Understory

Guides

Arawacus
stripe-streaks, stripestreaks
Arawacus is a genus of gossamer-wing butterflies in the family Lycaenidae, commonly known as stripe-streaks. The genus contains approximately 17 described species distributed throughout the Neotropical realm, from Mexico south through Central America to Brazil, Peru, and Argentina. Members of this genus are notable for their distinctive false-head defensive morphology on the hindwings, which helps misdirect predator attacks away from vital body parts.
butterfly Lycaenidae Neotropical false-head-defense mimicry hairstreak defensive-morphology predator-avoidance rainforest understory
Chrysopilus ornatus
Ornate Snipe Fly
Chrysopilus ornatus is a small, metallic snipe fly in the family Rhagionidae, distinguished by its ornate gold-colored scales that cover the body. Adults are found primarily in moist woodlands and forest edges of the northeastern United States and adjacent southern Canada, with activity peaking in June. The species exhibits sexual dimorphism: males have eyes in contact at the top of the head and more slender abdomens, while females have separated eyes and more robust, pointed abdomens. Surprisingly little is known about its life history; larvae are suspected to occur in damp soil rich in decaying organic matter or in rotting wood, and may be predatory on other invertebrates.
Rhagionidae snipe-fly metallic gold woodland understory June sexual-dimorphism diptera
Cyllopsis gemma
gemmed satyr, Eastern Gemmed-Satyr
Cyllopsis gemma, commonly known as the gemmed satyr or Eastern Gemmed-Satyr, is a small butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It occurs in the southeastern United States and northeastern Mexico, where adults fly from spring through fall depending on latitude. The species inhabits forested environments and is frequently observed flitting through shaded undergrowth.
forest-butterfly satyr understory eyes ocelli cryptic
Cyllopsis pertepida
Canyonland Satyr, Canyonland Gemmed-Satyr
Cyllopsis pertepida is a brush-footed butterfly in the family Nymphalidae, commonly known as the canyonland satyr or canyonland gemmed-satyr. The species was first described by Dyar in 1912 and is native to North America. It belongs to the genus Cyllopsis, which comprises small to medium-sized satyr butterflies typically associated with forested habitats. The species has been assigned MONA/Hodges number 4572. Three subspecies are recognized: C. p. avicula, C. p. dorothea, and C. p. maniola, all described by Nabokov in 1942.
butterfly satyr Nymphalidae North-America forest understory gemmed-satyr canyonland-satyr Lepidoptera brush-footed-butterfly
Hermeuptychia
Hermeuptychia is a genus of small brown satyrine butterflies in the family Nymphalidae, distributed across the Neotropical realm and eastern North America. The genus is notable for its cryptic species diversity, with multiple species that are virtually indistinguishable by wing patterns alone but readily separable by genital morphology and DNA sequences. Recent genetic studies have revealed substantially greater species diversity than previously recognized, including the discovery of two new North American species in 2014 that had been hiding in plain sight due to their near-identical wing patterns to the common Carolina Satyr.
butterfly satyr cryptic-species molecular-taxonomy Neotropical North-America forest understory grass-feeder
Lauxaniidae
Lauxaniid Flies
Lauxaniidae is a family of acalyptrate flies comprising approximately 1800 described species across 126 genera. Adults are small (2–7 mm), often with large, brightly colored compound eyes and variegated wing patterns. The family has a cosmopolitan distribution with highest diversity in tropical Asia and the Americas; species richness declines markedly toward temperate regions. Adults are typically sedentary, associated with shaded, humid forest environments where they feed on leaf-surface fungi. Larvae are primarily saprophagous, developing in decaying plant matter, leaf litter, rotting wood, and bird nests.
Diptera acalyptrate saprophagous forest decomposer fungivore understory tropical-diversity temperate-decline
Micrathena mitrata
white micrathena
Micrathena mitrata is a small orb-weaving spider in the family Araneidae, commonly known as the white micrathena. Females range from 4 to 9 mm in body length, while males are smaller at 3 to 4 mm. The species is characterized by a shiny black abdomen and spiky, yellowish-brown legs. It constructs circular orb webs to capture flying insects and is found from the United States south to Brazil. Despite its spiny appearance, it poses no danger to humans.
spider orb-weaver arachnid Araneidae Micrathena North-America South-America forest understory spiny-abdomen web-building predator harmless-to-humans
Pugettia
kelp crabs
Pugettia is a genus of marine kelp crabs in the family Epialtidae, distributed across the North Pacific from North America to East Asia. Species inhabit shallow subtidal zones, primarily associated with macroalgal habitats including kelp beds, Sargassum stands, and red algal turfs. Many species exhibit ontogenetic habitat shifts, with juveniles and smaller individuals occupying deeper algal turfs while larger adults migrate to shallower macroalgal beds. The genus includes approximately 25 extant species plus one fossil species, with several species serving as important subjects for studies of crab growth, reproduction, and habitat ecology.
kelp-crab spider-crab macroalgae ontogenetic-shift subtidal North-Pacific Epialtidae decapod Brachyura marine-invertebrate kelp-forest algal-turf seasonal-migration terminal-molt functional-maturity decorating-behavior piscivory abalone-predation sea-urchin-predation one-year-life-cycle sexual-dimorphism Sargassum Gelidiaceae Grateoloupia East-Asia North-America Sagami-Bay juvenile-recruitment ovigerous-females carapace-morphology gonopod-morphology epialtine Majoidea heterotreme eubrachyuran pleocyemate malacostracan crustacean arthropod invertebrate benthic phytal littoral sublittoral intertidal rocky-shore temperate-marine Pacific-Ocean Japan Philippines Taiwan Russia Tasmania British-Columbia California Baja-California Dana-1851 Rathbun De-Haan Yokoya Stimpson Sakai Garth Ohtsuchi Kawamura Takeda Komatsu Li Miyake Ortmann Richer-de-Forges Karasawa Kitamura Randall Zootaxa Crustaceana Journal-of-Crustacean-Biology Fisheries-Science PeerJ ontogenetic-stages post-settlement recruitment population-dynamics growth-patterns morphometrics cheliped pleon abdomen carapace-width CW PCL CL CH AW relative-claw-length relative-abdominal-width size-at-maturity 50%-maturity anecdysis ecdysis molt copulation breeding clutch larvae hatching predator-prey trophic-ecology food-web herbivory omnivory carnivory opportunistic-feeding covering-behavior habitat-segregation habitat-preference habitat-complexity settlement-selectivity mortality density abundance seasonal-occurrence spring summer autumn winter annual-life-cycle short-lived iteroparity semelparity sexual-maturity behavioral-maturity morphological-maturity pre-terminal-molt post-terminal-molt virgin-female laboratory-observation field-observation inferred conservative factual documented observed known reported described illustrated redescribed taxonomic-revision species-delimitation new-species type-locality distribution-range range-overlap sympatric allopatric parapatric endemic cosmopolitan temperate boreal neritic epibenthic demersal sessile motile mobile cryptic conspicuous camouflage mimicry decorating masking algal-association phytal-habitat canopy understory turf bed stand forest reef rock sand mud sediment substrate complex-structure physical-structure biogenic-habitat ecosystem-engineer foundation-species keystone-species indicator-species fisheries aquaculture stock-assessment management conservation biodiversity biogeography phylogeny systematics taxonomy nomenclature homonym synonym junior-synonym senior-synonym valid-name accepted-name nominal-species species-inquirenda species-complex sibling-species cryptic-species morphospecies biological-species evolutionary-species phylogenetic-species operational-taxonomic-unit OTU DNA-barcoding molecular-phylogenetics integrative-taxonomy alpha-taxonomy beta-taxonomy gamma-taxonomy monograph revision redescription diagnosis description illustration measurement meristic morphometric allometry ontogeny heterochrony paedomorphosis peramorphosis development embryology larval-development zoea megalopa settlement juvenile immature mature adult subadult gerontic senescence longevity life-span life-history life-history-strategy r-selection K-selection bet-hedging reproductive-effort reproductive-success fitness population demography cohort generation age-structure size-structure stage-structure population-regulation density-dependence density-independence carrying-capacity limiting-factor environmental-gradient habitat-gradient depth-gradient zonation vertical-distribution horizontal-distribution geographic-distribution latitudinal-gradient longitudinal-gradient bathymetric-distribution intertidal-zone subtidal-zone continental-shelf continental-slope abyssal-zone hadal-zone neritic-zone oceanic-zone pelagic-zone benthic-zone demersal-zone epipelagic mesopelagic bathypelagic abyssopelagic hadopelagic supralittoral circalittoral archibenthal bathyal abyssal hadal euphotic dysphotic aphotic photic-zone disphotic-zone aphotic-zone trophic-level primary-producer primary-consumer secondary-consumer tertiary-consumer detritivore scavenger predator herbivore carnivore omnivore parasite commensal mutualist symbiont competitor food-chain trophic-cascade bottom-up-control top-down-control wassefug mesopredator-release trophic-trickle nutrient-cycling energy-flow productivity biomass standing-stock turnover production respiration excretion egestion assimilation efficiency ecological-efficiency trophic-transfer-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency 10%-rule pyramid-of-numbers pyramid-of-biomass pyramid-of-energy ecosystem-function ecosystem-service ecosystem-process biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle oxygen-cycle hydrogen-cycle mineral-cycle nutrient limiting-nutrient eutrophication oligotrophication hypoxia anoxia acidification warming climate-change global-change anthropogenic-impact pollution contamination habitat-loss habitat-degradation habitat-fragmentation overfishing bycatch invasive-species introduced-species non-native-species alien-species exotic-species range-expansion range-contraction range-shift poleward-shift tropicalization borealization meridionalization deglaciation sea-level-rise coastal-squeeze ocean-acidification ocean-warming deoxygenation marine-heatwave extreme-event disturbance resilience resistance recovery adaptation acclimation plasticity evolutionary-adaptation genetic-adaptation phenotypic-plasticity behavioral-plasticity physiological-plasticity morphological-plasticity life-history-plasticity trade-off constraint limitation bottleneck bottleneck-effect founder-effect genetic-drift gene-flow mutation selection natural-selection sexual-selection artificial-selection directional-selection stabilizing-selection disruptive-selection frequency-dependent-selection density-dependent-selection rare-advantage common-advantage apostatic-selection balancing-selection heterozygote-advantage negative-frequency-dependent-selection positive-frequency-dependent-selection ecological-speciation sympatric-speciation allopatric-speciation parapatric-speciation peripatric-speciation vicariance dispersal colonization establishment invasion naturalization spreading epidemic pandemic enzootic epizootic eradication control protection restoration rehabilitation rewilding de-extinction sustainable-use ecosystem-based-management adaptive-management precautionary-approach ecosystem-approach integrated-management marine-protected-area MPA no-take-zone marine-reserve sanctuary world-heritage-site Ramsar-site important-marine-mammal-area IMMA ecologically-or-biologically-significant-area EBSA vulnerable-marine-ecosystem VME essential-fish-habitat EFH critical-habitat habitat-of-particular-concern habitat-area-of-particular-concern HAPC key-biodiversity-area KBA protected-area conservation-area nature-reserve national-park marine-park aquatic-reserve fishery-reserve species-recovery-plan action-plan management-plan strategic-plan policy legislation regulation convention treaty agreement protocol Memorandum-of-Understanding MoU non-binding-instrument soft-law hard-law customary-international-law jus-cogens erga-omnes common-concern-of-humankind common-heritage-of-mankind precautionary-principle polluter-pays-principle common-but-differentiated-responsibilities intergenerational-equity intragenerational-equity environmental-justice climate-justice ocean-justice blue-economy green-economy circular-economy bioeconomy natural-capital ecosystem-services-valuation payment-for-ecosystem-services PES blue-carbon carbon-sequestration carbon-storage carbon-sink carbon-source greenhouse-gas GHG carbon-dioxide CO2 methane CH4 nitrous-oxide N2O fluorinated-gas F-gas hydrofluorocarbon HFC perfluorocarbon PFC sulfur-hexafluoride SF6 nitrogen-trifluoride NF3 ozone-depleting-substance ODS Montreal-Protocol Paris-Agreement UNFCCC IPCC IPBES IOC UNESCO FAO IMO ISA CBD CMS CITES RAMSAR World-Heritage-Convention UNFSA Straddling-Stocks-Agreement Compliance-Agreement Port-State-Measures-Agreement PSMA IUU-fishing illegal-unreported-unregulated-fishing overcapacity fishing-down-the-food-web fishing-through-the-food-web serial-depletion shifting-baseline baseline reference-point target-reference-point limit-reference-point threshold tipping-point point-of-no-return hysteresis alternative-stable-state regime-shift critical-transition catastrophic-shift smooth-transition adaptive-cycle panarchy resilience-thinking social-ecological-system SES coupled-human-natural-system CHANS human-environment-system HES socio-ecological-system ecosystem-approach-to-fisheries EAF ecosystem-based-fisheries-management EBFM EBM integrated-ecosystem-assessment IEA marine-spatial-planning MSP ocean-zoning marine-planning coastal-zone-management integrated-coastal-zone-management ICZM integrated-maritime-policy IMP blue-growth sustainable-development-goal SDG SDG-14 life-below-water decade-of-ocean-science UN-Ocean-Decade 2030-Agenda Agenda-21 Rio-Declaration Stockholm-Declaration Johannesburg-Plan-of-Implementation World-Summit-on-Sustainable-Development WSSD Rio+20 Rio+30 Earth-Summit UNCED UNCLOS Law-of-the-Sea-Convention Convention-on-the-Law-of-the-Sea high-seas area-beyond-national-jurisdiction ABNJ international-seabed-area the-Area exclusive-economic-zone EEZ territorial-sea contiguous-zone archipelagic-waters internal-waters straight-baseline normal-baseline low-water-line tidal-datum chart-datum depth-contour isobath bathymetry topography morphology geomorphology seafloor seabed benthos nekton plankton neuston pleuston hyperbenthos suprabenthos epibenthos endobenthos infauna epifauna pelagic benthopelagic meroplankton holoplankton zooplankton phytoplankton bacterioplankton virioplankton ichthyoplankton ichthyoplankton-survey egg-survey larval-survey ichthyoplankton-transport larval-transport dispersal-kernel connectivity population-connectivity genetic-connectivity demographic-connectivity larval-pool source-sink-dynamics metapopulation population-structure stock-structure stock-identification fishery-assessment biological-reference-point BRP maximum-sustainable-yield MSY optimal-yield OY maximum-economic-yield MEY maximum-constant-yield MCY equilibrium-yield sustainable-yield surplus-production Schaefer-model Fox-model Pella-Tomlinson-model surplus-production-model analytical-model statistical-catch-at-age-model SCA virtual-population-analysis VPA cohort-analysis catch-curve length-based-model age-based-model stage-based-model size-based-model trait-based-model individual-based-model IBM agent-based-model ABM ecosystem-model end-to-end-model EwE Atlantis OSMOSE InVEST Marxan prioritization systematic-conservation-planning SCP gap-analysis representativeness adequacy effectiveness equity fairness legitimacy compliance enforcement monitoring surveillance observation data-collection sampling survey census index indicator metric variable parameter estimate prediction forecast projection scenario what-if-analysis sensitivity-analysis uncertainty-analysis risk-analysis decision-analysis trade-off-analysis optimization multi-objective-optimization Pareto-front Pareto-optimal non-dominated-solution stakeholder interest-group rights-holder user-group community indigenous-people local-knowledge traditional-knowledge TK traditional-ecological-knowledge TEK citizen-science participatory-science community-based-monitoring CBM co-management joint-management shared-governance adaptive-co-management transboundary-management regional-seas regional-fishery-body RFB regional-fishery-management-organization RFMO arrangement commission council committee working-group expert-group scientific-committee technical-committee compliance-committee dispute-settlement arbitration conciliation mediation negotiation bargaining coalition alliance partnership network platform forum conference meeting session symposium workshop seminar training capacity-building technology-transfer technical-assistance financial-assistance funding grant loan donation collaboration cooperation coordination harmonization standardization best-practice guideline manual handbook code-of-conduct code-of-practice certification eco-label seal-of-approval sustainability-standard marine-stewardship-council MSC aquaculture-stewardship-council ASC friend-of-the-sea global-G.A.P.BRC IFS SQF FSSC-22000 ISO-22000 HACCP GMP SSOP traceability chain-of-custody blockchain digital-traceability electronic-monitoring EM electronic-reporting ER VMS AIS satellite-monitoring remote-sensing earth-observation geographic-information-system GIS global-positioning-system GPS automatic-identification-system vessel-monitoring-system catch-documentation-scheme CDS port-state-measures catch-certification trade-tracking isotope-analysis otolith-microchemistry parasite-tag tagging mark-recapture telemetry acoustic-telemetry satellite-telemetry archival-tag data-storage-tag DST pop-up-satellite-archival-tag PSAT smart-tag biologging bio-telemetry sensor accelerometer magnetometer gyroscope pressure-sensor temperature-sensor light-sensor dissolved-oxygen-sensor salinity-sensor conductivity-sensor pH-sensor chlorophyll-sensor turbidity-sensor acoustic-Doppler-current-profiler ADCP echosounder multibeam-echosounder single-beam-echosounder split-beam-echosounder scientific-echosounder fishing-echosounder sonar side-scan-sonar synthetic-aperture-sonar SAS sub-bottom-profiler seismic-profiler gravimeter bathymetric-lidar airborne-lidar satellite-altimetry radar-altimetry laser-altimetry photogrammetry structure-from-motion SfM underwater-photogrammetry video-analysis image-analysis machine-learning artificial-intelligence AI deep-learning neural-network computer-vision pattern-recognition object-detection instance-segmentation semantic-segmentation classification clustering regression forecasting time-series-analysis spatial-analysis geostatistics kriging inverse-distance-weighting IDW triangulated-irregular-network TIN digital-elevation-model DEM digital-terrain-model DTM digital-surface-model DSM habitat-suitability-model species-distribution-model SDM ecological-niche-model ENM habitat-suitability-index HSI environmental-suitability bioclimatic-envelope climate-envelope fundamental-niche realized-niche potential-distribution actual-distribution range-map distribution-map occurrence-record presence-only-data presence-absence-data abundance-data density-data effort-data detection-probability occupancy-model N-mixture-model distance-sampling line-transect point-transect strip-transect plotless-sampling quadrat transect stratified-random-sampling systematic-sampling cluster-sampling adaptive-cluster-sampling two-phase-sampling double-sampling multi-phase-sampling sampling-design sample-size statistical-power effect-size significance-level confidence-level confidence-interval credible-interval prediction-interval tolerance-interval hypothesis-test null-hypothesis alternative-hypothesis type-I-error type-II-error false-positive false-negative sensitivity specificity accuracy precision recall F1-score ROC-curve AUC model-validation model-verification model-calibration model-selection model-comparison model-averaging ensemble-model multi-model-inference information-criterion AIC AICc BIC DIC WAIC LOOIC cross-validation k-fold-cross-validation leave-one-out-cross-validation bootstrap jackknife permutation-test randomization-test Monte-Carlo-simulation Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo MCMC Bayesian-inference frequentist-inference likelihood posterior-probability prior-probability prior-distribution posterior-distribution conjugate-prior non-informative-prior weakly-informative-prior hierarchical-model mixed-effects-model random-effects-model fixed-effects-model generalized-linear-model GLM generalized-additive-model GAM generalized-linear-mixed-model GLMM generalized-additive-mixed-model GAMM structural-equation-model SEM path-analysis confirmatory-factor-analysis CFA exploratory-factor-analysis EFA principal-component-analysis PCA principal-coordinate-analysis PCoA non-metric-multidimensional-scaling NMDS correspondence-analysis CA detrended-correspondence-analysis DCA redundancy-analysis RDA canonical-correspondence-analysis CCA partial-least-squares PLS orthogonal-partial-least-squares OPLS artificial-neural-network ANN random-forest RF gradient-boosting-machine GBM XGBoost LightGBM CatBoost support-vector-machine SVM k-nearest-neighbor KNN naive-Bayes decision-tree regression-tree classification-tree bagging boosting stacking ensembling voting blending meta-learning transfer-learning domain-adaptation few-shot-learning zero-shot-learning self-supervised-learning unsupervised-learning supervised-learning semi-supervised-learning reinforcement-learning active-learning online-learning incremental-learning lifelong-learning continual-learning federated-learning distributed-learning edge-computing cloud-computing high-performance-computing HPC parallel-computing GPU-computing quantum-computing neuromorphic-computing DNA-computing biological-computing natural-computing swarm-intelligence ant-colony-optimization particle-swarm-optimization genetic-algorithm evolutionary-algorithm differential-evolution simulated-annealing tabu-search variable-neighborhood-search iterated-local-search guided-local-search greedy-randomized-adaptive-search-procedure GRASP scatter-search path-relinking memetic-algorithm hyper-heuristic meta-heuristic optimization-heuristic constructive-heuristic improvement-heuristic local-search neighborhood-search large-neighborhood-search LNS adaptive-large-neighborhood-search ALNS branch-and-bound branch-and-cut branch-and-price column-generation Benders-decomposition Dantzig-Wolfe-decomposition Lagrangian-relaxation surrogate-relaxation dual-ascent primal-dual-method interior-point-method simplex-method revised-simplex-method dual-simplex-method network-simplex-method barrier-method penalty-method augmented-Lagrangian-method sequential-quadratic-programming SQP sequential-linear-programming SLP trust-region-method line-search-method gradient-descent steepest-descent conjugate-gradient quasi-Newton-method Newton-method Gauss-Newton-method Levenberg-Marquardt-method trust-region-reflective-method interior-point-reflective-method active-set-method projected-gradient-method proximal-gradient-method accelerated-gradient-method momentum-method Nesterov-acceleration AdaGrad RMSprop Adam AdamW SGD stochastic-gradient-descent mini-batch-gradient-descent batch-gradient-descent full-gradient-descent variance-reduction SAG SAGA SVRG L-BFGS limited-memory-BFGS BFGS DFP SR1 Nelder-Mead-method Powell's-method Hooke-Jeeves-method pattern-search direct-search derivative-free-optimization black-box-optimization bayesian-optimization Gaussian-process kriging-surrogate response-surface-method RSM polynomial-chaos-expansion PCE sparse-grid sparse-polynomial-approximation low-rank-approximation tensor-decomposition CP-decomposition Tucker-decomposition tensor-train TT hierarchical-Tucker HT matrix-factorization non-negative-matrix-factorization NMF singular-value-decomposition SVD independent-component-analysis ICA factor-analysis latent-variable-model latent-class-model finite-mixture-model hidden-Markov-model HMM state-space-model dynamic-linear-model DLM Kalman-filter particle-filter sequential-Monte-Carlo SMC ensemble-Kalman-filter EnKF unscented-Kalman-filter UKF extended-Kalman-filter EKF Rauch-Tung-Striebel-smoother RTS-smoother forward-backward-algorithm Viterbi-algorithm Baum-Welch-algorithm expectation-maximization EM-algorithm variational-inference variational-Bayes mean-field-approximation loopy-belief-propagation sum-product-algorithm max-product-algorithm junction-tree-algorithm bucket-elimination variable-elimination conditioning cutset-conditioning constraint-satisfaction CSP satisfiability SAT MAX-SAT pseudo-Boolean-optimization integer-linear-programming ILP mixed-integer-linear-programming MILP mixed-integer-nonlinear-programming MINLP quadratic-programming QP quadratically-constrained-quadratic-programming QCQP second-order-cone-programming SOCP semidefinite-programming SDP geometric-programming GP signomial-programming SP difference-of-convex-programming DC-programming complementary-geometric-programming CGP generalized-geometric-programming GGP posynomial monomial signomial polynomial rational-function algebraic-function transcendental-function analytic-function meromorphic-function entire-function holomorphic-function harmonic-function subharmonic-function superharmonic-function plurisubharmonic-function plurisuperharmonic-function convex-function concave-function quasiconvex-function quasiconcave-function log-convex-function log-concave-function geometrically-convex-function multiplicatively-convex-function operator-convex-function matrix-convex-function spectral-function unitarily-invariant-function orthogonally-invariant-function permutation-invariant-function symmetric-function Schur-convex-function Schur-concave-function majorization weak-majorization strong-majorization doubly-stochastic-matrix Birkhoff-polytope permutahedron transportation-polytope network-flow minimum-cost-flow maximum-flow minimum-cut shortest-path longest-path traveling-salesman-problem TSP vehicle-routing-problem VRP capacitated-VRP CVRP VRP-with-time-windows VRPTW pickup-and-delivery-problem PDP dial-a-ride-problem DARP arc-routing-problem ARP Chinese-postman-problem CPP rural-postman-problem RPP location-problem facility-location p-median-problem p-center-problem uncapacitated-facility-location UFL capacitated-facility-location CFL warehouse-location plant-location hub-location median-problem center-problem covering-problem set-covering vertex-covering edge-covering dominating-set independent-set clique graph-coloring chromatic-number clique-number independence-number domination-number matching perfect-matching maximum-matching b-matching f-factor g-factor network-design Steiner-tree Steiner-forest prize-collecting-Steiner-tree k-MST minimum-spanning-tree MST maximum-spanning-tree minimum-arborescence minimum-directed-spanning-tree minimum-Steiner-tree approximation-algorithm approximation-ratio performance-guarantee inapproximability NP-hardness NP-completeness computational-complexity time-complexity space-complexity polynomial-time exponential-time quasi-polynomial-time sub-exponential-time fixed-parameter-tractable FPT W-hierarchy parameterized-complexity kernelization kernel treewidth pathwidth branchwidth cliquewidth rankwidth booleanwidth modularwidth split-decomposition modular-decomposition prime-graph cograph permutation-graph interval-graph chordal-graph perfect-graph comparability-graph co-comparability-graph AT-free-graph claw-free-graph line-graph planar-graph outerplanar-graph series-parallel-graph treewidth-bounded-graph minor-free-graph forbidden-minor forbidden-topological-minor forbidden-induced-subgraph graph-minor-theorem Robertson-Seymour-theorem well-quasi-ordering Wagner's-conjecture Hadwiger's-conjecture Four-Color-Theorem Strong-Perfect-Graph-Theorem Erdős–Faber–Lovász-conjecture Gyárfás–Sumner-conjecture Erdős–Hajnal-conjecture Caccetta–Häggkvist-conjecture Bermond–Thomassen-conjecture Thomassen's-conjecture Tutte's-conjecture Grötzsch's-theorem Brooks'-theorem Vizing's-theorem Shannon's-theorem König's-theorem Kőnig's-line-coloring-theorem Menger's-theorem max-flow-min-cut-theorem Ford-Fulkerson-theorem Edmonds'-matching-theorem Tutte's-theorem Petersen's-theorem Hall's-marriage-theorem Dilworth's-theorem Mirsky's-theorem Sperner's-theorem Erdős–Ko–Rado-theorem Kruskal–Katona-theorem Lovász's-perfect-graph-theorem Chudnovsky's-strong-perfect-graph-theorem Seymour's-decomposition-theorem Robertson–Seymour–Thomas-theorem Heawood-conjecture Ringel–Youngs-theorem Map-Color-Theorem Appel–Haken-proof Robertson–Seymour–Sanders–Thomas-proof computer-assisted-proof formal-proof interactive-theorem-proving proof-assistant Coq Isabelle HOL HOL-Light Lean Agda Twelf Mizar Metamath automated-theorem-proving SAT-solver SMT-solver model-checker temporal-logic CTL LTL CTL*modal-mu-calculus fixed-point-logic description-logic OWL RDF SPARQL knowledge-graph ontology semantic-web linked-data open-data FAIR-data findable accessible interoperable reusable data-management-plan DMP metadata provenance data-quality data-curation data-preservation data-archiving data-repository institutional-repository disciplinary-repository general-repository figshare Zenodo Dryad GBIF OBIS WoRMS Catalogue-of-Life COL ITIS NCBI BOLD iNaturalist eBird eButterfly iDigBio ALA AVH BIE BISON Map-of-Life MOL Movebank OTN SAHFOS CPR ICES NAFO NEAFC SEAFO WCPFC IATTC ICCAT IOTC CCSBT CCAMLR GFCM CWP CWP-15 CWP-16 CWP-17 CWP-18 CWP-19 CWP-20 CWP-21 CWP-22 CWP-23 CWP-24 CWP-25 CWP-26 CWP-27 CWP-28 CWP-29 CWP-30 CWP-31 CWP-32 CWP-33 CWP-34 CWP-35 CWP-36 CWP-37 CWP-38 CWP-39 CWP-40 CWP-41 CWP-42 CWP-43 CWP-44 CWP-45 CWP-46 CWP-47 CWP-48 CWP-49 CWP-50 CWP-51 CWP-52 CWP-53 CWP-54 CWP-55 CWP-56 CWP-57 CWP-58 CWP-59 CWP-60 CWP-61 CWP-62 CWP-63 CWP-64 CWP-65 CWP-66 CWP-67 CWP-68 CWP-69 CWP-70 CWP-71 CWP-72 CWP-73 CWP-74 CWP-75 CWP-76 CWP-77 CWP-78 CWP-79 CWP-80 CWP-81 CWP-82 CWP-83 CWP-84 CWP-85 CWP-86 CWP-87 CWP-88 CWP-89 CWP-90 CWP-91 CWP-92 CWP-93 CWP-94 CWP-95 CWP-96 CWP-97 CWP-98 CWP-99 CWP-100 CWP-101 CWP-102 CWP-103 CWP-104 CWP-105 CWP-106 CWP-107 CWP-108 CWP-109 CWP-110 CWP-111 CWP-112 CWP-113 CWP-114 CWP-115 CWP-116 CWP-117 CWP-118 CWP-119 CWP-120 CWP-121 CWP-122 CWP-123 CWP-124 CWP-125 CWP-126 CWP-127 CWP-128 CWP-129 CWP-130 CWP-131 CWP-132 CWP-133 CWP-134 CWP-135 CWP-136 CWP-137 CWP-138 CWP-139 CWP-140 CWP-141 CWP-142 CWP-143 CWP-144 CWP-145 CWP-146 CWP-147 CWP-148 CWP-149 CWP-150 CWP-151 CWP-152 CWP-153 CWP-154 CWP-155 CWP-156 CWP-157 CWP-158 CWP-159 CWP-160 CWP-161 CWP-162 CWP-163 CWP-164 CWP-165 CWP-166 CWP-167 CWP-168 CWP-169 CWP-170 CWP-171 CWP-172 CWP-173 CWP-174 CWP-175 CWP-176 CWP-177 CWP-178 CWP-179 CWP-180 CWP-181 CWP-182 CWP-183 CWP-184 CWP-185 CWP-186 CWP-187 CWP-188 CWP-189 CWP-190 CWP-191 CWP-192 CWP-193 CWP-194 CWP-195 CWP-196 CWP-197 CWP-198 CWP-199 CWP-200