Stomoxys

Geoffroy, 1762

stable flies

Species Guides

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Stomoxys is a of muscid flies distinguished by its blood-feeding ectoparasitic lifestyle, unusual among the Muscidae. The genus comprises approximately 20 described , with Stomoxys calcitrans (stable fly) being the most economically significant and widely distributed. Species in this genus are obligate hematophages of mammals, causing substantial livestock losses through blood loss, stress, and transmission. Current phylogenetic evidence suggests the genus is .

Stomoxys calcitrans by (c) Bill Keim, some rights reserved (CC BY). Used under a CC-BY license.Stomoxys calcitrans by (c) Judy Gallagher, some rights reserved (CC BY). Used under a CC-BY license.Stomoxys calcitrans by (c) Conall, some rights reserved (CC BY). Used under a CC-BY license.

Pronunciation

How to pronounce Stomoxys: /stoʊˈmɒksɪs/

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Habitat

Breeding sites include decomposing organic matter: fermented hay, straw bedding mixed with manure and urine, grass clippings, compost, algal masses, and animal mixed with decaying vegetation. Coastal areas with less than 60 inches of rainfall generally lack damaging .

Distribution

Worldwide distribution. -specific patterns include: Stomoxys calcitrans occurring globally; Stomoxys nigra restricted to wetter, higher elevations in Mauritius where it dominates stable fly .

Seasonality

vary by and climate. Stomoxys calcitrans peaks during cool, drier seasons in tropical regions and virtually disappears during wet seasons. Stomoxys nigra peaks during warm, wet cropping seasons. In temperate zones, activity generally occurs from late spring through early fall.

Diet

Both sexes are obligate blood-feeders. include cattle, equids, other large herbivores, humans, and dogs.

Host Associations

  • cattle - primary
  • equids -
  • humans - bites when livestock unavailable
  • dogs -

Life Cycle

Complete : , larva (maggot), pupa, . Females deposit 25–50 eggs per site, up to 600 eggs lifetime. Eggs hatch in 1–14 days; larval development 11–30 days depending on temperature, humidity, and food quality; pupal stage 6–20 days. Total time approximately 28 days under favorable conditions. Generation-to-generation increases typically below five-fold.

Behavior

blood-feeding with two daily feeding peaks at temperatures ≥14°C. Both sexes bite aggressively and repeatedly, returning instantly when disturbed. locate and oviposition sites using olfactory cues including CO2, rumen volatiles, dimethyl trisulfide, butanoic acid, p-cresol, β-caryophyllene, and 1-octen-3-ol. Females show consistent oviposition preference for horse over cow dung, possibly due to higher CO2 emissions. Rest on nearby surfaces between blood meals rather than remaining on host.

Ecological Role

Major pest of livestock worldwide. Economic losses exceed $1 billion annually in North America through reduced weight gain, decreased milk production, and control costs. Can including anthrax and potentially Anaplasma phagocytophilum. predictable based on temperature and precipitation, with weather explaining approximately 70% of variability.

Human Relevance

Significant veterinary and medical pest. Bites cause painful irritation in humans and livestock. Cattle respond by stamping, kicking, tail-switching, and bunching that reduces heat dissipation. Threshold for economic control: 2–4 flies per leg for cattle. Subject to programs combining , ( , dung beetles, fungi), and chemical control.

Similar Taxa

  • Musca domesticaBoth gray muscid flies with thoracic stripes; Stomoxys distinguished by piercing-sucking projecting forward from under , painful bite, and blood-feeding
  • Haematobia irritansBoth blood-feeding muscid livestock pests; Stomoxys rests on nearby surfaces between meals while Haematobia remains continuously on , and Stomoxys has wider host range including humans and dogs

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