Papilio-xuthus
Guides
Pteromalus puparum
white butterfly pupal parasitoid wasp
Pteromalus puparum is a gregarious endoparasitoid wasp that attacks the pupal stage of butterflies, particularly pierids and papilionids. It is widely distributed and has been extensively studied for biological control of agricultural pests, notably Pieris rapae, the small white cabbage butterfly. The species exhibits sophisticated host manipulation through venom injection during oviposition, which suppresses host immunity and regulates development. It is a model organism for studying parasitoid venom biochemistry, reproductive strategies, and innate immunity.