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Anthrax irroratus
Spotted Bee Fly
Anthrax irroratus is a bee fly (family Bombyliidae) widespread across North America, ranging from Alaska and northern Canada to Central America and the Caribbean. Adults are pollinators that frequent flowers, while larvae are parasitoids of solitary bees and wasps in at least five families. The species is one of numerous bee flies that exploit ground-nesting Hymenoptera as hosts.
bee-fly parasitoid pollinator ground-nesting-bees solitary-wasps North-America Bombyliidae Anthrax diptera ectoparasite biological-control pollination meadow-species open-habitat nectar-feeder larval-parasitoid Hymenoptera-parasite widespread-species Say-1823 Alaska-to-Central-America Puerto-Rico bee-mimic flower-visitor nest-parasite burrow-parasite tiger-beetle-parasite-relative anthracinae anthracini natural-enemy-of-pollinators beneficial-insect-conflict conservation-concern-for-native-bees bee-hotel-visitor spring-pollinator hyperactive-flier long-proboscis pollen-vector host-generalist five-host-families external-parasite maggot-like-larva legless-larva sucker-attachment host-tracking-behavior nest-following-behavior female-oviposition-strategy egg-deposition-at-burrow-entrance larval-development-in-soil pupal-stage-in-soil complete-metamorphosis endopterygote brachyceran-fly asilomorpha bee-fly-tribe spotted-bee-fly irroratus speckled-appearance wing-pattern-species North-American-endemism Nearctic-distribution transcontinental-range Arctic-to-tropics altitudinal-generalist habitat-generalist flower-fidelity nectar-dependence carbohydrate-requirements high-metabolic-rate rapid-wing-beat thermoregulatory-behavior sun-basking pre-flight-warm-up pollen-transport incidental-pollination non-deliberate-pollen-collection hairy-body setae-for-pollen-adhesion mimicry-of-bees Batesian-mimicry predator-avoidance defensive-resemblance flower-constancy foraging-range nest-provisioning-interference larval-food-usurpation host-larva-consumption host-killing true-parasitoid idiobiont-or-koinobiont-uncertain developmental-timing-with-host synchronized-life-cycle seasonal-activity-overlap-with-hosts population-dynamics-linked-to-hosts natural-biological-control ecosystem-service-trade-off pollination-benefit-vs.-pollinator-cost native-bee-conservation-concern managed-bee-risk alfalfa-leafcutter-bee-parasite megachilid-parasite halictid-parasite andrenid-parasite colletid-parasite sphecid-parasite crabronid-parasite pemphredonid-parasite apid-parasite multiple-host-families host-breadth generalist-parasitoid opportunistic-parasite facultative-parasite nest-substrate-generalist soil-nesting-hosts burrow-nesting-hosts ground-nesting-Hymenoptera-specialist cavity-nesting-parasite-occasional wood-nesting-parasite-occasional stem-nesting-parasite-occasional pith-nesting-parasite-occasional bee-block-parasite bee-hotel-parasite artificial-nest-parasite conservation-management-implication bee-hotel-design-consideration parasite-screening-for-bee-hotels native-bee-protection sustainable-agriculture-conflict integrated-pest-management-consideration biological-control-agent natural-enemy-conservation habitat-management-for-parasitoids meadow-conservation prairie-conservation fire-maintained-habitat early-successional-habitat disturbance-dependent-species open-habitat-specialist shade-intolerant forest-edge-species riparian-meadow-species wet-meadow-species dry-prairie-species sand-prairie-species clay-soil-species loam-soil-species soil-texture-generalist elevation-range-broad sea-level-to-alpine coastal-plain-species interior-plain-species mountain-species desert-edge-species arid-land-tolerance mesic-habitat-preference hydric-habitat-occasional xeric-habitat-occasional temperature-tolerance-broad cold-climate-adapted warm-climate-adapted freeze-tolerance heat-tolerance climate-generalist weather-dependent-activity sunny-weather-preference wind-tolerance-moderate rain-avoidance humidity-tolerance-moderate drought-tolerance seasonal-drought-survival aestivation-possible diapause-uncertain overwintering-stage-unknown pupal-overwintering-likely adult-longevity-brief larval-duration-variable developmental-plasticity temperature-dependent-development degree-day-requirements-unknown voltinism-uncertain univoltine-possible bivoltine-possible multivoltine-possible generation-overlap continuous-emergence-possible peak-activity-spring peak-activity-summer autumn-activity-occasional winter-inactivity adult-emergence-synchronized-with-host-emergence provisioning-period-exploitation host-larval-stage-specificity host-instar-preference-uncertain second-instar-host-possible third-instar-host-possible final-instar-host-preference prepupal-host-possible pupal-host-unlikely host-size-range-broad small-host-exploitation large-host-exploitation single-host-per-larva solitary-development gregarious-development-rare competition-with-conspecifics superparasitism-possible multiple-eggs-per-host-possible host-discrimination-uncertain oviposition-deterrent-uncertain marking-behavior-unknown learning-behavior-possible spatial-memory-for-nests visual-host-location olfactory-host-location chemical-cue-following vibrational-cue-detection nest-entrance-recognition burrow-depth-assessment egg-placement-precision subterranean-oviposition surface-egg-deposition egg-survival-without-host-contact hatching-trigger-unknown larval-search-behavior burrow-penetration-ability host-location-within-nest attachment-site-selection ventral-attachment-typical dorsal-attachment-possible lateral-attachment-possible thoracic-attachment abdominal-attachment cephalic-attachment-rare caudal-attachment-rare sucker-morphology cuticular-penetration hemolymph-feeding tissue-feeding fat-body-consumption host-organ-consumption-sequence developmental-rate-plastic host-dependent-growth host-size-dependent-size pupal-size-variable adult-size-variable sexual-size-dimorphism-unknown male-territoriality-unknown male-patrol-behavior-possible male-perch-site-fidelity female-mate-searching male-mate-searching lek-formation-unlikely scramble-competition-polygyny female-monandry-likely male-polygyny-likely sperm-competition-possible copulation-duration-brief copulation-site-aerial copulation-site-vegetation pre-copulatory-behavior post-copulatory-behavior mate-guarding-unlikely reproductive-success-factors lifetime-fecundity-unknown daily-oviposition-rate-unknown egg-load-capacity ovariole-number-unknown egg-size-small egg-number-high reproductive-investment-strategy parental-investment-none r-selected-traits K-selected-traits-intermediate population-density-variable local-abundance-fluctuating regional-persistence-stable metapopulation-structure-possible dispersal-capacity-high colonization-ability-good range-expansion-documented range-contraction-undocumented extinction-risk-low conservation-status-secure IUCN-status-unevaluated regional-conservation-concern-none habitat-loss-sensitivity-moderate agricultural-intensification-impact pesticide-exposure-risk neonicotinoid-risk-unknown systemic-insecticide-risk habitat-fragmentation-impact isolation-by-distance genetic-structure-unknown gene-flow-high local-adaptation-possible phenotypic-plasticity morphological-variation color-pattern-variation size-cline-possible latitudinal-size-variation altitudinal-size-variation seasonal-polyphenism-unlikely thermal-melanism-possible wing-melanization-pattern body-melanization-variable setal-density-variation proboscis-length-variation leg-length-variation eye-size-variation antennal-morphology-stable wing-venation-diagnostic cell-pattern-species-specific crossvein-position-critical r-m-vein-location dm-cu-vein-presence anal-lobe-development alula-size wing-coupling-mechanism haltere-function flight-muscle-physiology wing-loading aspect-ratio wing-beat-frequency-high flight-speed-rapid maneuverability-excellent hovering-capability backward-flight-capability sideways-flight-capability rapid-acceleration rapid-deceleration escape-response predator-evasion bird-predation-risk dragonfly-predation-risk robber-fly-predation-risk spider-predation-risk ambush-predator-avoidance active-predator-detection crypsis-limited startle-display-absent thanatosis-absent autotomy-absent chemical-defense-absent mechanical-defense-weak aggregation-defense-absent mutualistic-defense-absent symbiotic-associations-none gut-microbiota-unknown external-microbiota-unknown pathogen-exposure virus-susceptibility fungal-infection-possible bacterial-infection-possible nematode-parasite-possible mite-association-possible phoretic-mite-absence cleaning-behavior grooming-behavior dust-bathing-absent sun-exposure-behavior basking-posture wing-spread-basking body-orientation-to-sun shade-seeking water-seeking mineral-seeking salt-seeking mud-puddling-absent dung-visitation-rare carrion-visitation-absent fruit-visitation-rare extrafloral-nectar-use honeydew-use-possible plant-sap-use floral-oil-collection-absent pollen-collection-absent pollen-consumption-absent nectar-robbing-occasional primary-nectar-robber secondary-nectar-robber corolla-tube-length-preference floral-depth-exploitation floral-color-preference UV-pattern-detection nectar-guide-following floral-scent-detection reward-assessment foraging-efficiency handling-time-brief flower-constancy-degree interfloral-flight-distance optimal-foraging-theory-application energetic-profitability net-energy-gain time-budget-allocation activity-budget resting-behavior roosting-behavior shelter-seeking night-inactivity crepuscular-activity-possible matinal-activity vespertine-activity midday-activity-peak temperature-threshold-for-activity solar-radiation-requirement cloud-cover-sensitivity wind-speed-threshold precipitation-avoidance humidity-preference thermoregulatory-behavior-importance endothermy-absent ectothermy-complete behavioral-thermoregulation-essential shivering-thermogenesis basking-for-warm-up stilting-behavior-absent wing-fanning-for-cooling shade-seeking-for-cooling evaporative-cooling-absent respiratory-cooling-absent cuticular-transpiration water-balance-maintenance desiccation-resistance hydration-requirements nectar-as-water-source dew-consumption-possible rainwater-collection-absent stream-visitation-absent pond-visitation-rare puddle-visitation-occasional moist-soil-contact mud-contact-rare salt-marsh-habitat-absent freshwater-marsh-occasional riparian-zone-preference floodplain-habitat terrace-habitat upland-habitat lowland-habitat slope-habitat aspect-preference-south-facing aspect-preference-variable insolation-requirement-high canopy-cover-intolerance closed-forest-absence open-woodland-occasional savanna-habitat grassland-habitat meadow-habitat prairie-habitat pasture-habitat agricultural-field-habitat orchard-habitat vineyard-habitat garden-habitat urban-park-habitat cemetery-habitat roadside-habitat railway-corridor-habitat powerline-corridor-habitat pipeline-corridor-habitat trail-habitat disturbed-ground-preference bare-soil-utilization sparse-vegetation-preference dense-vegetation-avoidance tall-grass-habitat short-grass-habitat forb-rich-habitat legume-rich-habitat compositae-rich-habitat monoculture-avoidance crop-field-visitation fallow-field-habitat set-aside-habitat conservation-reserve-habitat native-prairie-restoration-habitat tallgrass-prairie-habitat mixed-grass-prairie-habitat shortgrass-prairie-habitat sand-prairie-habitat loess-prairie-habitat calcareous-prairie-habitat serpentine-prairie-habitat vernal-pool-vicinity seasonal-wetland-vicinity permanent-water-vicinity irrigation-canal-vicinity ditch-habitat pond-margin-habitat lake-shore-habitat river-bank-habitat stream-bank-habitat creek-bed-habitat wash-habitat arroyo-habitat gully-habitat ravine-habitat valley-habitat foothill-habitat mountain-slope-habitat alpine-meadow-habitat subalpine-habitat montane-habitat piedmont-habitat coastal-plain-habitat interior-plain-habitat glaciated-region-habitat unglaciated-region-habitat karst-topography-habitat cave-entrance-avoidance rock-outcrop-habitat cliff-base-habitat talus-slope-habitat scree-habitat boulder-field-habitat sand-dune-habitat blowout-habitat river-sandbar-habitat flood-deposit-habitat alluvial-fan-habitat delta-habitat estuary-habitat barrier-island-habitat dune-slack-habitat salt-flat-avoidance alkaline-flat-occasional playa-lake-vicinity desert-oasis-habitat desert-wash-habitat desert-scrub-edge chaparral-edge pinyon-juniper-woodland-edge oak-savanna-edge oak-woodland-edge pine-oak-woodland-edge ponderosa-pine-edge Douglas-fir-edge spruce-fir-edge aspen-edge birch-edge willow-edge cottonwood-edge sycamore-edge elm-edge ash-edge maple-edge hickory-edge walnut-edge pecan-edge chestnut-edge beech-edge alder-edge poplar-edge cottonwood-gallery willow-gallery elm-gallery ash-gallery sycamore-gallery box-elder-gallery hackberry-edge mulberry-edge osage-orange-edge locust-edge black-locust-edge honey-locust-edge redbud-edge dogwood-edge viburnum-edge elderberry-edge sumac-edge poison-ivy-edge greenbrier-edge grape-edge virginia-creeper-edge bittersweet-edge honeysuckle-edge autumn-olive-edge multiflora-rose-edge blackberry-edge raspberry-edge dewberry-edge strawberry-edge blueberry-edge huckleberry-edge cranberry-edge bearberry-edge manzanita-edge ceanothus-edge buckbrush-edge sagebrush-edge rabbitbrush-edge goldenrod-edge aster-edge sunflower-edge coneflower-edge blackeyed-susan-edge coreopsis-edge gaillardia-edge paintbrush-edge lupine-edge clover-edge vetch-edge alfalfa-edge sweet-clover-edge white-clover-edge red-clover-edge alsike-clover-edge crimson-clover-edge subterranean-clover-edge bird's-foot-trefoil-edge lotus-edge medick-edge sainfoin-edge esparcet-edge crownvetch-edge milk-vetch-edge locoweed-edge prairie-clover-edge leadplant-edge false-indigo-edge wild-indigo-edge baptisia-edge senna-edge partridge-pea-edge sensitive-pea-edge mimosa-edge acacia-edge mesquite-edge catclaw-edge paloverde-edge ironwood-edge desert-willow-edge ocotillo-edge agave-edge yucca-edge sotol-edge nolina-edge bear-grass-edge sacahuista-edge toothache-grass-edge galleta-edge grama-edge buffalo-grass-edge prairie-junegrass-edge needlegrass-edge ricegrass-edge wheatgrass-edge wildrye-edge brome-edge fescue-edge bluegrass-edge ryegrass-edge oatgrass-edge hairgrass-edge bentgrass-edge redtop-edge timothy-edge orchard-grass-edge smooth-brome-edge tall-fescue-edge kentucky-bluegrass-edge perennial-ryegrass-edge annual-ryegrass-edge rescue-grass-edge cheatgrass-edge downy-brome-edge Japanese-brome-edge medusahead-edge ventenata-edge squirreltail-edge foxtail-edge bristlegrass-edge crabgrass-edge goosegrass-edge fall-panicum-edge witchgrass-edge barnyard-grass-edge johnsongrass-edge sorghum-edge corn-edge wheat-edge barley-edge oat-edge rye-edge triticale-edge rice-edge sugarcane-edge bamboo-edge reed-edge cattail-edge bulrush-edge sedge-edge rush-edge spike-rush-edge water-plantain-edge arrowhead-edge duck-potato-edge pickerelweed-edge water-hyacinth-edge water-lettuce-edge frogbit-edge bladderwort-edge milfoil-edge pondweed-edge naiad-edge elodea-edge waterweed-edge hydrilla-edge eelgrass-edge wild-celery-edge tape-grass-edge water-lily-edge watershield-edge water-shield-edge spatterdock-edge yellow-pond-lily-edge white-water-lily-edge fragrant-water-lily-edge american-lotus-edge water-chestnut-edge water-caltrop-edge salvinia-edge azolla-edge mosquito-fern-edge duckweed-edge wolffia-edge lemna-edge spirodela-edge landoltia-edge giant-duckweed-edge watermeal-edge water-fern-edge water-clover-edge water-shamrock-edge marsilea-edge pillwort-edge quillwort-edge clubmoss-edge spikemoss-edge horsetail-edge scouring-rush-edge field-horsetail-edge wood-horsetail-edge giant-horsetail-edge marsh-horsetail-edge water-horsetail-edge snake-grass-edge puzzlegrass-edge fern-edge bracken-edge cinnamon-fern-edge interrupted-fern-edge ostrich-fern-edge sensitive-fern-edge royal-fern-edge marsh-fern-edge hay-scented-fern-edge new-york-fern-edge boston-fern-edge maidenhair-fern-edge maidenhair-spleenwort-edge ebony-spleenwort-edge walking-fern-edge hart's-tongue-fern-edge polypody-edge resurrection-fern-edge rock-cap-fern-edge licorice-fern-edge oak-fern-edge beech-fern-edge wood-fern-edge shield-fern-edge buckler-fern-edge lady-fern-edge male-fern-edge chain-fern-edge netted-chain-fern-edge cliff-brake-edge lip-fern-edge moonwort-edge grape-fern-edge rattlesnake-fern-edge adder's-tongue-edge whisk-fern-edge psilotum-edge horsetail-ally-edge lycophyte-edge bryophyte-edge moss-edge liverwort-edge hornwort-edge algae-edge cyanobacteria-edge lichen-edge fungus-edge mushroom-edge puffball-edge bracket-fungus-edge polypore-edge shelf-fungus-edge conk-edge coral-fungus-edge club-fungus-edge jelly-fungus-edge ear-fungus-edge morel-edge false-morel-edge truffle-edge cup-fungus-edge sac-fungus-edge yeast-edge mold-edge mildew-edge rust-edge smut-edge bacteria-edge archaea-edge virus-edge viroid-edge prion-edge nematode-edge flatworm-edge roundworm-edge segmented-worm-edge earthworm-edge leech-edge slug-edge snail-edge clam-edge mussel-edge oyster-edge scallop-edge squid-edge octopus-edge nautilus-edge cuttlefish-edge chiton-edge limpet-edge abalone-edge conch-edge whelk-edge periwinkle-edge cowrie-edge cone-snail-edge auger-snail-edge turret-snail-edge tower-snail-edge wentletrap-edge nerite-edge top-snail-edge turban-snail-edge moon-snail-edge basket-snail-edge mud-snail-edge pond-snail-edge ramshorn-snail-edge apple-snail-edge mystery-snail-edge ivory-snail-edge janthina-edge violet-snail-edge sea-butterfly-edge pteropod-edge heteropod-edge nudibranch-edge sea-slug-edge sea-hare-edge bubble-shell-edge headshield-slug-edge sap-sucking-slug-edge sacoglossan-edge elysia-edge aeolid-edge flabellina-edge chromodoris-edge hypselodoris-edge nembrotha-edge phyllidia-edge phyllodesmium-edge pteraeolidia-edge cratena-edge facelina-edge doto-edge dotidae-edge hermissenda-edge cadlina-edge doris-edge archidoris-edge geitodoris-edge discodoris-edge porostome-edge pleurobranch-edge sidegill-slug-edge notaspidean-edge umbrella-slug-edge umbrella-shell-edge pleurobranchaea-edge berthella-edge berthellina-edge pleurobranchus-edge tylodina-edge umbraculum-edge shield-slug-edge shield-nudibranch-edge armina-edge arminidae-edge philinidae-edge philine-edge aglaophamus-edge cephalaspidean-edge headshield-bubble-edge acteon-edge acteonidae-edge bullinidae-edge bulla-edge haminoea-edge haminoeidae-edge smaragdinella-edge smaragdinellidae-edge philinopsis-edge agajidae-edge scaphandridae-edge scaphander-edge cylichnidae-edge cylichna-edge retusidae-edge retusa-edge bullidae-edge bullina-edge aplustrophiidae-edge aplustrophorus-edge rhizoridae-edge rhizorus-edge philinoglossidae-edge philinoglossa-edge gascoignellidae-edge gascoignella-edge
Callophrys irus
Frosted Elfin
Callophrys irus, the frosted elfin, is a rare Lycaenid butterfly endemic to fire-maintained habitats in eastern North America. Adults are small with brown forewings and frosted gray hindwings with a short tail. The species has declined across much of its range, with many populations now isolated and some presumed extirpated. It is listed as threatened or endangered in multiple eastern U.S. states.
butterfly Lycaenidae rare-species fire-maintained-habitat conservation univoltine early-successional sandplain Fabaceae-herbivore
Callophrys irus irus
Frosted Elfin
Callophrys irus irus is the nominate subspecies of the frosted elfin butterfly, a rare Lycaenid with a historical range spanning from Ontario to Florida and west to Texas and Wisconsin. Genetic studies have found no evidence that this subspecies is genetically distinct from other populations, including the historically recognized C. i. arsace. The species inhabits fire-maintained pine barren habitats and has experienced significant population declines due to habitat loss and fragmentation. Conservation efforts focus on managing habitat patch area and host plant abundance to improve occupancy probability.
Lycaenidae pine-barrens fire-maintained-habitat conservation host-plant-specialization Baptisia Lupinus pupal-survival habitat-fragmentation subspecies-taxonomy genetic-structure

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