Subsocial-behavior
Guides
Acanthosomatidae
Shield Bugs
Acanthosomatidae is a family of shield bugs within Pentatomoidea comprising approximately 200 species in 55 genera across three subfamilies (Acanthosomatinae, Blaudusinae, Ditomotarsinae). The family is notable for its distinctive reproductive biology, with females exhibiting either maternal care (egg-nymph guarding) or egg smearing using secretions from Pendergrast's organs. Maternal care has evolved independently at least three times within the subfamily Acanthosomatinae and is correlated with reduction or loss of Pendergrast's organs, suggesting an evolutionary trade-off between these strategies.
Chrysomelina
Chrysomelina is a subtribe of leaf beetles within the family Chrysomelidae, subfamily Chrysomelinae. Members of this subtribe are characterized by their ability to produce chemical defenses, including de novo synthesis of iridoids (cyclic monoterpenes) and host-plant-dependent compounds such as salicylaldehyde. Larvae possess specialized glandular secretions used to repel predators. The subtribe exhibits diverse defensive strategies that have evolved through recruitment of oxidases from the glucose-methanol-choline (GMC) oxidoreductase superfamily. Some species display subsocial behavior with maternal care of offspring.
Chrysomelinae
broad-bodied leaf beetles, broad-shouldered leaf beetles
Chrysomelinae is a subfamily of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) comprising approximately 3,000 species worldwide, commonly known as broad-bodied or broad-shouldered leaf beetles. The subfamily includes the economically significant Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata), a major agricultural pest. Chrysomelinae exhibits remarkable diversity in form and coloration, with adults typically displaying convex, rounded bodies often with bright coloration and variable patterns. The subfamily is distinguished by several unique morphological features including antennae inserted on or adjacent to the anterior head edge, mandibles with large membranous prosthecae, and a single anal cell in each wing. Larvae possess six pairs of stemmata, palmate mandibles, and annular spiracles. Both life stages possess defensive glands that secrete protective chemicals.
Gargaphia solani
eggplant lace bug
Gargaphia solani is a subsocial lace bug in the family Tingidae, described by Heidemann in 1914 after emerging as a pest of eggplant in Norfolk, Virginia. It is the first species in its family in which maternal care was discovered. Females guard circular egg masses on leaf undersides and defend nymphs against predators, a behavior essential for offspring survival given heavy predation pressure. Development from egg to adult takes approximately 20 days, with nymphs passing through five instars. The species is a significant agricultural pest of solanaceous crops and has been extensively studied for its reproductive trade-offs and the evolution of parental care.
Geolycosa turricola
turret spider, burrowing wolf spider
Geolycosa turricola is a burrowing wolf spider (family Lycosidae) native to the eastern United States, ranging as far west as Ohio. This species constructs deep, silk-lined burrows in sandy soils, often with a distinctive turret of silk and debris at the entrance. It exhibits an obligate burrowing lifestyle with a two-year life cycle and has been documented showing high frequencies of ballooning behavior—aerial dispersal via silk threads—despite occupying relatively stable sand dune habitats. Spiderlings display subsocial organization with prolonged mutual tolerance within broods, facilitated primarily by chemical communication.
Labidura
striped earwigs
Labidura is a genus of earwigs in the family Labiduridae, established by Leach in 1815. The genus includes approximately nine species, with Labidura riparia being the most widespread and cosmopolitan member. Labidura riparia is notable as a predator of agricultural pests, including the Asian corn borer and Mediterranean fruit fly pupae. The Saint Helena earwig (Labidura herculeana), now possibly extinct, was the largest known earwig species. Several Labidura species exhibit subsocial maternal care of eggs and young.
Labidura riparia
shore earwig, tawny earwig, striped earwig, riparian earwig
Labidura riparia is a cosmopolitan earwig species found primarily in tropical to subtropical regions. It exhibits complex subsocial behavior with maternal care of eggs and young. The species is a generalist predator valued for biological pest control, with documented predation on Lepidoptera larvae, insect eggs, and crop pests including the Asian corn borer and Mediterranean fruit fly pupae. Males possess two functional penises but show a 90% preference for the right penis during copulation, a behavioral asymmetry unique among earwigs.
Mesomphaliini
tortoise beetles
Mesomphaliini is a tribe of tortoise beetles (Cassidinae) erected by Hope in 1840, though some authorities recognize the alternative name Stolaini (Hincks, 1952). The tribe is predominantly Neotropical, with most species occurring in the Americas. Some genera, including Chelymorpha, Stolas, and Cyrtonota, have representatives extending into Europe and Japan. Members exhibit distinctive larval behaviors including construction of exuvio-fecal shields and documented subsocial maternal care in at least some species.
Scytodes
spitting spiders
Scytodes is a globally distributed genus of spitting spiders distinguished by their unique prey-capture mechanism: projecting a sticky, glue-like secretion from their fangs to immobilize prey. The genus contains approximately 239 species, with Scytodes thoracica being the most widely distributed. Members exhibit diverse social structures ranging from solitary to communal-territorial and fully social species.
Sehirus cinctus
white-margined burrower bug, white-margined burrowing bug
Sehirus cinctus is a true bug in the family Cydnidae known for its unusual subsocial behavior. Females deposit 120–150 eggs in shallow burrows and guard them until hatching. After emergence, mothers provision nymphs with food for 1–3 days before the young disperse to forage independently. This species has been documented feeding on plants in the Urticaceae (nettle) and Lamiaceae (mint) families, and has been observed associating with honey bees.
Umbonia
Thorn Treehoppers
Umbonia is a genus of treehoppers in the family Membracidae, characterized by pronounced pronotal modifications that form thorn-like or horn-like projections. The genus occurs primarily in the Neotropics, with species distributed from the southern United States through Central America to South America. Members of this genus exhibit subsocial behavior, with females providing extended parental care to nymphal offspring. Several species, particularly Umbonia crassicornis, have been studied intensively for their complex maternal care systems involving vibrational communication between mothers and offspring. The genus includes approximately 16 described species, with Umbonia crassicornis being the most commonly encountered and economically significant species.
Umbonia crassicornis
Thorn bug, Thorn Treehopper
Umbonia crassicornis is a treehopper species in the family Membracidae, notable for its pronounced sexual dimorphism in pronotal horn structure and extensive maternal care. Adult females deposit approximately 100 eggs into plant stems or under bark, then remain with the developing nymphs until adulthood—a rare subsocial behavior among insects. Nymphs and adults form dense aggregations, with offspring communicating danger to the mother through synchronized vibrational signals that trigger her antipredator defense. The species feeds on plant sap and is occasionally a pest of ornamental and fruit trees in southern Florida and Puerto Rico.
Xysticus
Ground Crab Spiders
Xysticus is a large genus of approximately 275–300 species of ground crab spiders in the family Thomisidae. These spiders are ambush predators that do not build webs, instead hunting near the ground by seizing prey with their enlarged anterior legs. The genus exhibits strong sexual dimorphism, with females typically reaching 10 mm in body length while males are roughly half that size. Species identification requires microscopic examination of genitalia due to the morphological similarity among members of the genus.