framework common-but-differentiated-responsibilities respective-capabilities climate-equity climate-litigation climate-governance climate-diplomacy climate-negotiation UNFCCC COP CMP CMA SBSTA SBI IPCC IPBES UNCCD CBD CITES Ramsar World-Heritage Man-and-the-Biosphere MAB UNESCO FAO WHO ILO UNDP UNEP UN-Habitat World-Bank IMF WTO OECD GEF GCF AF 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