High-altitude

Guides

Aedes epactius
Western Rock Pool mosquito
Aedes epactius is a North American mosquito species in the subgenus Georgecraigius, first described in 1908. It exhibits remarkable altitudinal plasticity, occurring from sea level to over 2,500 meters elevation. The species breeds in both natural rock pools and artificial containers including tires, water tanks, and flower pots. It has been studied for potential arbovirus transmission, with laboratory evidence of competence for St. Louis encephalitis and Jamestown Canyon viruses, and field detection of West Nile and Zika virus RNA. Recent research suggests it may compete with invasive Aedes aegypti, potentially limiting its spread in some habitats.
mosquito Culicidae container-breeder North-America high-altitude potential-vector
Bombus cockerelli
Cockerell's Bumble Bee, Cockerell's Bumblebee
Bombus cockerelli is a bumble bee species with the smallest known range of any bumble bee species worldwide, restricted to high-elevation localities in the White Mountains of New Mexico. First described in 1913 from six specimens, it remained unobserved between 1956 and 2011. Fewer than 30 specimens have ever been collected. The species was once considered a potential subspecies, but fresh specimens now allow for genetic analysis to resolve its taxonomic status. Its entire range falls within protected U.S. National Forest and tribal lands.
endemic high-altitude rare data-deficient New-Mexico White-Mountains smallest-range bumble-bee pollinator conservation-stable
Bombus flavifrons
yellow-fronted bumble bee, yellowhead bumblebee
Bombus flavifrons is a robust bumble bee native to North America, distributed across much of Canada, Alaska, and the western contiguous United States. The species exhibits intraspecific color pattern variation across its range due to Müllerian mimicry. It inhabits high-altitude and high-latitude environments including tundra, taiga, and mountain forests and meadows. The species is host to the parasitic cuckoo bumble bee Bombus insularis.
bumble-bee pollinator western-North-America high-altitude Müllerian-mimicry eusocial genome-sequenced
Boreidae
snow scorpionflies, snow fleas
Boreidae, commonly known as snow scorpionflies or snow fleas, are a small family of approximately 30 species of scorpionflies in the order Mecoptera. These tiny, wingless insects are notable for their unusual winter activity period, emerging on snow surfaces during cold months when most other insects are dormant. Recent molecular research indicates Boreidae are more closely related to fleas (Siphonaptera) than to other scorpionflies, a finding that has significant implications for understanding the evolutionary relationships within Mecoptera. The family has a boreal and high-altitude distribution in the Northern Hemisphere, with species documented across North America, Europe, and Asia.
snow-scorpionflies winter-insects boreal high-altitude wingless cold-adapted Mecoptera evolution cryptic-species liverworts moss snow-surface univoltine predator-avoidance
Branchinecta
fairy shrimp
Branchinecta is a genus of fairy shrimp (Anostraca) comprising approximately 50 species distributed across all continents except Australia. The genus includes the largest anostracan, Branchinecta gigas, reaching up to 10 cm in length, and the highest-altitude crustacean, B. brushi, recorded at 5,930 m elevation. Species occupy diverse temporary freshwater habitats from Arctic and Antarctic regions to high-elevation Andean pools. Two species, B. gaini and B. granulosa, have been synonymized based on molecular evidence showing insufficient genetic differentiation.
fairy-shrimp temporary-pools vernal-pools Anostraca Branchiopoda freshwater Antarctica high-altitude cryptic-diversity
Coleomyia alticola
Coleomyia alticola is a species of robber fly (family Asilidae) described by James in 1941. The specific epithet 'alticola' suggests a high-altitude habitat association. As a member of the Asilidae, it belongs to a family of predatory flies known for their aerial hunting behavior. Very few observations of this species have been recorded.
Asilidae robber-fly predatory-fly high-altitude
Cosmiina
Cosmiina is a subtribe of owlet moths (Noctuidae) within the tribe Xylenini. It comprises multiple genera including Ipimorpha, which contains species with broad geographic distributions spanning Europe, Asia, and North America. Members of this subtribe have been documented in high-altitude wetland habitats in China.
subtribe Noctuidae Lepidoptera Holarctic high-altitude
Euophrys
Euophrys is a genus of jumping spiders (family Salticidae) first described by Carl Ludwig Koch in 1834. The genus contains approximately 99 species distributed across Eurasia, Africa, and the Americas. Notable members include E. omnisuperstes, which inhabits Mount Everest at elevations up to 6,700 meters, and E. monadnock, a colorful North American species with distinctive male courtship displays. Species in this genus exhibit typical salticid characteristics including excellent vision and complex visual communication.
jumping-spider Salticidae high-altitude courtship-display sexual-dimorphism
Hydatostega
Hydatostega is a genus of long-legged flies in the family Dolichopodidae. The genus was restored from synonymy with Hydrophorus and is now recognized as distinct. It contains approximately 11 described species with a disjunct distribution pattern.
montane high-altitude South-Atlantic-islands long-legged-flies
Liodessus
Liodessus is a genus of small diving beetles in the family Dytiscidae, tribe Bidessini. Species occur across the Americas from North America through the Andes to southern South America, with notable diversity in high-altitude wetlands and páramo ecosystems. Many species inhabit shallow, exposed pools and temporary water bodies, showing phenotypic plasticity in body form correlated with habitat permanence. The genus contains numerous species, with several new species described from the high Andes of Peru and Colombia in recent years. Taxonomic resolution relies heavily on male genital morphology.
diving-beetle aquatic-insect high-altitude páramo Andes phenotypic-plasticity Bidessini Hydroporinae Dytiscidae Coleoptera wetland temporary-pool peatland subantarctic taxonomy male-genitalia COI-barcode cryptic-species incipient-speciation hybridization geometric-morphometrics environmental-sentinel drought-indicator South-America North-America Fiji Navarino-Island Magallanes Peru Colombia Chile Argentina Bolivia Bogotá Junín Cusco Huánuco Cundinamarca Sumapaz Puna steppe peat-bog shallow-pool puddle altitude-3400-4900m L.-affinis-complex L.-bogotensis-complex L.-chilensis L.-affinis L.-obscurellus L.-noviaffinis L.-saratogae L.-picinus L.-santarosita L.-alpinus L.-hauthi L.-rhigos L.-thespesios Guignot-1939 Zimmermann Sharp LeConte Say Steinheil Régimbart Biström Miller Balke Franciscolo Sanfilippo Pederzani Nilsson Young Clark Hatch Mannerheim Casey Aubé Balfour-Browne Brinck Peschet Solier White Zootaxa ZooKeys Insect-Systematics-&-Evolution Anales-del-Instituto-de-la-Patagonia PLoS-ONE GBIF iNaturalist Catalogue-of-Life NCBI-Taxonomy BOLD Barcode-of-Life-Data-System COI mitochondrial-DNA phylogeography population-structure range-expansion lineage genetic-structure subspecies lectotype neotype synonymy new-species new-subspecies revision morphometrics allometry body-size body-shape elytra pronotum striae coloration punctation habitus occipital-line genital-morphology aedeagus paramere diagnosis identification-key type-locality type-specimen etymology bionomics natural-history geographic-distribution distribution-map Nearctic Neotropical Patagonia Cape-Horn-Biosphere-Reserve drought climate-change environmental-change sentinel-species plasticity adaptation phenotypic-variation hydrological-landscape water-permanence pool bog Altiplano Andean high-elevation montane alpine aquatic freshwater lentic lotic insect beetle Adephaga Liodessus
Oreoneta
A genus of dwarf spiders (family Linyphiidae) established in 1894, comprising approximately 30 species distributed across cold-temperate and Arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Most species inhabit high-latitude or high-altitude environments. The genus was revised extensively by Saaristo & Marusik in 2004, resulting in numerous new species descriptions.
Arachnida Araneae Linyphiidae dwarf-spider Arctic boreal Holarctic tundra montane predator cold-adapted ground-dwelling high-latitude high-altitude Saaristo Marusik Chyzer Kulczyński 1894 2004-revision genitalic-characters epigynum embolus conductor palaearctic nearctic Eurasia North-America Scandinavia Siberia Alaska Canada Greenland Kazakhstan Mongolia China Kurile-Islands Finland Sweden Norway Germany Switzerland Italy Slovakia Bulgaria Central-Europe type-species:-Oreoneta-frigida thirty-species 30-species small-spider sheet-web-weaver money-spider Linyphiinae Erigoninae microhabitat litter-dwelling cryptic understudied taxonomic-revision morphological-taxonomy light-microscopy species-description biogeography glacial-refugia post-glacial-colonization endemic regional-endemic alpine-endemic Arctic-endemic boreal-forest taiga rocky-habitat meadow wetland stream-margin snowbed fellfield heath moss lichen vegetation soil-surface stone rock boulder scree talus debris humus organic-layer permafrost polar subpolar cold-stenotherm stenotherm stenotopic habitat-specialist conservation rare data-deficient IUCN red-list natural-history systematics phylogeny molecular-systematics DNA-barcoding COI cytochrome-oxidase 28S 18S ITS morphology taxonomy alpha-taxonomy revision monograph faunistics chorology zoogeography dispersal vicariance speciation cryptic-species species-complex species-group species-aggregate subspecies infraspecific variation polymorphism sexual-dimorphism male female juvenile instar ecdysis molting development growth reproduction mating courtship sperm-transfer spermatophore pedipalp palpal-organ copulatory-organ genitalia epigyne vulva spermatheca fertilization-duct copulatory-duct atrium scape maceration dissection microscope stereomicroscope compound-microscope illustration drawing photography SEM scanning-electron-microscopy habitus dorsal ventral lateral prosoma opisthosoma abdomen cephalothorax carapace sternum chelicera fang leg tarsus metatarsus tibia patella femur coxa trochanter spinneret colulus tracheal-spiracle book-lung cuticle seta hair spine macroseta sensillum chaetotaxy eye oculus ocelli anterior-median-eye posterior-median-eye anterior-lateral-eye posterior-lateral-eye eye-tubercle clypeus fovea pedicel waist constriction color pattern pigmentation melanism albinism size measurement total-length carapace-length carapace-width abdomen-length leg-length leg-formula index ratio proportion allometry ontogeny subadult adult maturity sexual-maturity reproductive-maturity longevity life-span generation-time voltinism univoltine semivoltine biennial perennial overwintering diapause quiescence cold-hardiness freeze-tolerance freeze-avoidance supercooling cryoprotectant glycerol sorbitol trehalose thermal-biology thermoregulation behavioral-thermoregulation postural-thermoregulation activity diurnal nocturnal crepuscular matutinal vespertine circadian rhythm seasonal phenology calendar date month activity-period breeding-season oviposition egg egg-sac cocoon silk web sheet-web tangle-web space-web platform-web dome-web bowl-web funnel retreat signal-line dragline attachment-disc ampullate-gland cylindriform-gland aciniform-gland aggregate-gland flagelliform-gland tubuliform-gland piriform-gland major-ampullate minor-ampullate silk-protein spidroin fibroin sericin glue viscid dry capture-silk dragline-silk safety-line anchor-line frame-line radial-line spiral-line sticky-spiral non-sticky-spiral hub perimeter substrate niche guild functional-group trophic-level carnivore zoophage arthropodivore insectivore prey capture attack subdue immobilize kill feed digest extraoral-digestion sucking-stomach gut midgut hindgut Malpighian-tubule excretion osmoregulation metabolism respiration trachea spiracle gas-exchange circulation hemolymph heart aorta sinus nervous-system brain ganglion nerve sensory-organ mechanoreceptor chemoreceptor thermoreceptor hygroreceptor photoreceptor proprioceptor trichobothrium tarsal-organ slit-sensillum lyriform-organ pedipalp-organ Haller's-organ contact-chemoreceptor gustatory olfactory pheromone semiochemical kairomone allomone synomone communication signal vibration seismic airborne visual chemical tactile copulation insemination sperm spermatozoon median-apophysis terminal-apophysis paracymbium cymbium bulbus tegulum subtegulum radix lamella process apophysis flange hook coil spiral duct reservoir sclerite plate field fossa pocket receptaculum spermathecae gland insemination-duct uterus uterus-externus uterus-internus vagina gonopore ovipositor ovary oviduct follicle vitellogenesis oogenesis spermatogenesis testis vas-deferens ejaculatory-duct seminal-vesicle fecundity fertility clutch-size egg-number hatching emergence ballooning aerial-dispersal silk-dragline gossamer migration movement walking running jumping climbing burrowing hiding refuge shelter defense predation predator-avoidance antipredator crypsis camouflage mimicry aposematism deimatic thanatosis autotomy leg-loss regeneration injury wound healing immune-response hemocyte melanization encapsulation nodule parasite parasitoid pathogen fungus bacterium virus nematode mite grooming cleaning hygiene self-maintenance silk-use web-use prey-capture foraging hunting ambush sit-and-wait active-hunting searching probing testing exploration learning memory cognition behavior ethology ecology population community ecosystem biome biosphere habitat environment abiotic biotic factor temperature humidity moisture precipitation rain snow wind light photoperiod day-length radiation UV soil cover complexity heterogeneity productivity energy nutrient carbon nitrogen phosphorus food-web trophic-interaction predator-prey competition intraspecific interspecific resource partitioning coexistence diversity richness evenness abundance density frequency occurrence presence absence detection sampling collection pitfall-trap quadrat transect hand-collecting beating sifting extraction Berlese Tullgren Winkler flotation sorting preservation ethanol formalin mount slide label catalog database repository museum voucher type holotype paratype syntype lectotype paralectotype neotype topotype original data locality georeference coordinate latitude longitude elevation altitude depth collector determination identification expert specialist literature publication journal article paper book thesis dissertation report checklist online digital archive bibliography reference citation author year volume page figure map table appendix supplementary material methods results discussion conclusion abstract keyword index-term subject topic discipline science biology zoology arachnology entomology evolution phylogenetics biological nature protection management policy legislation restoration monitoring assessment indicator flagship umbrella keystone engineer service function dynamics stability resilience resistance recovery succession disturbance climate change warming glacier range shift expansion contraction fragmentation isolation connectivity corridor network reserve park protected area wilderness urban rural agricultural forestry mining impact threat risk vulnerability sensitivity exposure adaptive capacity mitigation adaptation sustainable use harvest trade economy medicine research education outreach citizen engagement awareness appreciation aesthetic cultural spiritual existence value intrinsic instrumental utilitarian anthropocentric biocentric ecocentric ethic philosophy history discovery expedition voyage survey inventory fauna biota biodiversity life earth planet wildlife animal invertebrate arthropod chelicerate arachnid spider araneomorph entelegyne micryphantid Oreoneta 2004 frigida type-species alpine feeding type-specimen climate-change protected-area
Parnassius eversmanni
Eversmann's parnassian
Parnassius eversmanni, or Eversmann's parnassian, is a high-altitude butterfly in the swallowtail family Papilionidae. It occurs across a broad transcontinental range spanning eastern Russia, Mongolia, Japan, Alaska, and the Yukon. The species was named in honor of Eduard Friedrich Eversmann. Like other Parnassius species, it exhibits complex wing pattern variation with numerous described subspecies and forms, making identification challenging without examination of structural characters.
high-altitude alpine arctic cold-adapted transcontinental-distribution
Puto
giant mealybugs, Puto scale insects
Puto is a genus of scale insects in the family Putoidae, commonly known as giant mealybugs. The genus was established by Signoret in 1875 and is distinguished by its large body size relative to other mealybugs, dense white wax coating, and distinctive morphological features including cerarii and multilocular disc-pores. Putoidae is recognized as a distinct family separate from Pseudococcidae, representing a transitional evolutionary group between archaeococcoids and neococcoids. Species in this genus are primarily associated with woody host plants in temperate and montane regions.
mealybug scale-insect Putoidae Hemiptera montane Tibet phytophagous wax-secretion sexual-dimorphism Cerarii circulus multilocular-disc-pores oak Quercus high-altitude invasive-potential-unknown taxonomy-revised archaeococcoid-neococcoid-transition
Titanoecidae
Rock Weavers
Titanoecidae is a family of cribellate spiders comprising five genera and approximately 67 species. Members are primarily dark-colored web-builders that construct woolly, cribellate silk webs. The family occurs across the New World and Eurasia, with several species inhabiting high-altitude mountain environments where they can achieve high local abundance. The family was elevated from Amaurobiidae by Lehtinen in 1967.
cribellate web-building montane dark-colored woolly-silk Lehtinen-1967 New-World Eurasia high-altitude Rock-Weavers
Trechini
Trechini is a large and diverse tribe of small ground beetles in the family Carabidae, comprising over 270 genera and more than 2,400 described species worldwide. Members are typically diminutive, often less than 5 mm in length, with many species measuring 1 mm or less. The tribe exhibits remarkable habitat breadth, occurring in terrestrial, subterranean, and high-altitude mountain environments across all continents except Antarctica, though fossil evidence indicates former presence there. Trechini includes numerous cave-adapted lineages, making it the most diverse and cave-specialized group among Carabidae tribes in subterranean habitats.
Carabidae ground-beetles cave-beetles troglobites subterranean high-altitude endemic Gondwanan karst alpine