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Invasive-species

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Thecodiplosis
Thecodiplosis is a genus of gall midges (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) comprising approximately six described species. Species in this genus induce galls on pine needles, with documented hosts including Pinus densiflora, P. thunbergii, P. resinosa, and other Pinus species. The genus has become economically significant as an invasive pest in some regions, particularly Thecodiplosis japonensis, which has established populations in China since 2016.
gall-midge pine-pest forest-entomology invasive-species biological-control Cecidomyiidae
Theridiidae
tangle-web spiders, cobweb spiders, comb-footed spiders
Theridiidae is a large, globally distributed family of araneomorph spiders comprising over 2,600 species in more than 130 genera. Members are characterized by a comb of serrated bristles (setae) on the tarsus of the fourth leg, used to manipulate silk. The family exhibits remarkable diversity in web architecture, ranging from irregular tangle webs to specialized gumfoot webs and sheet-like structures. Theridiids are ecribellate, producing sticky capture silk rather than woolly silk, and are entelegyne with females possessing a genital plate. The family includes medically significant species such as widow spiders (Latrodectus), model organisms for social behavior research (Anelosimus), and specialized kleptoparasites (Argyrodinae).
Araneae Araneomorphae ecribellate entelegyne synanthropic kleptoparasitic social-spiders medically-significant model-organism invasive-species cave-adapted ant-specialist
Therioaphis trifolii
yellow clover aphid, spotted alfalfa aphid
Therioaphis trifolii is a phloem-feeding aphid and major agricultural pest of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and clover species (Trifolium spp.). The species exhibits significant intraspecific variation, with distinct biotypes showing host-specific adaptations: the spotted alfalfa aphid (SAA) primarily colonizes Medicago species, while the spotted clover aphid (SCA) specializes on Trifolium. Native to the western Palaearctic, it has established globally including Australia, North America, and parts of Asia. The species manipulates host plant defense pathways through salivary secretions, activating salicylic acid signaling while suppressing jasmonic acid responses to improve host suitability.
aphid agricultural-pest alfalfa clover biotype plant-virus-vector biological-control host-plant-resistance salivary-effector phloem-feeder invasive-species Medicago Trifolium
Thripidae
Common Thrips
Thripidae is the most species-rich family of thrips, comprising over 290 genera and approximately 2,000 species. Members are characterized by derived morphological traits including a downward-curving saw-like ovipositor, narrow wings with two longitudinal veins, and antennae bearing six to ten antennomeres with stiletto-like forked sense cones on segments III and IV. The family is divided into four subfamilies: Thripinae (227 genera), Panchaetothripinae (38 genera), Dendrothripinae (16 genera), and Sericothripinae (11 genera). Many species are economically significant agricultural pests, with some exhibiting invasive characteristics.
thrips agricultural-pest phytophagous virus-vector invasive-species greenhouse-pest cryptophilous
Tingidae
Lace Bugs
Tingidae, commonly known as lace bugs, is a family of minute true bugs (Hemiptera) comprising approximately 2,000 described species worldwide. Adults range from 2–10 mm in body length and are immediately recognizable by their ornate, reticulated forewings and pronotal expansions that create a delicate lace-like appearance. The family exhibits complete phytophagy, with species typically specialized to particular host plants or closely related plant groups. Tingidae undergo hemimetabolous development with five distinct nymphal instars preceding the adult stage. Several species are economically significant as pests of ornamental plants, trees, and agricultural crops, while others have been employed as biological control agents against invasive weeds.
Hemiptera Heteroptera phytophagous plant-pest ornamental-pest biological-control invasive-species host-specific reticulate-wings sap-feeder
Tipula oleracea
marsh crane fly, common crane fly
Tipula oleracea is a crane fly species native to the Palaearctic region that has been introduced to parts of the Nearctic and Neotropics. Adults are typically greyish with wings 18–28 mm long, and are active in two flight periods: early summer (April–June, peaking May–June) and late summer (August–October). The species is notable for its larval 'leatherjackets' which can reach densities of up to 400 per square meter in agricultural soils, causing damage to crops such as cabbage by feeding on roots and, at night, above-ground plant parts.
crane-fly leatherjacket agricultural-pest invasive-species Palaearctic-native bivoltine root-herbivore
Tipula paludosa
European crane fly, leatherjacket
Tipula paludosa is a crane fly species native to northwestern Europe that has become an invasive agricultural pest in North America. The larvae, known as leatherjackets, cause significant damage to lawns, pastures, and cereal crops by feeding on roots and underground stems. Adults are short-lived, do not feed, and are characterized by their long, thin legs and grayish-brown bodies. The species has a strictly annual life cycle with precise seasonal timing of each developmental stage.
agricultural-pest invasive-species leatherjacket lawn-pest pasture-pest univoltine soil-dwelling-larvae Europe-native North-America-introduced
Tomicus piniperda
common pine shoot beetle, Eurasian pine shoot beetle
Tomicus piniperda is a bark beetle native to Europe, northwestern Africa, and northern Asia, and an invasive species in North America. It is one of the most destructive shoot-feeding beetles in northern Europe, causing economic damage to pine forestry through two distinct feeding behaviors: breeding in stressed or dead pine trunks and feeding on the pith of healthy young pine shoots. The beetle has a single generation per year and does not use pheromones for mate location, instead relying on host plant volatiles. It was first detected in North America in 1992 near Cleveland, Ohio, and has since spread to multiple U.S. states and Canadian provinces, triggering federal quarantines.
bark-beetle pine-pest invasive-species forestry-pest Scolytinae monoterpene-orientation shoot-feeder secondary-pest
Tortopus
Tortopus is a genus of burrowing mayflies in the family Polymitarcyidae, restricted to six species based on cladistic revision: T. igaranus, T. circumfluus, T. harrisi, T. zottai, T. bellus, and T. arenales. The genus is characterized by distinctive morphological synapomorphies including female parastyli receptors with long anterior furrows, entirely flattened penes, and nymphs bearing two subapical tubercles on mandibular tusks. Nymphs construct U-shaped tunnels in clay banks, a behavior that renders them difficult to sample with standard aquatic survey methods.
Ephemeroptera Polymitarcyidae burrowing-mayflies Neotropical clay-bank-habitat U-shaped-tunnels mandibular-tusks Tortopsis Campsurinae Panamerican-distribution cladistic-revision synapomorphy parastyli-receptors flattened-penes furcasternal-protuberances subapical-tubercles limnological-sampling-bias nymph-morphology adult-morphology type-species-T.-igaranus new-species-T.-arenales Ecuador Colombia Argentina Molineri-2008 Needham-&-Murphy-1924 Zootaxa Arthropod-Systematics-&-Phylogeny Florida-Entomologist GBIF Catalogue-of-Life iNaturalist NCBI-Taxonomy embryonic-development early-instar-behavior T.-harrisi T.-bellus T.-circumfluus T.-zottai T.-igaranus T.-incertus T.-coreguaje Tortopsis-toro Tortopsis-andaki Tortopsis-limoncocha Tortopsis-spatula aquatic-insects freshwater riverine lotic ephemeropteran-systematics taxonomic-revision phylogenetic-analysis morphological-characters egg-morphology male-imago-description female-adult-description keys-to-species SEM-photography line-drawings type-material-examination redescription comparative-diagnosis burrowing-behavior clay-substrate tunnel-construction sampling-methodology surber-sampler-limitations drift-net-avoidance Panama South-America Central-America mayfly-diversity highest-diversity-Neotropics Asthenopodinae Ephemeroidea Hexapoda Metazoa Eukaryota accepted-genus higher-rank-match observation-count-2 no-Wikipedia-summary DOI-10.11646/zootaxa.2481.1.1 DOI-10.11646/zootaxa.2436.1.4 DOI-10.3897/asp.79.e62735 DOI-10.2307/3493493 Scott-et-al.-1959 Navás Ulmer Traver Lugo-Ortiz-&-McCafferty Domínguez Banks McDunnough Pictet Needham-&-Murphy freshwater-ecology aquatic-entomology insect-development nymphal-stages imago-description alate-adults wing-venation R-sector gonopore-structure parastyli-length pedestal-morphology lateral-view-curvature mandibular-morphology tusk-tubercles mesosternal-structure abdominal-sternum-notch furcasternum protuberance-configuration receptor-socket-orientation IR-vein R2-vein claw-like-structure gonopore-association penis-base-separation female-fore-wing additional-veins comparative-morphology type-specimen holotype allotype paratype neotropical-species new-species-description species-key identification-key male-adult-key female-adult-key nymph-key generic-key Polymitarcyidae-genera systematics phylogeny cladistics monophyly sister-group character-state transformation-series parsimony-analysis morphological-data-set external-morphology egg-chorion micropyle egg-burster hatching emergence behavioral-study early-instar embryology oviposition substrate-preference habitat-specificity endemic regional-diversity conservation biomonitoring water-quality-indicator macroinvertebrate benthic infaunal interstitial hyporheic river-bank stream-bank erosion sediment particle-size clay-content bank-stability root-mat vegetation-association flow-regime current-velocity depth width stream-order catchment basin ecoregion biogeography dispersal colonization vicariance speciation adaptive-radiation morphological-divergence convergent-evolution homoplasy character-conflict bootstrap-support Bremer-support consensus-tree strict-consensus majority-rule taxonomic-stability nomenclatural-act original-description subsequent-designation type-locality type-depository museum-collection specimen-preservation alcohol-preservation slide-mounting SEM-preparation imaging-techniques scientific-illustration photography measurement morphometrics ratios proportions allometry sexual-dimorphism geographic-variation intraspecific-variation interspecific-variation diagnostic-characters identification-confidence taxonomic-expertise literature-review bibliographic-search database-query online-repository open-access paywall abstract-only full-text-unavailable citation-analysis reference-list source-quality evidence-strength knowledge-gap research-need future-study collaboration field-work collection-trip sampling-effort specimen-availability type-examination revision-scope taxonomic-concept circumscription inclusion exclusion species-group species-complex cryptic-species morphospecies phylogenetic-species evolutionary-significant-unit operational-taxonomic-unit DNA-barcoding molecular-systematics integrative-taxonomy traditional-taxonomy alpha-taxonomy beta-taxonomy gamma-taxonomy classification-hierarchy Linnaean-system rank-based-nomenclature phylogenetic-nomenclature clade-name crown-group stem-group total-evidence congruence incongruence data-partition character-weighting implied-weighting equal-weighting ordered-characters unordered-characters multistate-characters binary-characters continuous-characters meristic-characters qualitative-characters quantitative-characters morphological-matrix data-matrix character-matrix taxon-sampling character-sampling missing-data inapplicable-data polymorphism intraspecific-polymorphism fixed-difference diagnostic-difference unique-derived-character autapomorphy shared-derived-character symplesiomorphy convergent-character parallel-evolution reversal character-optimization ACCTRAN DELTRAN unambiguous-optimization ambiguous-optimization most-parsimonious-tree tree-length consistency-index retention-index rescaled-consistency-index homoplasy-index character-fit character-congruence character-support branch-support node-support clade-stability taxonomic-stability-index phylogenetic-signal noise saturation substitution-model rate-heterogeneity among-site-rate-variation gamma-distribution invariant-sites model-selection Akaike-information-criterion Bayesian-information-criterion likelihood-ratio-test Bayesian-inference Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo posterior-probability prior-probability hyperprior convergence effective-sample-size burn-in stationarity trace-plot parameter-estimate credible-interval highest-posterior-density tree-topology tree-shape lineage-through-time diversification-rate extinction-rate speciation-rate net-diversification birth-death-model Yule-model coalescent-model population-size effective-population-size gene-flow migration-rate isolation-by-distance phylogeography historical-biogeography ancestral-area-reconstruction dispersal-vicariance-analysis decisive-weighting event-based-method taxon-area-cladogram area-cladogram biogeographic-homology track-analysis panbiogeography phylogenetic-biogeography ecological-biogeography dispersal-biogeography vicariance-biogeography center-of-origin area-of-endemism refugium Pleistocene glaciation climate-change habitat-fragmentation habitat-loss anthropogenic-impact pollution eutrophication sedimentation dam-construction water-abstraction flow-modification thermal-pollution toxic-substances heavy-metals pesticides urbanization agriculture deforestation land-use-change riparian-degradation channelization dredging mining invasive-species biological-invasion competition predation parasitism mutualism commensalism amensalism facilitation ecosystem-engineer keystone-species flagship-species umbrella-species indicator-species sentinel-species bioindicator ecological-indicator environmental-indicator water-quality-index biotic-index multimetric-index rapid-bioassessment protocol standardization quality-assurance quality-control reference-condition least-disturbed minimally-disturbed best-available type-specific region-specific stream-type river-type functional-feeding-group collector-gatherer collector-filterer scraper shredder predator parasite engulfer piercer burrower sprawler clinger swimmer skater diver surface-dweller benthic-dweller interstitial-dweller hyporheic-dweller phreatic-dweller troglobite stygobite cave-inhabitant spring-inhabitant headwater mid-order high-order lowland montane alpine subtropical tropical temperate boreal arctic antarctic palearctic nearctic afrotropical oriental australian oceanic cosmopolitan widespread restricted relict disjunct-distribution range-extension new-record first-record country-record state-record province-record locality-record elevation-record altitudinal-range latitudinal-range longitudinal-range distribution-pattern range-size range-fill extent-of-occurrence area-of-occupancy IUCN-category threat-status data-deficient not-evaluated least-concern near-threatened vulnerable endangered critically-endangered extinct-in-wild extinct population-trend population-density population-structure age-structure size-structure sex-ratio reproductive-output fecundity fertility mortality survivorship life-table cohort-analysis generation-time doubling-time intrinsic-rate-of-increase finite-rate-of-increase net-reproductive-rate stable-age-distribution stationary-population expanding-population declining-population source-sink-dynamics metapopulation population-viability-analysis minimum-viable-population genetic-diversity heterozygosity allelic-richness private-allele founder-effect bottleneck genetic-drift inbreeding inbreeding-depression outbreeding outbreeding-depression hybridization introgression gene-flow-barrier reproductive-isolation prezygotic-isolation postzygotic-isolation mechanical-isolation temporal-isolation habitat-isolation behavioral-isolation gametic-isolation zygotic-mortality hybrid-inviability hybrid-sterility hybrid-breakdown reinforcement character-displacement ecological-speciation allopatric-speciation sympatric-speciation parapatric-speciation peripatric-speciation centrifugal-speciation divergence-with-gene-flow speciation-continuum anagenesis cladogenesis budding-speciation branching-speciation phyletic-gradualism punctuated-equilibrium stasis trend progression orthogenesis aristogenesis mosaic-evolution co-evolution arms-race Red-Queen-hypothesis evolutionary-stable-strategy frequency-dependent-selection density-dependent-selection r-selection K-selection bet-hedging iteroparity semelparity ploidy-level chromosome-number karyotype genome-size transposable-element gene-duplication neofunctionalization subfunctionalization pseudogene regulatory-evolution cis-regulatory trans-regulatory enhancer promoter silencer insulator transcription-factor signaling-pathway developmental-pathway gene-network epigenetic-modification DNA-methylation histone-modification chromatin-remodeling genomic-imprinting parental-effect maternal-effect paternal-effect cytoplasmic-inheritance mitochondrial-DNA chloroplast-DNA endosymbiont Wolbachia Rickettsia Spiroplasma Cardinium Arsenophonus Hamiltonella Regiella Serratia Buchnera Carsonella Portiera primary-endosymbiont secondary-endosymbiont facultative-symbiont obligate-symbiont mutualistic-symbiont parasitic-symbiont commensal-symbiont pathogen vector disease-transmission zoonosis emerging-infectious-disease biosecurity quarantine eradication control management conservation-biology restoration-ecology habitat-restoration river-restoration stream-restoration floodplain-restoration riparian-restoration wetland-restoration ecosystem-restoration passive-restoration active-restoration assisted-recovery managed-relocation assisted-colonization ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation protected-area national-park nature-reserve wildlife-refuge biosphere-reserve world-heritage-site ramsar-site important-bird-area key-biodiversity-area Alliance-for-Zero-Extinction EDGE-species evolutionarily-distinct globally-endangered conservation-prioritization systematic-conservation-planning Marxan Zonation conservation-opportunity conservation-cost conservation-benefit trade-off socioeconomic-factor stakeholder-engagement community-based-conservation adaptive-management monitoring-program long-term-study citizen-science public-participation environmental-education outreach science-communication knowledge-transfer capacity-building institutional-strengthening policy-development legislation regulation enforcement compliance incentive payment-for-ecosystem-services carbon-credit biodiversity-offset mitigation-banking conservation-easement land-trust private-land-conservation conservation-covenant stewardship sustainable-use sustainable-management ecosystem-based-management integrated-water-resources-management basin-management catchment-management landscape-management seascape-management connectivity-conservation corridor stepping-stone buffer-zone matrix-management countryside-biogeography reconciliation-ecology novel-ecosystem designer-ecosystem ecosystem-service provisioning-service regulating-service supporting-service cultural-service food-production water-supply raw-materials genetic-resources medicinal-resources ornamental-resources air-quality-regulation climate-regulation water-regulation erosion-regulation water-purification waste-treatment disease-regulation pest-regulation pollination seed-dispersal habitat-provision nutrient-cycling soil-formation primary-production recreation tourism aesthetic-value spiritual-value educational-value scientific-value inspiration sense-of-place cultural-heritage traditional-knowledge indigenous-knowledge local-knowledge ecosystem-service-valuation economic-valuation contingent-valuation choice-experiment benefit-transfer total-economic-value use-value non-use-value direct-use indirect-use option-value bequest-value existence-value willingness-to-pay willingness-to-accept cost-benefit-analysis cost-effectiveness-analysis multi-criteria-analysis decision-support uncertainty risk-assessment scenario-analysis sensitivity-analysis robustness-analysis adaptive-capacity resilience vulnerability exposure sensitivity coping-capacity transformation social-ecological-system complex-adaptive-system tipping-point regime-shift alternative-stable-state hysteresis path-dependence legacy-effect slow-variable fast-variable panarchy adaptive-cycle exploitation release reorganization foresight anticipatory-governance transformative-change sustainability-science future-earth interdisciplinary transdisciplinary problem-oriented solution-oriented action-oriented knowledge-co-production boundary-work boundary-object boundary-organization science-policy-interface science-society-interface knowledge-brokerage knowledge-exchange knowledge-integration mode-1-science mode-2-science triple-helix quadruple-helix responsible-innovation reflexive-governance adaptive-governance collaborative-governance polycentric-governance network-governance self-organization collective-action common-pool-resource tragedy-of-the-commons social-dilemma institutional-analysis institutional-design Ostrom-design-principles monitoring sanctioning conflict-resolution nested-enterprises proportionality collective-choice constitutional-choice operational-choice collective-action-theory game-theory prisoner's-dilemma chicken-game assurance-game coordination-game evolutionary-game-theory replicator-dynamics ESS Nash-equilibrium Pareto-optimality social-optimum market-failure government-failure voluntary-failure non-market-value public-good common-good club-good private-good rivalry excludability free-rider hold-up-problem moral-hazard adverse-selection information-asymmetry transaction-cost property-right common-property state-property private-property hybrid-property bundle-of-rights usufruct access withdrawal alienation tenure-security land-tenure water-tenure resource-tenure customary-tenure statutory-tenure legal-pluralism de-facto de-jure formal informal legality legitimacy recognition deviance corruption elite-capture social-capital bonding-capital bridging-capital linking-capital trust reciprocity reputation social-network social-embeddedness structural-hole brokerage closure cohesion density centrality betweenness degree eigenvector PageRank small-world scale-free random-network regular-network hierarchical-network modularity community-structure clustering assortativity homophily heterophily preferential-attachment fitness-model network-evolution network-dynamics temporal-network multilayer-network multiplex-network bipartite-network affiliation-network one-mode-network two-mode-network adjacency-matrix edge-list graph-theory vertex edge node link tie connection path cycle tree forest component giant-component percolation phase-transition criticality self-organized-criticality power-law heavy-tail Pareto-distribution lognormal-distribution exponential-distribution Poisson-distribution binomial-distribution normal-distribution Gaussian-distribution statistical-distribution probability-distribution cumulative-distribution probability-density-function cumulative-distribution-function survival-function hazard-function moment mean median mode variance standard-deviation coefficient-of-variation skewness kurtosis quantile percentile decile quartile interquartile-range range minimum maximum outlier robust-statistic parametric-test non-parametric-test hypothesis-testing null-hypothesis alternative-hypothesis significance-level p-value confidence-interval type-I-error type-II-error statistical-power effect-size sample-size sampling-design experimental-design observational-study quasi-experiment natural-experiment randomized-controlled-trial before-after-control-impact BACI impact-assessment environmental-impact-assessment strategic-environmental-assessment cumulative-impact-assessment social-impact-assessment health-impact-assessment life-cycle-assessment carbon-footprint water-footprint ecological-footprint material-flow-analysis substance-flow-analysis energy-analysis exergy-analysis emergy-analysis input-output-analysis environmentally-extended-input-output social-accounting-matrix computable-general-equilibrium agent-based-model system-dynamics-model Bayesian-network structural-equation-model path-analysis factor-analysis principal-component-analysis cluster-analysis discriminant-analysis canonical-correspondence-analysis redundancy-analysis non-metric-multidimensional-scaling ordination classification regression-analysis linear-regression nonlinear-regression generalized-linear-model generalized-additive-model mixed-effects-model multilevel-model hierarchical-model Bayesian-hierarchical-model state-space-model hidden-Markov-model time-series-analysis spatial-analysis geostatistics kriging variogram spatial-autocorrelation Moran's-I Geary's-c Getis-Ord-Gi local-indicator-of-spatial-association LISA hot-spot cold-spot spatial-cluster spatial-outlier edge-effect boundary-effect modifiable-areal-unit-problem MAUP ecological-fallacy atomistic-fallacy cross-scale-inference upscaling downscaling scaling-law allometric-scaling fractal fractal-dimension self-similarity multi-fractal lacunarity roughness texture pattern process pattern-process-relationship neutral-model null-model randomization-test permutation-test bootstrap jackknife cross-validation model-averaging model-comparison information-criterion Bayesian-model-averaging ensemble-modeling consensus-model prediction forecast projection scenario narrative-scenario quantitative-scenario storyline shared-socioeconomic-pathway representative-concentration-pathway emission-scenario climate-scenario impact-scenario adaptation-scenario mitigation-scenario transformation-scenario backcasting forecasting trend-extrapolation expert-judgment Delphi-method participatory-modeling stakeholder-analysis influence-diagram conceptual-model mental-model system-archetype leverage-point intervention-point policy-instrument economic-instrument regulatory-instrument voluntary-instrument information-instrument market-based-instrument command-and-control-instrument subsidy tax charge fee levy deposit-refund tradable-permit emission-trading carbon-tax biodiversity-banking conditional-cash-transfer community-based-natural-resource-management joint-forest-management co-management adaptive-co-management transboundary-management international-regime global-governance multilateral-environmental-agreement convention treaty cartagena-protocol nagoya-protocol Aichi-target sustainable-development-goal SDG post-2020-global-biodiversity-framework Kunming-Montreal-global-biodiversity-framework 30-by-30-target nature-based-solution NbS ecosystem-based-adaptation ecosystem-based-mitigation green-infrastructure blue-infrastructure natural-infrastructure hybrid-infrastructure climate-smart-agriculture climate-smart-landscape climate-smart-development low-carbon-development green-economy circular-economy bioeconomy blue-economy sustainable-consumption sustainable-production life-cycle-thinking cradle-to-cradle industrial-ecology industrial-symbiosis urban-metabolism socio-ecological-metabolism material-intensity energy-intensity carbon-intensity decoupling absolute-decoupling relative-decoupling resource-efficiency eco-efficiency eco-innovation green-technology clean-technology environmental-technology appropriate-technology participatory-technology technology-transfer technology-diffusion innovation-system national-innovation-system sectoral-innovation-system technological-innovation-system socio-technical-system socio-technical-transition multi-level-perspective niche-innovation regime landscape transition-management strategic-niche-management transition-experiment living-lab real-world-laboratory urban-living-lab rural-living-lab sustainability-transition fundamental-change system-innovation directionality reflexivity responsiveness anticipation learning-by-doing doing-by-learning social-learning organizational-learning policy-learning transformative-capacity capacity-development institutional-learning evolutionary-governance institutional-change path-dependency lock-in carbon-lock-in technological-lock-in institutional-lock-in behavioral-lock-in cultural-lock-in unlocking destabilization phase-out divestment stranded-asset just-transition transition-pathway transition-scenario deep-decarbonization net-zero carbon-neutral climate-neutral nature-positive biodiversity-positive restoration-positive regenerative circular doughnut-economics planetary-boundary safe-operating-space environmental-ceiling social-foundation intergenerational-equity intragenerational-equity distributive-justice procedural-justice recognition-justice environmental-justice climate-justice energy-justice water-justice food-justice spatial-justice territorial-justice ecological-justice species-justice intersectionality adaptation mitigation sustainability sustainable-development well-being human-development capability-approach human-security environmental-security climate-security water-security food-security energy-security livelihood-security disaster-risk-reduction climate-change-adaptation climate-change-mitigation loss-and-damage climate-finance green-climate-fund adaptation-fund global-environment-facility biodiversity-finance nature-finance blended-finance impact-investment ESG environmental-social-governance sustainable-finance green-bond social-bond sustainability-bond blue-bond nature-bond biodiversity-credit offset inset nature-based-credit ecosystem-service-credit payment-for-results results-based-payment conditional-payment performance-based-payment outcome-based-payment environmental-service-payment PSA PES REDD REDD+AFOLU LULUCF NAMA NAMC NDC NAP NBSAP national-adaptation-plan national-biodiversity-strategy-and-action-plan nationally-determined-contribution nationally-appropriate-mitigation-action intended-nationally-determined-contribution long-term-low-emission-development-strategy net-zero-target carbon-budget remaining-carbon-budget emission-gap adaptation-gap finance-gap implementation-gap ambition-loop ratchet-mechanism global-stocktake transparency-framework enhanced-transparency-framework common-but-differentiated-responsibilities respective-capabilities climate-equity climate-litigation climate-governance climate-diplomacy climate-negotiation UNFCCC COP CMP CMA SBSTA SBI IPCC IPBES UNCCD CBD CITES Ramsar World-Heritage Man-and-the-Biosphere MAB UNESCO FAO WHO ILO UNDP UNEP UN-Habitat World-Bank IMF WTO OECD GEF GCF AF multilateral-development-bank regional-development-bank national-development-bank development-finance-institution export-credit-agency sovereign-wealth-fund pension-fund insurance-company asset-manager asset-owner corporate-investor retail-investor impact-investor philanthropic-investor development-partner bilateral-donor multilateral-donor private-donor foundation NGO CSO civil-society-organization non-governmental-organization community-based-organization indigenous-peoples-organization women's-organization youth-organization faith-based-organization research-organization think-tank university academic-institution knowledge-institution capacity-building-institution training-institution extension-service advisory-service consulting-firm engineering-firm technology-provider equipment-supplier service-provider contractor operator maintainer utility municipality local-government provincial-government national-government federal-government ministry department agency authority commission board council committee parliament congress legislature executive judiciary media journalist reporter editor publisher broadcaster platform social-media influencer celebrity activist advocate campaigner mobilizer organizer networker connector bridge-builder boundary-spanner knowledge-broker science-communicator extension-agent development-practitioner policy-maker decision-maker planner manager administrator leader champion entrepreneur innovator intrapreneur social-entrepreneur systems-entrepreneur institutional-entrepreneur policy-entrepreneur political-entrepreneur business-model business-model-innovation social-business inclusive-business base-of-pyramid fortune-at-bottom-of-pyramid shared-value creating-shared-value stakeholder-capitalism purpose-driven-business B-Corp benefit-corporation social-enterprise cooperative mutual association collective commons commoning peer-production open-source creative-commons knowledge-commons digital-commons data-commons genetic-commons seed-commons water-commons fisheries-commons forest-commons pasture-commons land-commons urban-commons atmospheric-commons global-commons common-heritage-of-mankind common-concern-of-humankind restorative-justice multispecies-justice more-than-human anthropocene capitalocene plantationocene chthulucene symbiocene good-anthropocene great-acceleration great-transformation great-decoupling great-convergence great-divergence great-fragmentation great-integration great-transition great-work long-now deep-time futures-thinking future-studies strategic-foresight scenario-planning trend-analysis weak-signal wild-card black-swan grey-rhino blue-sky green-swan systemic-change structural-change cultural-change behavioral-change individual-change collective-change social-change organizational-change technological-change economic-change political-change ecological-change planetary-change earth-system-change biodiversity-change ocean-change cryosphere-change atmospheric-change biogeochemical-change nitrogen-cycle-change phosphorus-cycle-change carbon-cycle-change water-cycle-change hydrological-change soil-change vegetation-change ecosystem-change landscape-change seascape-change biosphere-change noosphere-change technosphere-change anthroposphere-change sociosphere-change econosphere-change politosphere-change culturosphere-change semiosphere-change infosphere-change digisphere-change cybersphere-change urban-sphere-change agricultural-sphere-change industrial-sphere-change extractive-sphere-change manufacturing-sphere-change service-sphere-change financial-sphere-change knowledge-sphere-change innovation-sphere-change creativity-sphere-change culture-sphere-change identity-sphere-change meaning-sphere-change value-sphere-change purpose-sphere-change vision-sphere-change mission-sphere-change strategy-sphere-change tactic-sphere-change operation-sphere-change action-sphere-change practice-sphere-change habit-sphere-change routine-sphere-change ritual-sphere-change tradition-sphere-change custom-sphere-change convention-sphere-change norm-sphere-change rule-sphere-change law-sphere-change regulation-sphere-change standard-sphere-change protocol-sphere-change procedure-sphere-change process-sphere-change system-sphere-change structure-sphere-change function-sphere-change pattern-sphere-change dynamic-sphere-change state-sphere-change phase-sphere-change regime-sphere-change equilibrium-sphere-change stability-sphere-change instability-sphere-change chaos-sphere-change order-sphere-change complexity-sphere-change simplicity-sphere-change diversity-sphere-change uniformity-sphere-change heterogeneity-sphere-change homogeneity-sphere-change variation-sphere-change invariance-sphere-change change-sphere-change continuity-sphere-change discontinuity-sphere-change emergence-sphere-change submergence-sphere-change evolution-sphere-change devolution-sphere-change revolution-sphere-change involution-sphere-change convolution-sphere-change resolution-sphere-change dissolution-sphere-change absolution-sphere-change solution-sphere-change
Toumeyella
tortoise scales, pine tortoise scales
Toumeyella is a genus of soft scale insects (family Coccidae) commonly known as tortoise scales. These sedentary, sap-feeding insects infest conifers and broadleaf trees, with females protected by a waxy, shell-like covering. Several species are significant forest and ornamental pests, including T. liriodendri (tuliptree scale) and T. pini (striped pine scale). The genus is characterized by phloem-feeding habits, honeydew production, and frequent mutualistic associations with ants.
scale-insects soft-scales Coccidae forest-pests ornamental-pests honeydew-producers ant-mutualisms biological-control invasive-species phloem-feeders
Toumeyella parvicornis
pine tortoise scale
Toumeyella parvicornis is a soft scale insect in the family Coccidae, commonly known as the pine tortoise scale. Native to North America, it has become a serious invasive pest in Mediterranean Europe, particularly damaging stone pine (Pinus pinea) forests in Italy and France since its detection in 2015. Mature females are distinctive for their glossy reddish-brown, dome-shaped bodies resembling tiny tortoises, measuring 4–5 mm long. The species has a wide host range among pine species and reproduces parthenogenetically—males have never been recorded. Heavy infestations cause tree weakening, defoliation, and potential death through phloem feeding, with secondary impacts including sooty mold growth on honeydew excretions and altered fire behavior in affected forests.
invasive-species forest-pest scale-insect parthenogenesis phloem-feeder biological-control Mediterranean Pinus-pinea
Toxotrypana curvicauda
papaya fruit fly
Toxotrypana curvicauda, commonly known as the papaya fruit fly, is a tephritid fruit fly native to the Americas and now established in Florida and other parts of the southern United States. Males are highly territorial, defending papaya fruit surfaces through aerial combat using specialized midleg armature. Females are attracted to male-produced sex pheromones and oviposit directly into papaya fruits, where larvae develop within the seeds. The species is a significant agricultural pest of papaya (Carica papaya) and has been recorded on alternative hosts including Jacaratia mexicana and Morrenia odorata.
agricultural-pest fruit-fly papaya territorial-behavior sexual-selection pheromone Tephritidae Florida invasive-species seed-feeder
Trachys
Leaf-mining Jewel Beetles
Trachys is a genus of leaf-mining jewel beetles (Buprestidae: Trachyinae) characterized by their flattened, compact, wedge-shaped adult morphology—an adaptation distinct from the elongate cylindrical form typical of most buprestids. The genus contains approximately 20 species in Japan and is widely distributed from Africa through Asia to Europe. Larvae mine within leaves rather than boring through wood, a habit that has driven their distinctive body plan. Some species are significant forest and agricultural pests, including the introduced Trachys minutus established in Massachusetts and T. yanoi, a serious pest of Zelkova serrata in East Asia.
Buprestidae Trachyinae leaf-miner jewel-beetle forest-pest Zelkova invasive-species Trachys-minutus Trachys-yanoi univoltine early-leaf-abscission
Trechus
Trechus is a large genus of ground beetles (Carabidae) comprising over 1,000 described species. The genus is distributed across the Palearctic, Near East, and highlands of East Africa. The name derives from the Greek word *trécho*, meaning "I run." Species occupy diverse habitats including floodplain meadows, alpine zones, and volcanic highlands.
Carabidae ground-beetles Palearctic East-Africa volcanic-highlands soil-fauna invasive-species phylogenetics
Trechus obtusus
Trechus obtusus is a ground beetle species in the family Carabidae, originally described from Europe and now established as an invasive species in Hawaii. It has been documented in large numbers in pitfall traps at Pu'u Maka'ala Natural Area Reserve on the island of Hawaii, where it may compete with or displace native carabid species. The species has a broad native distribution spanning North America, Europe, and Africa, with six recognized subspecies showing regional variation.
Carabidae ground-beetle invasive-species Hawaii Europe North-America Africa forest-floor pitfall-trap conservation-concern
Trichocorixa verticalis
water boatman
Trichocorixa verticalis is a small water boatman (Corixidae) native to North America and the Caribbean, now established as an invasive species in Europe, Morocco, South Africa, and New Caledonia. It is exceptionally euryhaline, inhabiting brackish waters, saline ponds, coastal wetlands, and open marine environments—unusual for a corixid. The species overwinters as diapausing eggs and has demonstrated significant ecological impacts in invaded habitats, including dominance over native corixids and trophic cascades affecting phytoplankton abundance through predation on zooplankton.
invasive-species euryhaline salt-marsh water-boatman predator trophic-cascade diapause climate-change range-expansion
Trichoferus campestris
velvet longhorned beetle
Trichoferus campestris is a wood-boring longhorn beetle native to eastern Asia that has become an invasive species in North America and Europe. Adults are active from early summer, with peak abundance around 650 degree-days (base 10°C) in early July in Minnesota. The species is polyphagous, with documented reproduction on multiple hardwood species including Acer platanoides, Juglans nigra, and Malus domestica. Larvae develop in woody material and can complete development in cut branches.
invasive-species wood-borer polyphagous cerambycidae forest-pest phytosanitary
Trichonephila
Banded Orbweavers, Golden Orb-weavers
Trichonephila is a genus of large orb-weaver spiders renowned for constructing massive, golden-hued webs. Females exhibit pronounced sexual size dimorphism, reaching 12–40 mm in body length while males remain much smaller. The genus was elevated from subgenus status in 2019 and now encompasses 13 species distributed across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Several species, including the Jorō spider (T. clavata) and golden silk spider (T. clavipes), have become notable invaders in North America, with T. clavata demonstrating remarkable cold tolerance and rapid range expansion along the eastern United States.
orb-weaver sexual-dimorphism invasive-species ballooning golden-silk urban-tolerance biological-control
Trichonephila clavata
Jorō spider, Joro Spider, Parachute spider
Trichonephila clavata, commonly known as the Jorō spider, is a large orb-weaving spider native to East Asia that has become established as an invasive species in the southeastern United States since approximately 2010. First confirmed in Georgia in 2014, it has expanded rapidly across multiple states through a combination of ballooning dispersal and human-mediated transport. The species is notable for its substantial size, striking coloration, and extensive golden webs, but poses minimal risk to humans due to small fangs and docile behavior. Its physiological adaptations—including higher metabolic rate, faster heart rate, and greater cold tolerance than its congener Trichonephila clavipes—suggest potential for continued northward range expansion.
invasive-species orb-weaver ballooning urban-wildlife biological-control cold-tolerance startle-response cannibalism kleptoparasitism Japanese-folklore Nephilidae Trichonephila spider-silk range-expansion physiological-adaptation urban-ecology agricultural-pest-predator iNaturalist Georgia Maryland East-Asia United-States spider-bite venom docile non-aggressive web-architecture egg-sac overwintering sexual-dimorphism metabolic-rate heart-rate freeze-tolerance road-ecology prey-capture competition native-spider-impacts public-perception media-sensationalism management pesticide-alternatives broom-removal ornamental structural-pest ornithology cardinal web-strength trophic-interactions DNA-metabarcoding diet-analysis species-distribution-model physiological-entomology behavioral-ecology arachnology ballooning-dispersal human-mediated-dispersal hitchhiker cargo-stowaway port-of-entry climate-change warming northward-expansion DMV Howard-County Elkridge Ilchester West-Elkridge beech-forest secondary-forest suburban roadside telephone-pole streetlamp forest-edge disturbance-tolerance prey-detection vibrational-noise auditory-disturbance motionless freezing shyness Hannibal-Lecter stink-bug lanternfly evolutionary-history ancient-association ecosystem-service biocontrol natural-enemy invasive-pest brown-marmorated-stink-bug spotted-lanternfly Halyomorpha-halys Lycorma-delicatula competitive-exclusion dominant-orb-weaver abundant population-growth rapid-spread range-span 120,000-km2 physiological-plasticity metabolism twice-as-high 77%-higher-heart-rate 74%-freeze-survival development-rate seasonal-window life-cycle-completion thermal-limitation congener-comparison natural-dispersal human-transport iNaturalist-record citizen-science confirmed-sighting breeding-population male-and-female gravid-female egg-case stowaway cargo-container port-introduction local-port vehicle-transport hitchhiking accelerated-arrival several-years natural-means prognostication prediction model 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venomous-terrible-painful Nah expert-Rick-Hoebeke risks-small puny-fangs unlikely-pierce-skin video completely-non-aggressive eastern-Howard-County haphazard-webs littered-with-remains former-victims leaves shed-exoskeletons much-larger-female dwarfs-mate positioned-just-above strand-of-silk spinnerets underside-of-abdomen near-red-mound relative-to-hand large-and-docile wait-and-see what-Jorō-means-to-ecosystems help-other-spiders put-a-beat-down-on-invasive-pests stink-bugs spotted-lanternflies passive-hunters enormous-webs larger-than-a-meter-in-diameter capture-prey-snared-in-silk arachnophobes-scary arachnophiles-beautiful important-ecosystem-services crop-pests native-range Asia having-an-old-friend-over-for-dinner reunite first-time large-spiders juicy-prey-items feathered-and-non-feathered-reptiles poses-no-known-threat difficult-to-predict-impact non-native-species experts-suggest beyond-scary-mien give-indigenous-large-orb-weavers-run-for-their-money 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colorful-spiders invasive-spiders in-your-face-spiders webs-on-homes landscape-plants structures middle-of-where-people-live-work-and-play northern-Georgia-2014 presumed-arrived-few-years-prior 15-years increased-dramatically much-of-Southeast disjunct-populations northeastern-U.S.firestorm-of-interest rapidly-expanding-range southeastern-states many-counties Carolinas Tennessee Oklahoma more-than-a-century parts-of-Florida rarely-Pennsylvania tropics thermal-limitations higher-metabolism faster-heart-rate better-ability-to-tolerate-freezing complete-life-cycle-rapidly chilly-temperatures suite-of-adaptations expand-northward warm-loving-cousin findings-support-potential much-yet-to-be-learned successfully-survive-northern-winters nation-and-world-warm southern-species-expand higher-latitudes-and-altitudes rapidly-range-expansion-will-occur typical-mode-of-dispersal aerial-dispersal ballooning-on-strands-of-silk Charlotte's-babies Charlotte's-Web spectacular-moniker parachute-spider rain-down-from-airplanes long-distance-transit human-assistance good-hitchhikers inseminated-gravid-female egg-case-stowaway arrival-in-DMV several-years-by-natural-means new-introduction-at-local-port human-assist-in-vehicles accelerate-arrival terrible-and-painful small-fangs visited-cousin golden-silk-spider Costa-Rica exceeding-meter-diameter indigenous-large-orb-weavers run-for-their-money minimal-direct-impact firestorm Andrew-Davis Benjamin-Frick University-of-Georgia past-week native-to-eastern-Asia Japan China Korea Taiwan known-in-Georgia-since-2013 spreading-rapidly joined-its-cousin Trichonephila-clavipes established-over-160-years better-tolerate-freezing survive-northern-winters rapidly-range-expansion typical-mode long-distance new-introduction human-assist arachnophobes arachnophiles brown-marmorated-stink-bugs difficult-to-predict scary-mien indigenous-orb-weavers Mary-Nouri Sarah-Morgan WAMU relatively-harmless spider-season fall leaves-changing-color cool-crisp-autumn-air pumpkin-spice extension-entomologist Southeast not-just-spiders 20-feet-wide homes people-live-work-and-play 15-years-or-so influx-of-calls public entomology-extension-programs media-frenzy two-questions get-rid-of-Jorō-spiders are-Jorō-spiders-dangerous Clemson-University Southern-Adventist-University Washington-College Union-College two-new-studies test-methods-for-eliminating how-likely-to-bite harm scoured-internet recommended-treatment-options spider-specific-management-recommendations medically-relevant widow-spiders brown-recluses do-not-enter-homes relatively-new recommended-products labelled-spider-control-products tested-products several-products-eliminate not-legal-pesticides machine-lubricant not-recommended commercially-available strongly-encourage labelled-products easiest-and-cheapest without-chemicals broom-or-stick walked-into-spider-web rode-bike took-spider-to-face not-great-feeling wonder-if-bitey give-bitten-superpowers unique-studies evaluated-behaviors react-to-people rather-drop-off-web hang-around-and-bite really-provoke volunteered-to-get-bitten yes-you-read-correctly akin-to-mosquito-bite little-redness little-swelling largely-gone-next-day no-acquired-superpowers take-home-message twofold simplest-and-most-effective without-pesticides feel-you-need-pesticides product-labeled-for-spider-control try-not-to-freak-out doesn't-want-to-be-on-you odds-of-getting-bitten-extremely-low enjoy-glorious-fall-weather drink-pumpkin-spiced-beverage watch-where-you-walk Keep-calm-and-carry-on bites-unlikely cause-minimal-discomfort associate-professor Department-of-Forestry-and-Environmental-Conservation socials email extension featured pest-management Entomology-Today latest-posts email-subscription March-2022 wondered make-its-way-to-DMV September-2022 two-observations three-years 40-sightings happy-and-doing-just-fine several-Howard-County-locations week-or-so-ago team-of-scientists University mission killing-ultra-valuable-beech-trees thriving-amongst-beech-trees visit-amazing-predators mature-females both-Trichonephila-species three-locally-common-orb-weaving-species time-spent-immobile mild-disturbance brief-puff-of-air air-puff-response-data five-other-North-American-species published-literature 453-observations freezing-behavior 10-spider-species remained-immobile-under-a-minute both-Trichonephila-spiders over-an-hour unprecedented shyest-ever-documented tolerate-urban-environments remaining-motionless fleeing nonsexual-cannibalism mating-activity females-cannibalize-males food-availability territorial-aggression Southeastern-United-States expanding-range shy behavioral-reactions descriptive-observations photo-documentation anecdotal-observations controlled-pairings lab natural-webs field one-female-biting-and-killing-another short-fight similar-size container 25-trials fights-ensued-40%different-sizes 27-trials fights-happened-18%larger-females-not-always-aggressor 52-lab-trials six-bouts 9%direct-killing field-trials empty-web 14-trials one-fight 7%aggressor-killing-and-wrapping silk away-from-any-web not-necessarily-territoriality intraspecific-aggression provoked-or-stressed deserves-more-study newly-invasive biology physiology new-range closely-related-species successfully-established 160-years investigation compare online-records iNaturalist.org seasonal-distributions timing females physiological-traits environmental-tolerance metabolic-rates cardiac-functioning cold-exposure survival brief-below-freezing-temperature shorter-season complete-lifecycle narrow-period suitable-weather inherently-higher-metabolism low-temperature survive-better 74%-compared-to-50%brief-freeze colder-climatic-region southeastern-USA useful-information planning urban-landscapes busy-roads frequent-disturbances auditory-and-vibrational physiological-or-behavioral-changes northeast-Georgia varying-levels-of-road-traffic prey-capture-behavior simulated-prey tuning-fork 128-hz-frequency touched-to-web attacked 357-total-trials 20-different-roads attacked-59%high-variability some-roadsides-over-80%others-less-than-30%small-but-significant-negative-correlation daily-road-traffic spider-attack-rates moderate--to-heavy-traffic-roads slightly-less-likely-to-attack 51%-vs-65%able-to-live-near-roads cost-in-terms-of-prey-capture did-not-weigh-less compensate-for-disturbance accumulating-evidence human-dominated-landscapes aid-spread introduced-range Eriostethus-rufus polysphinctine-ectoparasitoid araneid-spiders Neoscona-spp.endemic-to-Japan Yamagata-Prefecture 38º46'-N northern-Japan northernmost-record genus identification-confirmed morphology DNA-barcoding cocoon large-modified-web unique inverted-triangle over-50-cm hanging-from-ill-defined-part no-organized-structure host-spider circumstantial-evidences structure-of-modified-web pre-existing-web-partly-reused orb-web-completely-removed sustaining-threads-newly-moored parasitises-host-spiders two-subfamilies unusual-for-group invasion-potential known-invasive-range review dispersal-abilities potential-impacts management-strategies October-2022 at-least-120,000-km2 South-Carolina North-Carolina Alabama West-Virginia pattern-of-spread natural-dispersal-mechanisms human-mediated-transport large-bodied-orb-weavers flying-insects small-animals thirteen-co-occurring-spider-species monitored-for-competition resources web-building-sites natural-and-urban-habitats management-options-limited advise-journalists-and-experts against-exaggerating-potential-environmental-impact ecologically-harmless rapid-spread-carefully-monitored cautious-evidence-based-approach determining-next-steps three-material-types web-capture introduced-species alter-established-trophic-interactions molecular-analysis resolve-changes community-structure foraging-links east-coast fecal-samples prey-remains-from-webs dissected-guts compare-diet-composition arthropod-targeted-COI-primers Illumina-MiSeq 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higher-elevations significantly-lower-temperatures adaptation-limited-to-milder-cold-regions new-insight adaptation need-for-further-research non-native-habitats eggs overwinter harsh-weather-conditions no-protection compact-silk-case milky-coating chorionic-microspheres CM fine-structural-characteristics ecological-importance uneven-size-distribution outer-eggmass evenly-covered single-layer diameter-2.3-µm short-papillary-projections segmental-adhesion mucous-components insoluble-in-water partially-soluble-in-absolute-ethanol spherical-structure HFIP strong-organic-solvent not-derived-from-vitellogenic-or-choriogenetic-processes CM-adhesive-coatings ovipositional-process equivalent-to-cocoon-silk protective-functions silken-eggcase Northern-Cardinal Cardinalis-cardinalis perches steals-food southeast-of-the-United-States questions native-fauna-affected consuming-prey-items example native-species-deriving-benefit manner-of-kleptoparasitism perched-directly-on-web supported-its-weight 42-48-g first-documented-case spider-web-supporting-perching-bird measurements force-gauge typical-webs support-masses-up-to-70-g small-but-growing-body-of-knowledge non-native-spider species-distribution-models ecological-niche-modeling predict-areas establish-if-introduced three-distinct-genetic-lineages mitochondrial-COI genome-wide-SNPs Korean-Peninsula
Trioza
psyllids, jumping plant-lice
Trioza is the type genus of psyllids in the family Triozidae, comprising sap-sucking insects with worldwide distribution. Species in this genus exhibit diverse host associations, ranging from agricultural crops to native trees. Several species are economically significant: Trioza erytreae transmits citrus greening disease (Huanglongbing), T. apicalis is a major pest of carrot in northern Europe, and T. brevigenae is an invasive pest of ornamental Ficus in California. The genus is characterized by distinct morphological features and complex life cycles involving seasonal migration between summer hosts and overwintering sites.
psyllid sap-sucking phloem-feeder agricultural-pest disease-vector invasive-species quarantine-pest carrot-pest citrus-pest ornamental-pest seasonal-migration host-alternating Triozidae Hemiptera Sternorrhyncha
Trioza adventicia
syzygium leaf psyllid, lillypilly psyllid, eugenia psyllid
Trioza adventicia is a sap-sucking hemipteran in the family Triozidae that creates pit galls on leaves of Syzygium paniculatum. Native to eastern subcoastal Australia, this species has been introduced to California, southern Australia, and New Zealand where it affects ornamental plantings. For decades it was misidentified as Trioza eugeniae in scientific literature, horticultural resources, and biological control programs until a 2019 taxonomic revision using morphological and DNA barcoding evidence clarified the distinction. The biological control program in the United States unknowingly targeted the correct species despite the nomenclatural confusion.
psyllid gall-former ornamental-pest invasive-species misidentification biological-control-target
Trioza brevigenae
Ficus leaf-rolling psyllid
Trioza brevigenae, known as the ficus leaf-rolling psyllid, is an invasive pest of Ficus microcarpa (Chinese banyan or Indian laurel fig) native to India. It was first detected in California in 2016, representing the first known occurrence outside its native range. The species causes characteristic leaf-roll galls on host foliage, with nymphs developing inside these protected structures. Its invasion pathway and full geographic distribution remain under investigation.
invasive-species psyllid Ficus gall-former California India ornamental-pest leaf-roll-gall Triozidae Hemiptera
Trogoderma variabile
warehouse beetle
Trogoderma variabile, commonly known as the warehouse beetle, is a stored product pest in the family Dermestidae. Adults are small beetles averaging about 3.2 mm in length with variable coloration ranging from reddish-brown to dark brown or blackish-brown. The species is highly polyphagous, infesting a wide range of dry goods including cereal products, animal feeds, spices, and nuts. It has been introduced globally and is now established across Europe, Asia, Central America, North America, and Oceania, where it causes significant economic damage in warehouses, granaries, and food storage facilities.
stored-product-pest grain-pest dermestid warehouse-pest invasive-species economic-pest
Tuberolachnus
giant willow aphid, giant bark aphid
Tuberolachnus is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, established by Mordvilko in 1909. The genus contains three described species, with Tuberolachnus salignus (the giant willow aphid) being the most well-known and widely studied. Members of this genus are among the largest aphids in the world, with body lengths reaching up to 5.8 mm. They are notable for their obligate parthenogenetic reproduction, extremely low genetic diversity, and status as invasive pests in multiple regions including New Zealand, India, and Patagonia.
aphid invasive-species parthenogenesis phloem-feeder honeydew-producer agricultural-pest willow-pest ant-mutualism soil-ecology apiculture-problem
Tuberolachnus salignus
Giant Willow Aphid
Tuberolachnus salignus, the giant willow aphid, is one of the largest aphid species in the world, reaching up to 5.8 mm in body length. It is an obligate parthenogenetic species, reproducing without males and producing genetically identical female offspring. Native to Asia, it has become cosmopolitan, spreading to all continents except Antarctica. The species feeds primarily on willow phloem sap and is considered an invasive pest in regions including New Zealand, where it impacts willow-based industries and apiculture through copious honeydew production.
invasive-species parthenogenesis phloem-feeder honeydew-producer willow-pest viviparity cosmopolitan-distribution
Unaspis
Unaspis is a genus of armored scale insects (family Diaspididae) containing economically significant agricultural and horticultural pests. The genus includes at least 19 described species, with several species infesting citrus crops (U. citri, U. yanonensis) and ornamental plants (U. euonymi). Species in this genus are characterized by their protective waxy coverings and phytophagous feeding habits on host plant tissues.
armored-scale Diaspididae agricultural-pest horticultural-pest citrus-pest biological-control invasive-species Asia global-distribution
Unaspis euonymi
Euonymus Scale
Unaspis euonymi is a diaspidid scale insect native to East Asia and now widespread as an invasive pest. It infests Euonymus species and several other ornamental plants, causing significant damage in urban and suburban landscapes. The species exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism in both morphology and feeding behavior. It has been extensively studied as a target for classical biological control using introduced and native natural enemies.
scale-insect pest ornamental biological-control sexual-dimorphism invasive-species Diaspididae Euonymus urban-entomology phloem-feeder
Urocerus
horntail, woodwasp
Urocerus is a genus of horntails (woodwasps) in the family Siricidae containing approximately seven to eight described species. These large, non-venomous wasps are characterized by their elongated, cylindrical bodies and prominent cornus (horn-like spine) at the tip of the abdomen. Females possess a long, drill-like ovipositor used to insert eggs into dead, dying, or weakened trees. Species in this genus are obligate mutualists with wood-decaying fungi, which they vector and cultivate for larval nutrition. Several species have broad distributions across the Northern Hemisphere, with some introduced outside their native ranges.
Siricidae woodwasp horntail fungal-mutualism forest-insect non-venomous ovipositor wood-boring Amylostereum conifer-pest invasive-species Urocerus-gigas Urocerus-albicornis
Uroleucon nigrotuberculatum
red goldenrod aphid
Uroleucon nigrotuberculatum, commonly known as the red goldenrod aphid, is a North American aphid species introduced to Japan. In its native range, it is a specialist feeder on Solidago (goldenrod) species. Following introduction to Japan, this aphid has demonstrated remarkable dietary flexibility, expanding its host range to include multiple exotic plant species beyond its native specialization. The species exhibits complex ecological interactions, including semiochemical-mediated relationships with gall-forming flies and serves as prey for various native parasitoids and predators in its introduced range.
aphid invasive-species host-range-expansion goldenrod Japan North-America semiochemical-ecology tritrophic-interactions parasitoid biological-invasion Asteraceae phloem-feeder parthenogenesis collective-defense
Varroa
Varroa Mites
Varroa is a genus of parasitic mesostigmatan mites that are obligate ectoparasites of honey bees (Apis spp.). The genus contains four species, with Varroa destructor being the most significant pest of Western honey bees (Apis mellifera) worldwide. Originally parasites of Asian honey bees (Apis cerana) in mainland Asia, these mites have spread globally through beekeeping activities. V. destructor is recognized as the most devastating pest of managed honey bees, causing colony losses through direct parasitism and by vectoring viruses such as deformed wing virus. The genus was named for Marcus Terentius Varro, a Roman scholar and beekeeper.
parasite honey-bee-pest disease-vector acarology apiculture invasive-species colony-collapse-disorder integrated-pest-management varroacide-resistance Varroa-sensitive-hygiene social-apoptosis fat-body-feeding deformed-wing-virus Apis-mellifera Apis-cerana
Varroa destructor
Varroa mite
Varroa destructor is an external parasitic mite and the most damaging pest of managed honey bee colonies worldwide. The species originally parasitized the Asian honey bee (Apis cerana) but host-shifted to the western honey bee (Apis mellifera), causing catastrophic colony losses. Adult female mites feed on the fat body tissue of adult bees and larvae, while reproducing exclusively within sealed brood cells. The mite vectors at least five debilitating bee viruses, including deformed wing virus, and colonies without management typically collapse within 2–3 years.
parasite honey-bee-pest vector invasive-species agricultural-pest Apis-mellifera
Velarifictorus micado
Japanese Burrowing Cricket
Velarifictorus micado, the Japanese burrowing cricket, is a true cricket native to East Asia that was introduced to the eastern United States in 1959. The species exhibits two distinct life cycle modes: egg diapause and nymphal diapause, which vary geographically across its native range. In North America, it has expanded from the eastern seaboard to the eastern Great Plains and northern United States, with recent observations suggesting it is more mobile and potentially more ecologically impactful than previously assumed.
invasive-species urban-adapter acoustic-communication life-cycle-polymorphism East-Asian-native North-American-introduced citizen-science-monitoring
Vespa
Hornets
Vespa is a genus of large social wasps known as hornets, comprising 22 recognized species worldwide. Members are distinguished from other vespine wasps by their relatively large top margin of the head and rounded abdominal segment behind the waist. Some species reach up to 5.5 cm in length, making them among the largest eusocial wasps. Several species are significant agricultural pests due to their predation on honey bees, including the Asian giant hornet (V. mandarinia) and yellow-legged hornet (V. velutina), both of which have been detected as invasive species in North America.
hornet social-wasp invasive-species honey-bee-predator agricultural-pest Vespidae Hymenoptera
Vespa mandarinia
Asian giant hornet, Japanese giant hornet, yak-killer hornet
Vespa mandarinia is the world's largest hornet species, native to temperate and tropical low mountains and forests of eastern Asia. It has been introduced to the Pacific Northwest of North America, where it was first detected in British Columbia and Washington State in 2019. The species poses significant threats to European honey bee colonies through coordinated group attacks, and its establishment could impact apiculture, ecosystems, and public health.
invasive-species honey-bee-predator social-wasp pest venomous Pacific-Northwest quarantine apiculture-threat largest-hornet
Vespula
yellowjackets, yellow jackets, Ground Yellowjackets
Vespula is a genus of social wasps in the family Vespidae, collectively known as yellowjackets in North America. The genus is distinguished from its sister genus Dolichovespula by a shorter oculomalar space and a stronger tendency to nest underground. Vespula species are widely distributed across the Northern Hemisphere, with most species native to North America and four species (V. austriaca, V. germanica, V. rufa, V. vulgaris) native to Europe. Several species have been introduced outside their native ranges, including V. germanica and V. vulgaris in New Zealand, Australia, South America, and Southern Africa.
social-wasps stinging-insects yellowjackets invasive-species pest-insects biological-control
Vespula germanica
German yellowjacket, European wasp, German wasp
Vespula germanica is a highly invasive social wasp native to Europe, Northern Africa, and temperate Asia that has established populations across much of the Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere, including North America, South America, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. It is one of the most successful invasive wasp species globally, characterized by exceptional cognitive flexibility, opportunistic foraging behavior, and adaptability to diverse environments. The species exhibits complex social organization with annual colonies founded by single queens, though perennial colonies occur in favorable climates. Its invasive success is attributed to flexible nesting habits, broad dietary range, and efficient resource exploitation, though human-aided transport of hibernating queens significantly contributes to long-distance dispersal.
invasive-species yellowjacket social-wasp pest pollinator predator scavenger cavity-nester Vespidae Hymenoptera
Wasmannia
Wasmannia is a genus of small myrmicine ants in the tribe Attini, established by Forel in 1893. The genus contains approximately 10 described species distributed across the Neotropics, with the most notable being Wasmannia auropunctata, commonly known as the electric ant or little fire ant. This species has achieved global notoriety as one of the world's most destructive invasive ant species, having spread from its native range in Central and South America to tropical and subtropical regions worldwide including Florida, Hawaii, Australia, and numerous Pacific islands. The genus is characterized by small, monomorphic workers with a well-developed sting apparatus.
invasive-species agricultural-pest public-health-pest myrmicine-ants clonal-reproduction unicolonial tramp-species
Wasmannia auropunctata
little fire ant, electric ant
Wasmannia auropunctata, commonly known as the little fire ant or electric ant, is a small invasive ant native to Central and South America. It has spread to tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, including Florida, Hawaii, the Caribbean, Africa, and the Pacific Islands. The species is known for its painful sting relative to its size and is listed among the world's most destructive invasive species. It exhibits facultative reproductive polymorphism, with some populations reproducing sexually and others clonally.
invasive-species agricultural-pest medical-entomology social-insect tramp-species biological-control-target formicidae myrmicinae
Xanthogaleruca luteola
elm leaf beetle
Xanthogaleruca luteola, the elm leaf beetle, is an invasive leaf beetle native to Europe that has become the most serious defoliator of elm trees in North America. Adults are yellow to olive-green with distinctive black lateral stripes and spots. Both adults and larvae feed on elm foliage, with larvae skeletonizing leaves by consuming soft tissue between veins. The species has multiple generations annually, with larvae overwintering in soil or bark crevices. Biological control using introduced parasitoids has reduced its pest status in many regions.
invasive-species forest-pest urban-pest biological-control defoliator Chrysomelidae Ulmus parasitoid integrated-pest-management
Xyleborinus
Xyleborinus is a genus of ambrosia beetles in the subfamily Scolytinae, comprising over 80 described species. These beetles are fungus-farmers that excavate galleries in wood and cultivate symbiotic fungi as their primary food source. The genus includes economically significant species such as Xyleborinus saxesenii, which has been associated with rapid apple decline in North American orchards. Xyleborinus exhibits extraordinary morphological diversity, particularly in Madagascar where a recent radiation produced at least 32 endemic species following a single colonization event 8.5–11.0 million years ago.
ambrosia-beetle fungus-farming bark-beetle Scolytinae invasive-species agricultural-pest mutualism haplodiploidy local-mate-competition Madagascar-radiation
Xyleborinus attenuatus
Xyleborinus attenuatus is an invasive ambrosia beetle native to East Asia that has established throughout Europe and North America. As a member of the subfamily Scolytinae, it cultivates symbiotic ambrosia fungi within galleries excavated in wood, feeding on the fungal growth rather than the wood itself. In Central Europe, it completes one generation annually with flight activity occurring from mid-March to May and F1 adults emerging in August and September. It predominantly colonizes soft deciduous trees and has not been reported to cause significant economic damage, though it vectors multiple ambrosia fungi species.
ambrosia-beetle invasive-species fungus-farming Scolytinae forest-pest vector
Xyleborinus saxesenii
fruit-tree pinhole borer, Keyhole Ambrosia Beetle
Xyleborinus saxesenii is a small ambrosia beetle native to the Palaearctic region that has become one of the most widespread invasive ambrosia beetles globally. It exhibits facultative eusociality with cooperative breeding, where adult daughters delay dispersal to assist with brood care, fungus farming, and nest maintenance. The species cultivates Raffaelea sulphurea as its primary fungal mutualist, though it has been observed to feed on wood tissue as well, making it xylomycetophagous. It primarily colonizes dead or dying wood but has been documented attacking live trees, including economically important species such as chestnut and apple, causing concern in forestry and orchard management.
ambrosia-beetle fungus-farming cooperative-breeding invasive-species forest-pest xylomycetophagous haplodiploid eusociality mutualism Scolytinae Curculionidae
Xyleborus bispinatus
Xyleborus bispinatus is a tropical ambrosia beetle in the tribe Xyleborini. Native to the Americas, it has established populations in Florida and been introduced to the Iberian Peninsula. The beetle maintains nutritional mutualisms with ambrosia fungi and has demonstrated unusual flexibility in acquiring symbionts from invasive beetle species, including plant pathogens. It is a potential vector for laurel wilt disease and has been associated with avocado decline in multiple regions.
ambrosia-beetle fungus-farming invasive-species avocado-pest laurel-wilt symbiont-flexibility Xyleborini parthenogenesis vector Florida-endemic Iberian-Peninsula
Xyleborus glabratus
Redbay Ambrosia Beetle
Xyleborus glabratus is a small ambrosia beetle native to Asia that has become a destructive invasive pest in the southeastern United States since its detection in 2002. The species is the primary vector of Raffaelea lauricola, the fungal pathogen that causes laurel wilt disease, which has killed millions of native Lauraceae trees including redbay, sassafras, and avocado. Females are the dispersing sex and initiate galleries in host wood, where they cultivate fungal gardens as food for their offspring. The beetle's rapid spread threatens both forest ecosystems and commercial avocado production.
ambrosia-beetle invasive-species forest-pest vector laurel-wilt Raffaelea-lauricola Lauraceae parthenogenesis fungus-farming mycangia
Xylosandrus compactus
black twig borer, black coffee borer, black coffee twig borer, tea stem borer
Xylosandrus compactus is a highly invasive ambrosia beetle (Scolytinae) native to subtropical Asia. Females tunnel into twigs of living woody plants, cultivate symbiotic fungi as larval food, and reproduce through arrhenotokous parthenogenesis. The species has spread to over 50 countries, becoming a significant agricultural pest of coffee, tea, cocoa, and avocado, and threatening native forest ecosystems in invaded regions.
ambrosia-beetle fungus-farming invasive-species agricultural-pest coffee-pest Scolytinae arrhenotoky mycangia
Xylosandrus crassiusculus
Granulate Ambrosia Beetle, Asian Ambrosia Beetle
Xylosandrus crassiusculus is a small ambrosia beetle native to tropical and subtropical Asia that has become one of the most successful invasive wood-boring beetles globally. Adults are reddish-brown, 2–3 mm long, and exhibit a specialized fungus-farming mutualism. Females excavate galleries in wood, introduce the symbiotic fungus Ambrosiella roeperi, and cultivate it as the sole food source for themselves and their offspring. The species is polyphagous on broadleaf trees and shrubs, infesting stressed nursery stock, young trees, and stacked timber, causing economic damage in forestry and agriculture.
ambrosia-beetle fungus-farming invasive-species wood-borer pest Scolytinae mycophagy mutualism polyphagous
Xylosandrus germanus
black stem borer, alnus ambrosia beetle, black timber bark beetle
Xylosandrus germanus is a tiny ambrosia beetle native to eastern Asia that has become a significant invasive pest in Europe and North America. Females, which are flight-capable and substantially larger than the flightless males, excavate galleries in stressed or recently dead woody plants to cultivate fungal gardens. The species exhibits a quasisocial structure with foundress females performing distinct behavioral roles that shift from gallery construction and brood care to entrance-blocking as the colony matures. Its rapid spread—tens of kilometers per year in some regions—is facilitated by climate change, global timber trade, and an unusual reproductive system where single foundresses can establish populations through sib-mating.
invasive-species ambrosia-beetle fungus-farming forest-pest orchard-pest sexual-dimorphism quasisocial arrhenotoky
Yponomeuta padella
orchard ermine, cherry ermine
Yponomeuta padella is a small ermine moth native to Europe and parts of Asia, now introduced to North America. Adults are active from July to August and are attracted to light. The species is notable for forming part of a cryptic species complex with Y. malinellus, Y. cagnagella, Y. rorella, and Y. evonymella, requiring genital examination or host plant association for reliable identification. Larvae feed on Prunus and Crataegus species, and the moth has demonstrated invasive potential with documented outbreaks causing significant defoliation in introduced and expanded ranges.
ermine-moth pest orchard-pest invasive-species cryptic-species defoliator Prunus-feeder Crataegus-feeder Europe-native introduced-to-North-America light-attracted July–August-flight
Zaprionus
Fig Flies
Zaprionus is a genus of fruit flies in the family Drosophilidae, distinguished by conspicuous white longitudinal stripes across the head and thorax. The genus is divided into two subgenera based on stripe number: Zaprionus (even number of stripes) and Anaprionus (odd number of stripes). Species occur primarily in Africa and southern Asia, with several species showing invasive expansion. The genus is taxonomically nested within the paraphyletic genus Drosophila.
Drosophilidae fruit-flies invasive-species zebra-stripes Afrotropical Oriental agricultural-pest fermenting-fruit parasitoid-host kleptoparasitism oviscapt-structure egg-filaments fig-pest grape-pest berry-pest tropical subgenus-Zaprionus subgenus-Anaprionus competitive-displacement secondary-pest monitoring vinegar-trap range-expansion Mediterranean-invasion New-World-invasion Hawaiian-Islands Southeast-Asia West-Africa polyphagous decomposer nutrient-cycling Pachycrepoideus-vindemiae Spalangia-endius Leptopilina-boulardi interspecific-competition developmental-plasticity temperature-effects fungal-interactions Pichia-kudriavzevii Coquillett-1901 taxonomic-revision molecular-phylogenetics foreleg-spines trichome-structures light-polarization cuticular-pigmentation species-groups-armatus-inermis-vittiger-neglectus species-subgroups-armatus-tuberculatus-vrydaghi-montanus-spinosus-inermis-tuberculatus-sepsoides-davidi-indianus-ornatus-proximus-sexvittatus-vittiger species-complexes-armatus-hoplophorus-vrydaghi-sepsoides-tuberculatus-davidi-indianus-ornatus-proximus-sexvittatus-vittiger Z.-africanus Z.-armatus Z.-bogoriensis Z.-burlai Z.-camerounensis Z.-campestris Z.-capensis Z.-cercociliaris Z.-cercus Z.-davidi Z.-enoplomerus Z.-flavofasciatus Z.-fumipennis Z.-gabonicus Z.-ghesquierei Z.-grandis Z.-hoplophorus Z.-inermis Z.-indianus Z.-kolodkinae Z.-koroleu Z.-lachaisei Z.-lineosus Z.-litos Z.-mascariensis Z.-momorticus Z.-montanus Z.-multistriatus Z.-multivittiger Z.-neglectus Z.-niabu Z.-obscuricornis Z.-ornatus Z.-proximus Z.-pyinoolwinensis Z.-santomensis Z.-sepsoides Z.-seguyi Z.-serratus Z.-sexstriatus Z.-sexvittatus Z.-silvistriatus Z.-spinilineosus Z.-spinipes Z.-spinoarmatus Z.-spineus Z.-spinosus Z.-taronus Z.-tsacasi Z.-tuberarmatus Z.-tuberculatus Z.-verruca Z.-vittiger Z.-vrydaghi Z.-aungsani Z.-arduus Z.-badyi Z.-orissaensis
Zaprionus indianus
African fig fly
Zaprionus indianus is a highly invasive drosophilid fruit fly native to West and Central Africa that has established populations across tropical and temperate regions worldwide. It is distinguished by striking longitudinal black and white stripes on the head and thorax. Unlike many invasive drosophilids, it cannot penetrate intact fruit skin and instead exploits pre-existing wounds or oviposition holes made by other species, particularly spotted-wing drosophila (Drosophila suzukii). It is a significant pest of figs, grapes, and other soft fruits, and exhibits strong interspecific competitive ability.
invasive-species fruit-fly vinegar-fly agricultural-pest kleptoparasite Drosophilidae Africa-native cosmopolitan-distribution fig-pest grape-pest