Citrus-pest
Guides
Aegomorphus
Aegomorphus is a large genus of longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae) established by Haldeman in 1847. The genus underwent significant taxonomic revision: most species were originally placed in Acanthoderes, then transferred to Psapharochrus, which was elevated to genus rank before being determined in 2020 to be a junior synonym of Aegomorphus. The genus contains numerous species distributed across the Americas, with at least one species (A. quadrigibbus) documented as an agricultural pest of Persian lime orchards in Mexico.
Aegomorphus quadrigibbus
Four-humped Longhorned Beetle
Aegomorphus quadrigibbus is a longhorned beetle in the subfamily Lamiinae, originally described by Thomas Say in 1831 as Acanthoderes quadrigibba. The species is characterized by four prominent tubercles on the pronotum and distinctive heart-shaped elytral patterning. Historically associated with hardwood forests in eastern North America, it has recently emerged as an agricultural pest in Mexican Persian lime orchards. The species was transferred to the genus Aegomorphus by Yanega in 1996.
Alarodia
Alarodia is a genus of slug caterpillar moths (Limacodidae) established by Möschler in 1886. The genus includes species that are agricultural pests of Citrus in Jamaica, with larvae causing severe defoliation. Adults are nocturnal and weak fliers. The genus has been documented through both field observations and laboratory rearing studies.
Aleurocanthus
Aleurocanthus is a genus of whiteflies in the family Aleyrodidae, established by Quaintance & Baker in 1914. Species in this genus are significant agricultural pests, particularly of citrus and other cultivated crops. The genus includes notable species such as the orange spiny whitefly (A. spiniferus) and the citrus blackfly (A. woglumi), both of which have been subjects of extensive biological control programs due to their economic impact. The genus is characterized by distinctive spiny or ornamented puparial cases and exhibits sexual dimorphism in some species.
Aleurocanthus woglumi
Citrus blackfly
Aleurocanthus woglumi is a whitefly species in the family Aleyrodidae, native to India and widely distributed across tropical and subtropical regions. It is a significant agricultural pest of citrus and over 300 other host plants, causing damage through sap feeding and honeydew excretion that promotes sooty mold growth. The species has been introduced to the Americas, Africa, and Pacific islands, where biological control using parasitic wasps has been implemented.
Aleurothrixus
woolly whiteflies
Aleurothrixus is a genus of whiteflies (family Aleyrodidae) containing approximately 20 described species. The most economically significant species is A. floccosus (woolly whitefly), a major pest of citrus and other crops across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Several species in the genus have been documented as agricultural pests, with extensive research focused on their biological control using parasitoid wasps.
Aleurothrixus floccosus
woolly whitefly
Aleurothrixus floccosus, commonly known as the woolly whitefly, is a sap-feeding insect in the family Aleyrodidae. Native to the Neotropics, it has spread globally and become a significant agricultural pest, particularly of citrus. The species is distinguished by the dense, woolly wax filaments produced by its nymphs, which cover the colonies and give the insect its common name. It reproduces year-round in suitable climates, with overlapping generations. Biological control using parasitoid wasps, especially Cales noacki, has been widely implemented as chemical control is often ineffective due to the protective waxy covering.
Aleyrodoidea
whiteflies
Aleyrodoidea is a superfamily of small hemipteran insects commonly known as whiteflies. The superfamily contains a single family, Aleyrodidae, with more than 1,550 described species. Whiteflies are phytophagous insects that feed on plant sap, typically from the undersides of leaves. Several species are significant agricultural pests, including the citrus blackfly (Aleurocanthus woglumi) and the Bemisia tabaci species complex.
Anagrus
fairyflies
Anagrus is a genus of fairyflies (Mymaridae) comprising over 90 described species, many of which are important biological control agents of agricultural pests. Adults are minute parasitoids, typically 1-2 mm in length, with coloration ranging from brown and orange to black and pale. The genus is divided into three subgenera—Anagrella, Anagrus, and Paranagrus—for taxonomic purposes. Species in this genus are specialized egg parasitoids, primarily attacking Hemiptera (leafhoppers and planthoppers), with some species also recorded from Odonata eggs. Their role in regulating populations of economically significant pests like the brown planthopper and glassy-winged sharpshooter has made them valuable in integrated pest management programs worldwide.
Anastrepha ludens
Mexican fruit fly, Mexfly
Anastrepha ludens, the Mexican fruit fly or Mexfly, is a major agricultural pest native to Mexico and Central America. It is one of the most economically damaging fruit flies, particularly threatening citrus and mango production. The species is notable among Anastrepha species for its subtropical distribution, allowing it to range further north than most congeners. It has been repeatedly introduced to the United States, where it is subject to intensive eradication efforts using sterile insect technique and biological control. The USDA estimates it causes $1.44 billion in damage over five-year periods.
Aonidiella
Aonidiella is a genus of armored scale insects (family Diaspididae) containing approximately 30 described species. Several species, notably A. aurantii (California red scale) and A. citrina (yellow scale), are significant agricultural pests of citrus and other fruit crops. The genus exhibits a global distribution with highest diversity in tropical and subtropical regions where host plants occur.
Aonidiella aurantii
California red scale, red scale
Aonidiella aurantii, commonly known as California red scale or red scale, is an armored scale insect and major agricultural pest of citrus and other crops. Native to South China, it has spread globally through human-mediated transport of infected plant material, first appearing in California between 1868 and 1875. The species is now established across six continents and infests over 77 plant families, with citrus remaining its primary economic host. Heavy infestations cause fruit pitting, shoot distortion, leaf drop, and tree death.
Aphis spiraecola
Spirea aphid, green citrus aphid, apple aphid
Aphis spiraecola is a polyphagous aphid species described by Edith Marion Patch in 1914. It is a significant agricultural pest of citrus, apples, and numerous ornamental plants across temperate and tropical regions worldwide. The species exhibits remarkable host flexibility, colonizing over 65 plant genera across more than 20 families. It reproduces primarily through parthenogenesis across most of its range, with holocyclic populations producing sexual morphs on primary hosts Spiraea and Citrus. The species has displaced native Aphis pomi in some regions and is considered invasive in many areas where it has been introduced.
Argyrotaenia kimballi
Kimball's Leafroller Moth
Argyrotaenia kimballi is a small tortricid moth native to the southeastern and south-central United States. Adults have a wingspan of approximately 16–20 mm and have been recorded in flight throughout the year. The species was described by Obraztsov in 1961 and is named in honor of an individual with the surname Kimball.
Artipus
broad-nosed weevils
Artipus is a genus of broad-nosed weevils (Curculionidae) established by Sahlberg in 1823. The genus comprises approximately ten described species distributed primarily in the Americas, with the best-documented species being Artipus floridanus, commonly known as the little leaf notcher. Members of this genus are associated with herbaceous feeding habits, with A. floridanus documented as a pest of citrus and various weed hosts in Florida. The genus belongs to the tribe Geonemini within the subfamily Entiminae.
Artipus floridanus
little leaf notcher
Artipus floridanus, commonly known as the little leaf notcher, is a broad-nosed weevil in the family Curculionidae. It is native to North America, with documented occurrence in Florida and association with citrus groves and weed hosts. The species has been studied for its distribution patterns on cultivated and wild host plants, and laboratory rearing methods have been developed for biological study. It serves as a host for the tachinid parasitoid Oestrophasia (Cenosoma) sabroskyi.
Bruchophagus
seed chalcid, gall wasp
Bruchophagus is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Eurytomidae. Species within this genus are primarily seed-feeders, developing in the seeds of plants in the Fabaceae family, though some species form galls on citrus or other hosts. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution and includes economically significant pests such as the alfalfa seed chalcid (B. roddi) and citrus gall wasp (B. fellis). Recent phylogenomic studies indicate the genus is paraphyletic.
Ceraeochrysa valida
Ceraeochrysa valida is a green lacewing species in the family Chrysopidae. Like other Ceraeochrysa species, its larvae are predatory and construct dorsal packets of debris for camouflage. The species has been documented as a predator of Diaphorina citri nymphs, the Asian citrus psyllid, a significant agricultural pest. Adults are likely green lacewings with delicate, net-veined wings typical of the family.
Ceroplastes rubens
red wax scale, pink wax scale, ruby wax scale
Ceroplastes rubens is a soft scale insect in the family Coccidae, commonly known as the red wax scale or pink wax scale. Native to Africa, it has become widely distributed across tropical and subtropical regions including Australia, Asia, and the Pacific Islands. The species is highly polyphagous, feeding on sap from over 193 plant genera in 84 families, with significant economic impact on citrus, mango, avocado, and ornamental plants. Adult females are covered in a distinctive hard, pink to pale red wax covering approximately 3-4 mm in diameter. Reproduction is primarily parthenogenetic, with 1-2 generations per year depending on climate.
Ceroplastes rusci
Fig Wax Scale
Ceroplastes rusci, commonly known as the fig wax scale, is a soft scale insect (family Coccidae) native to the Mediterranean region. First discovered in Florida in 1994-1995, it has since spread to numerous countries across six continents and is recognized as a significant agricultural and forestry pest. The species feeds on more than 94 genera from 52 plant families, with notable impacts on figs, citrus, grapes, and ornamental plants. Climate change modeling predicts expanding suitable habitat ranges through 2100, increasing its invasive potential in temperate regions.
Ceroplastes sinensis
Chinese Wax Scale
Ceroplastes sinensis is a cosmopolitan scale insect pest of commercial citrus and other woody plants. Native to Central or South America based on cladistic analysis, it has established populations across temperate regions including Australia, New Zealand, Mediterranean Europe, North America, and parts of Asia. The species produces a distinctive waxy covering and completes a single annual generation in temperate climates. It has become a significant agricultural pest, particularly in citrus groves, prompting development of integrated pest management sampling protocols and biological control efforts.
Chrysomphalus
Chrysomphalus is a genus of armored scale insects in the family Diaspididae, containing approximately 17 described species. The genus includes several economically significant agricultural pests, notably Chrysomphalus aonidum (Florida red scale or Egyptian black scale) and Chrysomphalus dictyospermi (Spanish red scale), which infest citrus and other fruit crops worldwide. These sedentary insects possess protective waxy coverings and are targeted in integrated pest management programs using biological control agents including lady beetles and parasitoid wasps.
Chrysomphalus aonidum
Florida red scale, Egyptian black scale, circular black scale, citrus black scale
Chrysomphalus aonidum is an armored scale insect (Diaspididae) and a significant pest of citrus and other fruit trees. It is native to tropical and subtropical regions but has established populations across six continents. The species forms a hard, protective scale cover over its body while feeding on plant phloem. Population densities can reach economically damaging levels in citrus orchards, with infestations recorded on leaves and fruit. The species is subject to biological control by parasitoid wasps and predatory beetles.
Cirrospilus
Cirrospilus is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Species within this genus are primarily ectoparasitoids of leaf-mining insects, particularly gracillariid moths such as the citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella). Several species have been investigated and employed as biological control agents against agricultural pests, with notable examples including C. ingenuus, C. diallus, C. pictus, and C. coachellae. The genus exhibits variation in host specificity, fecundity, and developmental rates influenced by temperature and host stage.
Closterotomus
Closterotomus is a genus of plant bugs (Miridae) in the subfamily Mirinae, established by Fieber in 1858. The genus contains at least 34 species distributed across the Palearctic and North America. Several species are agricultural pests, notably C. trivialis on olive and citrus in Mediterranean regions and C. norvegicus (potato capsid) on lucerne, clover, and potato. Members are phytophagous, feeding primarily on flowers, buds, and unripe fruit.
Coccophagus lycimnia
Coccophagus lycimnia is a minute parasitoid wasp in the family Aphelinidae, widely used as a biological control agent against soft scale insects (Coccidae: Hemiptera). The species exhibits host-size dependent oviposition behavior, preferentially parasitizing second-instar scale insects while avoiding larger hosts due to defensive reactions. It has been documented attacking multiple economically important scale pests including Coccus hesperidum (brown soft scale), Parthenolecanium spp., Sphaerolecanium prunastri, and Parasaissetia nigra, with particular significance in citrus and agricultural systems.
Coccus hesperidum
brown soft scale
Coccus hesperidum, commonly known as the brown soft scale, is a polyphagous soft scale insect with a cosmopolitan distribution. It is a significant agricultural pest of citrus and greenhouse crops, feeding on plant phloem sap and excreting honeydew that promotes sooty mold growth. The species reproduces primarily through parthenogenesis, with females producing live young. It serves as host to numerous parasitoid wasps, which are important biological control agents.
Comperiella
Comperiella is a genus of parasitic wasps in the family Encyrtidae, containing approximately 10 species. Species in this genus are internal parasitoids of armored scale insects (Diaspididae), with documented hosts including Aonidiella aurantii, A. citrina, A. orientalis, Aspidiotus rigidus, and Chrysomphalus ficus. Several species have been employed or studied as biological control agents against agricultural pests, particularly in citrus and coconut production systems. The genus was established by Howard in 1906.
Comperiella bifasciata
Comperiella bifasciata is a tiny parasitic wasp in the family Encyrtidae used extensively in biological control of armored scale insects on citrus. Two distinct biological races exist: a Japanese type that parasitizes yellow scale (Aonidiella citrina) and a Chinese type that parasitizes California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii). Despite being morphologically identical and capable of hybridizing in laboratory conditions, these races maintain separate identities in the field through natural selection against less fit hybrids. The species was first introduced to California in 1908 from Japan, but failed to establish on red scale due to a misidentification of its original host; successful establishment on red scale occurred only after subsequent introductions from China between 1947 and 1949.
Cryptochetum iceryae
cottony cushion scale parasite, cottony cushion scale parasitoid
Cryptochetum iceryae is a parasitic fly in the family Cryptochetidae, native to Australia. It was deliberately introduced to California in the 1880s as a biological control agent against the cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi), a major pest of citrus crops. The species has since been introduced to Israel and South America for similar purposes. In 2019, it was discovered in the United Kingdom for the first time, identified in the wildlife garden at the Natural History Museum in London.
biological-controlparasitoidagricultural-pest-managementDipteraCryptochetidaeclassical-biological-controlcitrus-pestinvasive-species-managementAustralia-native1880s-introductionCaliforniaIsraelSouth-AmericaUnited-Kingdom-2019-discoveryNatural-History-Museum-Londonscale-insect-parasiteendoparasitoidIcerya-purchasicottony-cushion-scalesuccessful-biocontrolintegrated-pest-managementvedalia-beetle-complementWilliston-1888Lestophonus-iceryaeCryptothelea gloverii
Glover's Bagworm Moth
Cryptothelea gloverii is a bagworm moth (family Psychidae) found in North and Central America. The larval stage constructs a portable case from silk and plant debris, a defining trait of the family. It has been documented feeding on citrus, particularly orange trees, and preying on the camphor scale (Pseudaonidia duplex), a scale insect pest.
Dialeurodes citri
Citrus Whitefly
Dialeurodes citri, the citrus whitefly, is a polyphagous pest native to Southeast Asia that has become established in citrus-growing regions worldwide. Adults and immature stages feed on phloem sap, secreting honeydew that promotes sooty mold growth. The species completes 2–3 generations annually in most regions, with development arrested in the fourth instar during cooler months. It is distinguished from the similar Parabemisia myricae by its larger size, preference for fully developed leaves, and slower life cycle.
Diaphorina
Diaphorina is a genus of Old World sap-sucking hemipteran bugs in the family Liviidae, containing approximately 68 to 74 species. The genus is typified by the subfamily Diaphorininae and includes Diaphorina citri, the Asian citrus psyllid, a globally significant agricultural pest. Species in this genus are phloem-feeders primarily associated with host plants in the Rutaceae family.
Diaphorina citri
Asian citrus psyllid, ACP
Diaphorina citri, the Asian citrus psyllid, is a small hemipteran insect and one of two confirmed vectors of Huanglongbing (HLB), also known as citrus greening disease, caused by the bacterium Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus. Native to southern Asia, it has spread to citrus-growing regions worldwide including the Americas, Middle East, and Oceania, posing a severe threat to global citrus production. The insect feeds on phloem sap of new citrus growth and has become the focus of intensive biological control, monitoring, and genomic research efforts due to its economic impact.
Diaphorininae
Diaphorininae is a subfamily of psyllids within the family Psyllidae. Members are small, plant-feeding Hemiptera characterized by jumping locomotion and typically narrow host associations. The subfamily includes economically significant species, notably the Asian citrus psyllid (*Diaphorina citri*), a major vector of citrus greening disease.
Diaprepes
Diaprepes weevils, citrus root weevils
Diaprepes is a genus of broad-nosed weevils in the family Curculionidae, subfamily Entiminae, tribe Eustylini. It belongs to the Exophthalmus genus complex. The genus contains approximately 16 described species, with Diaprepes abbreviatus being the most economically significant as a major agricultural pest of citrus and other crops in Florida and the Caribbean. The genus is native to the Caribbean region and has expanded its range to include parts of Central America and the southeastern United States.
Diaprepes abbreviatus
Diaprepes root weevil, Citrus root weevil, Sugarcane rootstock borer weevil, Chichí
Diaprepes abbreviatus is a root-feeding weevil native to the Caribbean, where it is known colloquially as "chichí." It is a major agricultural pest that was accidentally introduced to Florida in 1964 and has since spread to California and Texas. The species causes significant economic damage to citrus, avocado, and other crops through larval feeding on root systems.
Dichomeris citrifoliella
orange webworm moth
Dichomeris citrifoliella, commonly known as the orange webworm moth, is a small gelechiid moth native to eastern and central North America. First described by Vactor Tousey Chambers in 1880, this species is recognized by its ochreous yellow forewings densely dusted with gray and marked with distinctive dark dots. The larvae are known to feed on the buds of citrus and related plants in the family Rutaceae.
Drosophila immigrans
Drosophila immigrans is a vinegar fly in the family Drosophilidae, belonging to the Immigrans-tripunctata radiation within the subgenus Drosophila. It has been used in evolutionary studies to understand virus-host coevolution. The species exhibits seasonal migration patterns in response to temperature extremes and shows altitudinal variation in body melanization correlated with fitness traits. It has a close ecological association with Penicillium moulds on citrus fruit.
Egira
Egira is a genus of moths in the family Noctuidae. The genus includes species that are agricultural pests, notably Egira curialis, commonly known as the citrus cutworm. This species feeds on young citrus fruit in California groves, causing scarring damage that can render fruit unmarketable. Research indicates that caterpillar densities and associated fruit scarring are higher in larger citrus groves.
Egira crucialis
Egira crucialis is a species of cutworm or dart moth in the family Noctuidae, first described by Harvey in 1875. It is native to North America and has been recorded as an early-season pest of citrus in California's San Joaquin Valley, where it feeds on very young fruit. The species is listed under Hodges number 10508 in the Moths of North America (MONA) database.
Egira curialis
Citrus Cutworm
Egira curialis is a noctuid moth commonly known as the Citrus Cutworm, native to North America. The species has been documented as a pest of citrus groves in California's San Joaquin Valley, where larvae feed on young fruit and contribute to scarring damage. Research indicates that caterpillar densities and associated damage are higher in larger citrus groves. The species is listed under Hodges number 10511 in the North American moth numbering system.
Eustylini
Eustylini is a tribe of broad-nosed weevils (Curculionidae: Entiminae) primarily restricted to the Neotropical region. The tribe comprises approximately 25 genera and 339 described species, with highest diversity in the Caribbean, Central America, and northern South America. Species are medium to large (10–25 mm) and often strikingly colored with variable scale coverage. The tribe includes notable agricultural pests, particularly Diaprepes abbreviatus, which causes significant economic damage to citrus and other crops. Taxonomic boundaries remain unclear due to phylogenetic clustering with Geonemini.
Ferrisia virgata
striped mealybug, grey mealybug
Ferrisia virgata, commonly known as the striped mealybug, is a highly polyphagous pest species in the family Pseudococcidae. First described from Jamaica in 1893, it spread globally within approximately a decade and is now established in all tropical and subtropical zoogeographic regions. The species is recognized by two dark dorsal longitudinal stripes and is a significant agricultural pest with a host range spanning over 203 genera in 77 plant families. It vectors plant badnavirus diseases affecting cocoa and black pepper, and has been demonstrated to acquire but not effectively transmit 'Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus', the bacterium associated with citrus huanglongbing.
Gymnandrosoma
Gymnandrosoma is a genus of tortricid moths in the tribe Grapholitini. The genus includes at least eight described species distributed primarily in the Americas. Gymnandrosoma aurantianum, the most economically significant species, is a major agricultural pest known as the citrus fruit borer in Brazil and the macadamia nut borer in Central America. Other species in the genus have been described from North and South America, with limited biological information available.
Heraclides
New World Giant Swallowtails and Allies
Heraclides is a genus of swallowtail butterflies (family Papilionidae) native to the Americas, commonly referred to as the New World Giant Swallowtails and Allies. These are large, conspicuous butterflies often with bold black and yellow or black and green coloration. The genus includes species formerly classified under Papilio subgenus Heraclides, now generally treated as a distinct genus based on morphological and molecular evidence. Members are known for their strong flight and association with citrus and related host plants.
Hibana velox
Yellow Ghost Spider
Hibana velox, commonly known as the yellow ghost spider, is a small nocturnal hunting spider native to North America. Formerly classified as Aysha velox, this species belongs to the family Anyphaenidae and is recognized for its pale coloration and active predation on small insects. It occupies diverse habitats ranging from natural vegetation to human dwellings, and has been documented as an effective biological control agent against agricultural pests such as the citrus leafminer.
Hishimonus
Hishimonus is a genus of leafhoppers (Cicadellidae: Deltocephalinae) established by Ishihara in 1953. Species in this genus are distributed across Asia, Europe, and the Middle East, with particular diversity in the Indian subcontinent. Multiple Hishimonus species are economically significant as vectors of phytoplasma diseases affecting citrus, jujube, brinjal (eggplant), and other crops. H. phycitis transmits witches'-broom disease of lime and brinjal little leaf disease; H. hamatus transmits jujube witches' broom; and H. sellatus transmits Rhus yellows. Several species have been introduced to Europe, including H. diffractus and H. hamatus.
Icerya
Cushion Scale Insects
Icerya is a genus of scale insects in the family Monophlebidae, notable for containing some of the few hermaphroditic insects known to science. The genus includes approximately 50 described species distributed worldwide, with several species being significant agricultural pests. The most economically important species is Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale), native to Australia but now cosmopolitan in distribution, which has caused severe damage to citrus crops globally. Several Icerya species exhibit androdioecy—a rare mating system where hermaphrodites and males coexist—with hermaphrodites possessing ovotestes and reproducing primarily through self-fertilization. This reproductive strategy, combined with the sessile nature of adult females, contributes to their invasive potential. The genus is named after physician-naturalist Dr. Edmond Icery of British Mauritius.
Icerya purchasi
cottony cushion scale, fluted scale, cochinilla australiana
Icerya purchasi is a scale insect native to Australia that has become a globally distributed pest of citrus and ornamental plants. The species is notable for its distinctive reproductive system: most individuals are hermaphrodites capable of self-fertilization, with rare males enabling occasional outbreeding. Adult females are sessile and produce large white fluted egg sacs that can exceed twice the body length. The species achieved historical significance as the target of one of the first successful biological control programs, using the vedalia beetle (Novius cardinalis) in California in 1888–1889.