Forficula auricularia

Distinguished from other earwigs by: (1) second tarsal segment lobed and extending below third segment; (2) male cerci strongly curved with basal broadening and crenulate teeth versus straight female cerci; (3) 11–14 segmented antennae; (4) aggregation pheromone chemistry (2-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone). In North America, distinguished from native earwigs by its larger size and more robust male forceps. Note: F. auricularia is now recognized as a species complex including F. dentata, F. mediterranea, and F. aeolica, which are morphologically indistinguishable but genetically distinct and reproductively isolated.

Reddish-brown, flattened elongated body approximately 12–15 mm long. Shield-shaped pronotum covers the thorax. Two pairs of wings: hardened forewings (elytra) protect delicate, fan-shaped hindwings that fold beneath. Antennae slender, 11–14 segmented. Prominent cerci (forceps) at abdomen tip—large, curved, and robust in males with crenulate teeth; straight, slender, and less robust in females, approximately 3 mm long. Second tarsal segment lobed, extending distally below third segment. Nymphs resemble adults but lighter in color with reduced or absent wings.

Cool, moist microhabitats with mean temperatures around 24°C. Occupies soil crevices, bark cracks, mulch, hollow flower stems, and protected plant parts such as dried curled leaves. In agricultural settings, shelters under trunk wraps and cardboard guards on young trees. Prefers well-drained slopes, southern exposures to avoid excessive moisture. Aggregates in dark, humid daytime shelters at densities of 50–100 individuals per square meter. Hibernates approximately 5 mm below soil surface.

Native to Europe, western Asia, and North Africa. Introduced to North America (early 20th century, now widespread except far southeastern states), New Zealand (European settlers), and Australia (present >170 years, expanding in grain-growing regions). Occurs in temperate to semi-arid climates with high winter rainfall and pronounced temperature seasonality. Human influence strongly correlates with distribution limits in invaded ranges.

Primarily nocturnal year-round. In temperate regions: adults active May–November in tree shelters; immatures October–June in ground shelters. One brood annually in cold continental climates; two broods in warmer regions. Mating peaks August–September. Hibernation occurs in adult or nymphal stages depending on climate. Mediterranean populations show different phenology with nymphs hibernating rather than adults.

Omnivorous, functioning as generalist predator and scavenger. Consumes living and dead plant material (flowers, green foliage, seedlings, soft fruits), small insects (aphids, spiders, insect eggs), and dead insects. Documented feeding on: common hedge mustard (Sisymbrium officinale), white clover (Trifolium repens), dahlia (Dahlia variabilis), molasses, lichens, algae. Prefers meat or sugar to natural plant material when available. Adults consume more insects than nymphs; nymphs feed more heavily on plant material. Practices coprophagy, consuming maternal and sibling feces.

• damson-hop aphid (Phorodon humuli) - prey
• apple aphid - prey
• woolly apple aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum) - preySignificant biological control agent in apple orchards
• green apple aphid (Aphis pomi) - prey
• pear psyllid - prey
• azalea lace bug - preyObserved consuming nymphs

Hemimetabolous development with four nymphal instars. Females lay ~50 pale yellow to cream-colored elliptical eggs in underground autumn nests. Extended maternal care: female guards eggs, cleans them with mouthparts and forceps to remove fungal spores, applies cuticular hydrocarbons for chemical protection, and relocates clutch under stress. Eggs hatch in spring; mother continues care through first instar, providing protection, grooming, food, and temperature regulation. Nymphs remain in nest until after first moult, then accompany mother on nocturnal foraging excursions. Family aggregation maintained through maternal care period (~1 month to maturity). Two distinct phases: nesting phase (family units with maternal care) and free-foraging phase (nymphs independent, may produce second brood in favorable conditions).

Nocturnal forager, diurnal shelter-seeker. Aggregates in groups of 50–100 individuals per square meter using aggregation pheromone (2-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone/toluquinone from feces and tibial glands), with stage-specific components attracting different age classes. Courtship involves mutual tactile stimulation: males wave or bob cerci, stroke and encircle female body with forceps; females respond with abdomen arching, bobbing, twisting. Copulation occurs with male and female facing opposite directions, ventral surfaces in contact, pairs remaining joined for hours. Females feed during copulation. Dispersal occurs through three mechanisms: inter-brood dispersal by females, nymphal dispersal associated with heightened locomotory activity (

Generalist predator contributing to biological control of agricultural pests, particularly aphids in orchards. Documented suppression of woolly apple aphid and green apple aphid populations. Also functions as detritivore and scavenger. Coprophagy facilitates transfer of beneficial gut bacteria and serves as food source. Feces possess antimicrobial properties protecting nest from pathogens. In high densities, can become pest causing damage to seedlings, soft fruits, flowers, and corn silks. Invasive population dynamics influenced by climate suitability and human activity.

Agricultural impact: pest of seedlings, soft fruits (strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, stone fruits), sweet corn (silks), flowers (dahlias, zinnias, marigolds, carnations, roses), and potentially citrus; also biological control agent reducing aphid populations in orchards. Household pest in North America, invading crevices and consuming pantry foods. Control methods include natural enemies (tachinid flies Triarthria setipennis, Ocytata pallipes; parasitoid fly Bigonicheta spinipenni; entomopathogenic fungi Erynia forficulae, Metarhizium anisopliae; nematode Mermis nigrescens; birds), physical traps (rolled newspaper, bamboo tubes, wooden boards, oil baits), and insecticides (diazinon, organophosphates). Subject to insecticide resistance/tolerance development in conventional orchards. Research model for maternal care, sexual selection, and sociality studies.

• Forficula dentataPart of F. auricularia species complex; morphologically indistinguishable, reproductively isolated, distinguished by mitochondrial DNA and geographic distribution (British Isles, Western Europe, warmer climates with two annual broods)
• Forficula mediterraneaPart of F. auricularia species complex; morphologically indistinguishable, genetically distinct member
• Forficula aeolicaPart of F. auricularia species complex; morphologically indistinguishable, genetically distinct member
• Forficula pubescensCo-occurs in Mediterranean apple orchards; distinguished by year-round adult presence and different phenology (nymphs April–June)
• Native North American earwigsGenerally smaller with less robust male forceps than F. auricularia

Name 'earwig' and urban legend of crawling into human ears derive from resemblance of unfolded hindwings to human ears, not actual behavior. While two documented cases of earwigs entering human ears exist, this is extremely rare and not representative behavior. Cerci used for defense, courtship, and prey capture—not aggressive clasping during copulation. Often incorrectly blamed for apple damage; field studies show no correlation between earwig density and fruit damage, with earwigs typically sheltering in pre-existing damage rather than causing it.

• invasive species
• biological control
• maternal care
• aggregation pheromone
• agricultural pest
• nocturnal
• omnivore

• BugGuide
• Wikipedia
• GBIF taxonomy match
• iNaturalist taxon
• NCBI Taxonomy
• Catalogue of Life
• Hanna Kahl's Exit Seminar: European Earwigs! | Bug Squad
• Ode to an Earwig | Bug Squad
• Amanda Hodson Seminar: Do You Know Where Your Nematodes Are? | Bug Squad
• Always a surprise: European earwig, Forficula auricularia — Bug of the Week
• European Earwig: Fruit Pest, Potential Ally, or Both?
• The European Earwig Could Be a New Serious Citrus Pest
• Forficula auricularia . [Distribution map].
• European Earwig Forficula auricularia Linnaeus (Insecta: Dermaptera: Forficulidae)
• Une phéromone d'agrégation chez Forficula auricularia
• The Overwintering biology of the European earwig Forficula auricularia Linnaeus (Insecta: Dermaptera: Forficulinae).
• Phenology and interspecific association of Forficula auricularia and Forficula pubescens in apple orchards
• DISPERSAL BY NESTING EARWIGS, FORFICULA AURICULARIA (DERMAPTERA: FORFICULIDAE)
• A high-quality genome assembly and annotation of the European earwig Forficula auricularia
• Acquisition d’une tolérance aux insecticides en vergers de pommiers et ses conséquences chez une espèce auxiliaire, le forficule Forficula auricularia L
• Tissue distribution, characterization and in vitro inhibition of B-esterases in the earwig Forficula auricularia
• Climate, human influence, and the distribution limits of the invasive European earwig, Forficula auricularia , in Australia
• Techniques for rearing tachinid parasitoids of the European EarwigForficula auricularia