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Sipha
yellow sugarcane aphid (for S. flava), hedgehog grain aphid (for S. maydis)
Sipha is a genus of aphids (Aphididae) in the tribe Siphini, with nearly cosmopolitan distribution. The genus includes notable agricultural pests, particularly Sipha flava (yellow sugarcane aphid) and Sipha maydis (hedgehog grain aphid). Species in this genus feed on grasses and cereal crops, with some capable of transmitting plant viruses such as barley yellow dwarf virus. Several species have expanded their ranges rapidly in recent decades, becoming significant pests of sorghum, sugarcane, wheat, and barley.
aphid cereal-pest sorghum-pest sugarcane-pest virus-vector invasive-species parthenogenesis agricultural-entomology integrated-pest-management Poaceae-feeder
Sipha maydis
Hedgehog Grain Aphid
Sipha maydis, commonly known as the hedgehog grain aphid, is a globally distributed pest of cereal crops and wild grasses. Native to Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, it was first detected in the United States in 2007 and has since expanded across the Southwest and Rocky Mountain states. The aphid feeds on phloem of Poaceae, with documented hosts including wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, and over 50 plant species worldwide. It reproduces parthenogenetically, with optimal development at 20–25°C. S. maydis is a vector of barley yellow dwarf virus and can cause leaf yellowing, rolling, and desiccation leading to yield reduction.
aphid cereal-pest invasive-species barley-yellow-dwarf-virus-vector parthenogenesis multipartite-symbiosis
Siphoninus
ash whiteflies
Siphoninus is a genus of whiteflies in the family Aleyrodidae. The genus includes at least three recognized species: Siphoninus phillyreae (the ash whitefly), S. immaculatus, and S. gruveli. Siphoninus phillyreae is the most extensively studied species, known as a polyphagous pest with a broad global distribution spanning Europe, Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Oceania. The genus has been subject to recent taxonomic revision, including the revalidation of S. finitimus as a distinct species.
whitefly Aleyrodidae agricultural-pest biological-control polyphagous invasive-species ash-whitefly pomegranate-pest Sternorrhyncha phloem-feeder
Siphoninus phillyreae
ash whitefly
Siphoninus phillyreae, commonly known as the ash whitefly, is a polyphagous whitefly species native to western Eurasia, India, and North Africa. It has been introduced to North America, South America, and Oceania, where it is recognized as a significant agricultural pest. The species feeds on a broad range of host plants including ash, pomegranate, apple, pear, and other fruit trees. Encarsia inaron is a primary parasitoid used for its biological control.
agricultural-pest whitefly biological-control polyphagous invasive-species pomegranate-pest ash-pest fruit-tree-pest Encarsia-inaron integrated-pest-management temperature-dependent-development host-plant-suitability
Sirex
horntail, wood wasp
Sirex is a genus of horntail woodwasps in the family Siricidae. These insects are characterized by an obligate mutualistic relationship with wood-decaying fungi, which they carry in specialized abdominal organs called mycangia and introduce into host trees during oviposition. The fungus digests wood cellulose, providing nutrition for the developing larvae. The genus includes significant forest pests, notably Sirex noctilio, which has become invasive in multiple continents outside its native range.
mutualism forest-pest invasive-species wood-borer fungus-symbiosis pine-pest biological-control
Sitona hispidulus
Clover Root Curculio, Clover Weevil
Sitona hispidulus, the clover root curculio, is a weevil species native to Europe that has been introduced to Asia and North America. The larval stage is the most damaging, feeding cryptically underground on root nodules and taproots of legumes, particularly alfalfa and clovers. Adults feed on foliage with minimal damage. The species has been overlooked as a pest for decades but causes chronic issues including reduced stand establishment, shortened stand life, and increased winterkill in forage systems. Population levels are limited by availability of root nodules for early instars and taproot biomass for later instars.
agricultural-pest root-herbivore legume-pest alfalfa clover entomopathogenic-nematode-host invasive-species North-America
Sitona lepidus
clover root weevil
Sitona lepidus, commonly known as the clover root weevil, is a root-feeding weevil native to Europe that has become an invasive pest in New Zealand and North America. Adults feed on clover foliage while larvae feed on root nodules, reducing nitrogen fixation and pasture quality. The species is particularly damaging in New Zealand due to the absence of natural competitors and established biological control programs using the parasitoid wasp Microctonus aethiopoides are underway.
agricultural-pest invasive-species root-feeder pasture-pest biological-control nitrogen-fixation clover New-Zealand Europe Curculionidae
Sitona lineatus
pea leaf weevil, pea weevil, bean weevil
Sitona lineatus is an invasive weevil pest of pulse crops, particularly field pea (Pisum sativum) and faba bean (Vicia faba). Native to Europe and North Africa, it has established populations in western Canadian prairie provinces and is expanding southward into the northern United States. Adults feed on foliage, while larvae develop underground feeding on root nodules and Rhizobium bacteria. The species exhibits distinct spring and late-summer flight periods tied to temperature thresholds, with spring migration from overwintering sites driving crop colonization. Economic impacts include yield reductions up to 28% through combined foliar and root damage.
invasive-species pulse-crop-pest agricultural-pest Fabaceae integrated-pest-management pheromone-monitoring range-expansion nitrogen-fixation root-nodule-feeder
Solenopsis
fire ants, thief ants, ginger ants, tropical fire ants, red ants
Solenopsis is a genus of ants in the family Formicidae comprising over 200 species worldwide, including the notorious fire ants and thief ants. Members of this genus are characterized by their ability to deliver painful stings using a venom-injecting stinger. The genus includes some of the most economically and ecologically significant invasive ant species, particularly Solenopsis invicta (red imported fire ant), which has spread from South America to become a major pest across the southern United States and beyond. While fire ants represent a minority of Solenopsis species, they have disproportionate ecological and economic impacts due to their aggressive behavior, large colony sizes, and potent venom.
invasive-species economic-pest medically-significant stinging-ant aggressive-defender soil-nesting polymorphic-workers multiple-queen-colonies biological-control-target climate-change-responder
Solenopsis geminata
tropical fire ant, Geminata-group fire ant
Solenopsis geminata, the tropical fire ant, is a native New World species with a broad distribution spanning the southern United States through Central and South America, and introduced populations across Asia, the Pacific Islands, and Africa. The species exhibits a foraging strategy tradeoff between discovery efficiency and competitive territorial dominance compared to its congener S. xyloni, with S. geminata being less efficient at resource discovery but superior in competitive encounters. Invasive populations demonstrate adaptive strategies to overcome inbreeding costs, including pleometrosis (cooperative colony founding by multiple queens) and execution of diploid male larvae. The species serves as host to Pseudacteon phorid fly parasitoids.
fire-ant invasive-species agricultural-pest biological-control-host hybridization pleometrosis diploid-male-production phorid-fly-host mesic-habitat-specialist New-World-native Pacific-invasive Asian-invasive competitive-dominance foraging-strategy-tradeoff
Solenopsis invicta
Red Imported Fire Ant, RIFA
Solenopsis invicta is a highly invasive ant species native to South America that has spread to multiple continents, causing significant ecological and economic damage. It forms large, aggressive colonies that dominate disturbed habitats and displace native ant species through competition and predation. The species exhibits flexible colony reproduction through both nuptial flights and colony budding, with some populations containing multiple queens. Its painful sting and tendency to swarm when disturbed make it a serious public health and agricultural pest.
invasive-species pest agricultural-pest public-health-threat generalist-predator polymorphic-colony multiple-queen stinging-ant soil-mound-builder ecosystem-disruptor
Solenopsis richteri
Black Imported Fire Ant, BIFA
Solenopsis richteri, the black imported fire ant, is a South American native fire ant species that has been introduced to North America. Once considered a subspecies or color variant of Solenopsis invicta, it is now recognized as a distinct species with demonstrably different range and ecological preferences. It appears more cold-tolerant and less dominant than the red imported fire ant. In its native Argentina, it is attacked by six species of Pseudacteon phorid flies that significantly reduce its foraging activity. The species hybridizes with S. invicta where their ranges overlap, particularly in Tennessee. In Eritrea, it has been documented as a serious agricultural pest of crops and grazing areas.
fire-ant invasive-species agricultural-pest hybridization biological-control phorid-parasitoid seed-harvester cold-tolerant Argentina Eritrea Tennessee
Sparganothini
Sparganothini is a tribe of tortrix moths (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae: Tortricinae) containing approximately 20 genera distributed primarily in the New World. The tribe includes economically significant species and has been the subject of multiple systematic revisions. Greatest species richness occurs at middle elevations (500–1500 m) in Central and South America. Several genera have been extensively studied, including Amorbia (29 species), Sparganothoides (32 species), and Amorbimorpha (at least 12 species, with 2 formally described).
tortricid-moths New-World-fauna systematics invasive-species
Sphaeroma
pillbug, roly poly, marine pillbug
Sphaeroma is a genus of aquatic isopod crustaceans in the family Sphaeromatidae. These small crustaceans are commonly known as marine pillbugs or roly polies, though they are distinct from terrestrial isopods. The genus contains multiple species distributed across marine and estuarine environments globally. Some species, such as S. terebrans, are specialized wood-borers in mangrove habitats, while others inhabit rocky intertidal zones or construct burrows in soft sediments. The genus has been subject to recent taxonomic revision, with new species described from the northeastern Pacific and elsewhere.
isopod crustacean marine pillbug burrowing wood-boring mangrove salt-marsh parental-care invasive-species Sphaeromatidae
Sphecinae
digger wasps, thread-waisted wasps, grass-carrying wasps
Sphecinae is a subfamily of digger wasps (family Sphecidae) characterized by thread-waisted bodies and solitary nesting behavior. Members construct nests in soil, plant stems, or pre-existing cavities, provisioning cells with paralyzed prey for their larvae. The subfamily includes notable genera such as Sphex, Isodontia, and Podalonia, with diverse nesting strategies ranging from burrowing to grass-carrying.
digger-wasp solitary-wasp thread-waisted-wasp grass-carrying-wasp nest-provisioning orthopteran-predator invasive-species Sphecidae
Spilomelinae
Pearl Moths
Spilomelinae is a species-rich subfamily of Crambidae (crambid snout moths) containing approximately 4,180 described species in 351 genera worldwide, making it the most diverse group among pyraloid moths. Formerly treated as tribe Spilomelini within Pyraustinae, it was elevated to subfamily status based on phylogenetic studies. The subfamily includes numerous agricultural pests as well as the invasive box tree moth (Cydalima perspectalis).
Crambidae Pyraloidea Lepidoptera agricultural-pests invasive-species box-tree-moth phylogenetics tropical-diversity
Spodoptera
Armyworm Moths
Spodoptera is a genus of noctuid moths comprising approximately 30 species distributed across six continents. The larvae are commonly known as armyworms and include some of the most destructive agricultural pests worldwide. Several species, including the fall armyworm (S. frugiperda), beet armyworm (S. exigua), and cotton leafworm (S. littoralis), cause significant economic damage to crops. The genus is characterized by specific morphological traits that distinguish it from related noctuid genera.
armyworm agricultural-pest noctuid-moth polyphagous Bt-resistance invasive-species crop-protection integrated-pest-management
Spodoptera frugiperda
Fall Armyworm, Fall Armyworm Moth
Spodoptera frugiperda, commonly known as the fall armyworm, is a migratory moth species native to the Americas that has become a devastating invasive pest across Africa and Asia. The larvae are polyphagous, feeding on more than 80 plant species including maize, sorghum, cotton, and soybean. Economic damage from this species has been severe, with estimated losses of $2.5–6.3 billion annually in affected African countries. The species cannot overwinter in temperate regions, reinvading northern areas annually through long-distance migration.
pest agricultural-pest invasive-species migratory polyphagous noctuid-moth caterpillar maize-pest Bt-resistance
Steatoda
False Widow Spiders, Cupboard Spiders
Steatoda is a genus of cobweb spiders in the family Theridiidae containing approximately 120 recognized species with worldwide distribution. Many species are synanthropic, commonly found in human dwellings, sheds, garages, and undisturbed corners. Members are frequently mistaken for widow spiders (Latrodectus) due to similar body shape and web structure, earning them the common name "false widows," though they are significantly less harmful to humans. The genus includes both native and invasive species, with Steatoda nobilis (Noble False Widow) being particularly notable for its rapid range expansion in Europe and North America.
spiders cobweb-weavers synanthropic false-widows medically-significant-venom-(minor)invasive-species Theridiidae
Steatoda nobilis
Noble False Widow
Steatoda nobilis is a large theridiid spider native to Madeira and the Canary Islands, now established as one of the world's most invasive spider species. It has spread across Europe, North and South America, and other temperate regions, often becoming the dominant spider in urban environments. The species is of moderate medical significance: bites typically cause symptoms similar to bee or wasp stings, though some cases involve more severe reactions including bacterial infections from pathogenic bacteria carried on the spider's body. It constructs strong, irregular cobwebs with concealed tubular retreats and employs an 'attack wrap' hunting strategy to subdue prey.
invasive-species medically-significant synanthropic urban-ecology theridiid venomous
Stemmatomerinx
Stemmatomerinx is a genus of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) established by Ferris in 1950. The genus includes Stemmatomerinx adenticulata, which was first discovered in Florida in 2010 and represents one of 13 mealybug species introduced to the state since 1998. As a member of the Pseudococcidae family, species in this genus are soft-bodied scale insects covered with white, powdery wax.
mealybug invasive-species scale-insect Florida Pseudococcidae
Stenocranus
delphacid planthoppers
Stenocranus is a genus of delphacid planthoppers in the family Delphacidae, containing more than 70 described species. Species within this genus exhibit wing polymorphism, with macropterous (long-winged) and sub-macropterous forms occurring in at least some species. Several species are documented crop pests, particularly of corn, rice, and sugarcane. The genus has a broad distribution with records from Europe, North America, and Asia, though individual species vary in their geographic ranges. Some species have shown invasive potential, with range expansions into new regions documented in recent decades.
Delphacidae planthopper crop-pest wing-polymorphism macroptery sub-macroptery grass-feeder corn-pest rice-pest sugarcane-pest invasive-species phloem-feeder S.-pacificus S.-minutus Philippines Indonesia Japan Europe North-America parasitoid-host Cephalops-curtifrons
Stenopelmus rufinasus
Azolla Weevil, Waterfern Weevil
Stenopelmus rufinasus is a small weevil native to North America, introduced to Europe in 1898 alongside its host plant Azolla filiculoides. The species is a specialized herbivore with rapid development, completing its life cycle in approximately 20 days and producing 4-6 generations annually under favorable conditions. It has been widely deployed as a biological control agent for invasive Azolla species, particularly in South Africa where it has achieved dramatic population reductions. Adults exhibit exceptional dispersal capabilities, documented to travel up to 350 km, and frequently occur in water bodies lacking visible host plants.
biological-control invasive-species aquatic-insect herbivore dispersal Azolla
Sternorrhyncha
plant-parasitic hemipterans
Sternorrhyncha is a suborder of Hemiptera containing aphids, whiteflies, scale insects, and psyllids—groups formerly classified in the obsolete order 'Homoptera'. The name refers to the rearward position of the mouthparts relative to the head. All members are obligate plant-feeders with piercing-sucking mouthparts adapted for extracting phloem or xylem sap. Many species exhibit highly modified life cycles including parthenogenesis, sexual dimorphism, flightless morphs, and eusociality. The group includes numerous economically important agricultural and horticultural pests.
Hemiptera plant-feeding sap-sucking agricultural-pests honeydew parthenogenesis sexual-dimorphism invasive-species biological-control
Stictocephala bisonia
Buffalo Treehopper
Stictocephala bisonia, commonly known as the buffalo treehopper, is a Nearctic treehopper species native to North America that has become a widespread invasive pest across the northern hemisphere. First introduced to Europe over 100 years ago, it has actively expanded its range in recent decades and was first recorded in China in 2017 and India in 2024. The species is polyphagous, feeding on diverse plant hosts including young fruit trees, berry bushes, and grapevines, and has been implicated as a potential vector of phytoplasmas affecting fruit trees. Its successful invasion has been linked to climate change, global trade, and genetic adaptations for detoxification and cold resistance.
invasive-species agricultural-pest polyphagy climate-change-expansion symbiosis phytoplasma-vector-potential
Stictocephala stimulea
Stictocephala stimulea is a treehopper species in the family Membracidae, first described by Van Duzee in 1914. Treehoppers in this genus are characterized by their enlarged, often ornate pronotum that extends over the body like a helmet or thorn. The specific epithet 'stimulea' suggests possible resemblance to or association with stinging organisms, though this refers to appearance rather than actual sting. Like other membracids, this species likely feeds on plant phloem sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts.
Membracidae treehopper Auchenorrhyncha Cicadomorpha Stictocephala Ceresini Smiliinae Hemiptera sap-feeder pronotum helmet thorn-mimicry plant-feeding-insect phloem-feeder cryptic-coloration camouflage Van-Duzee-1914 Nearctic North-America Florida North-Carolina South-Dakota understudied-species data-deficient taxonomy entomology insect arthropod true-bug auchenorrhynchan cicadomorph leafhopper-relative plant-hopper ornate-pronotum pronotal-extension dorsal-helmet insect-morphology insect-systematics biodiversity natural-history conservation insect-ecology insect-behavior insect-development insect-distribution biogeography species-description type-specimen original-description historical-taxonomy museum-specimen collection-record occurrence-data GBIF iNaturalist citizen-science observation-record range-map distribution-data geographic-range endemic native-species regional-fauna local-biodiversity habitat-specificity host-plant feeding-guild phytophagous herbivore plant-insect-interaction coevolution mimicry defense crypsis evolutionary-adaptation morphological-adaptation exoskeleton-modification structural-coloration insect-identification field-guide diagnostic-character taxonomic-key species-complex cryptic-species morphological-variation geographic-variation phenotypic-plasticity life-history reproduction oviposition nymph instar metamorphosis hemimetabolous incomplete-metamorphosis population-dynamics community-ecology food-web trophic-level primary-consumer ecosystem-function nutrient-cycling energy-flow biological-control pest-status agricultural-relevance forestry urban-ecology invasive-potential climate-change habitat-loss conservation-status data-gap research-need taxonomic-revision phylogenetics molecular-systematics DNA-barcoding integrative-taxonomy natural-history-collection specimen-digitization open-data FAIR-data biodiversity-informatics biological-database taxonomic-authority nomenclature zoological-nomenclature 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association-rule frequent-pattern apriori-algorithm FP-growth sequential-pattern temporal-pattern spatial-pattern spatiotemporal-pattern time-series-analysis trend-analysis seasonal-decomposition autoregressive-model moving-average-model ARIMA SARIMA exponential-smoothing state-space-model Kalman-filter particle-filter hidden-Markov-model dynamic-Bayesian-network recurrent-neural-network long-short-term-memory gated-recurrent-unit transformer attention-mechanism self-attention multi-head-attention encoder decoder encoder-decoder-architecture sequence-to-sequence-model generative-model generative-adversarial-network variational-autoencoder normalizing-flow diffusion-model energy-based-model Boltzmann-machine restricted-Boltzmann-machine deep-belief-network autoencoder denoising-autoencoder sparse-autoencoder contractive-autoencoder variational-inference expectation-maximization maximum-likelihood maximum-a-posteriori maximum-entropy Occam's-razor parsimony model-complexity overfitting underfitting bias-variance-tradeoff regularization L1-regularization L2-regularization elastic-net dropout early-stopping batch-normalization layer-normalization group-normalization instance-normalization weight-decay mixup cutout cutmix random-erasing autoaugment fast-autoaugment population-based-augmentation neural-architecture-search automated-machine-learning hyperparameter-optimization grid-search random-search Bayesian-optimization sequential-model-based-optimization multi-fidelity-optimization knowledge-distillation teacher-student-model model-compression quantization knowledge-transfer domain-adaptation few-shot-learning zero-shot-learning one-shot-learning meta-learning learning-to-learn metric-learning siamese-network triplet-loss contrastive-learning self-supervised-learning unsupervised-learning semi-supervised-learning weakly-supervised-learning active-learning online-learning incremental-learning continual-learning lifelong-learning curriculum-learning multi-task-learning multi-modal-learning cross-modal-learning representation-learning feature-learning embedding-learning manifold-learning dimensionality-reduction principal-component-analysis t-SNE UMAP word-embedding sentence-embedding document-embedding knowledge-graph-embedding graph-neural-network graph-convolutional-network graph-attention-network message-passing-neural-network relational-graph-convolutional-network inductive-learning transductive-learning homophily heterophily graph-isomorphism Weisfeiler-Lehman-test subgraph-isomorphism graph-matching network-alignment network-embedding node-embedding edge-embedding graph-classification node-classification link-prediction graph-generation graph-synthesis molecular-generation de-novo-design inverse-design retrosynthesis reaction-prediction property-prediction quantitative-structure-activity-relationship QSAR quantitative-structure-property-relationship QSPR molecular-descriptor fingerprint Morgan-fingerprint extended-connectivity-fingerprint circular-fingerprint atom-pair-fingerprint topological-torsion-fingerprint pharmacophore shape-similarity electrostatic-similarity docking scoring-function binding-affinity-prediction protein-ligand-interaction protein-protein-interaction protein-structure-prediction AlphaFold protein-folding contact-prediction distance-prediction angle-prediction torsion-prediction secondary-structure-prediction tertiary-structure-prediction quaternary-structure-prediction protein-design protein-engineering directed-evolution rational-design computational-design de-novo-protein-design enzyme-design catalytic-antibody ribozyme aptamer DNAzyme synthetic-biology genetic-circuit metabolic-engineering metabolic-flux-analysis flux-balance-analysis genome-scale-metabolic-model dynamic-metabolic-model kinetic-modeling stoichiometric-modeling constraint-based-modeling optimization linear-programming mixed-integer-linear-programming quadratic-programming nonlinear-programming dynamic-programming stochastic-programming robust-optimization multi-objective-optimization Pareto-optimality evolutionary-algorithm genetic-algorithm genetic-programming differential-evolution particle-swarm-optimization ant-colony-optimization simulated-annealing tabu-search variable-neighborhood-search iterated-local-search greedy-randomized-adaptive-search scatter-search path-relinking memetic-algorithm hyper-heuristic metaheuristic local-search neighborhood-search hill-climbing random-walk randomized-search Monte-Carlo-tree-search upper-confidence-bound Thompson-sampling multi-armed-bandit contextual-bandit reinforcement-learning policy-gradient actor-critic Q-learning deep-Q-network policy-iteration value-iteration temporal-difference-learning SARSA expected-SARSA double-Q-learning dueling-Q-network prioritized-experience-replay distributed-reinforcement-learning impala A3C asynchronous-advantage-actor-critic PPO proximal-policy-optimization TRPO trust-region-policy-optimization DDPG deep-deterministic-policy-gradient TD3 twin-delayed-deep-deterministic-policy-gradient SAC soft-actor-critic model-based-reinforcement-learning model-predictive-control guided-policy-search imitation-learning inverse-reinforcement-learning apprenticeship-learning behavior-cloning dataset-aggregation DAgger generative-adversarial-imitation-learning third-person-imitation-learning one-shot-imitation-learning meta-reinforcement-learning hierarchical-reinforcement-learning option skill subgoal intrinsic-motivation curiosity-driven-exploration empowerment information-gain prediction-error novelty-seeking diversity-seeking multi-agent-reinforcement-learning mean-field fictitious-play correlated-equilibrium Nash-equilibrium game-theory mechanism-design auction-theory incentive-design social-choice-theory voting-theory fair-division matching-theory market-design algorithmic-game-theory computational-social-choice computational-complexity NP-completeness NP-hardness approximation-algorithm approximation-ratio inapproximability fixed-parameter-tractability parameterized-complexity kernelization treewidth graph-minor forbidden-minor-characterization well-quasi-ordering Robertson-Seymour-theorem graph-structure-theorem bidimensionality-theory meta-theorem Courcelle's-theorem automata-theory finite-automaton pushdown-automaton Turing-machine computability decidability halting-problem Rice's-theorem Gödel's-incompleteness-theorems lambda-calculus combinatory-logic type-theory proof-theory model-theory set-theory forcing large-cardinal axiom-of-choice continuum-hypothesis independence-result consistency-strength reverse-mathematics constructive-mathematics intuitionistic-logic modal-logic temporal-logic epistemic-logic deontic-logic description-logic ontology knowledge-representation semantic-web linked-data RDF SPARQL OWL knowledge-graph entity-linking relation-extraction event-extraction coreference-resolution named-entity-recognition part-of-speech-tagging dependency-parsing constituency-parsing semantic-parsing natural-language-inference textual-entailment natural-language-generation machine-translation summarization question-answering dialogue-system conversational-AI chatbot virtual-assistant speech-recognition speech-synthesis speaker-recognition emotion-recognition sentiment-analysis opinion-mining aspect-based-sentiment-analysis target-dependent-sentiment-analysis stance-detection rumor-detection fake-news-detection fact-checking claim-verification evidence-retrieval argument-mining persuasion-detection deception-detection personality-prediction mental-health-detection suicide-prevention crisis-intervention social-media-mining network-analysis community-detection influence-maximization information-diffusion cascade-modeling epidemic-modeling SEIR-model SIR-model agent-based-epidemic-model compartmental-model network-epidemic-model metapopulation-epidemic-model spatial-epidemic-model stochastic-epidemic-model branching-process renewal-equation generation-interval serial-interval incubation-period latent-period infectious-period basic-reproduction-number effective-reproduction-number herd-immunity-threshold vaccination-coverage vaccine-efficacy vaccine-effectiveness breakthrough-infection waning-immunity immune-escape variant-of-concern variant-of-interest variant-under-monitoring phylogenetic-analysis molecular-clock-analysis phylodynamics viral-evolution antigenic-drift antigenic-shift zoonotic-spillover reservoir-host intermediate-host amplifying-host dead-end-host vector-borne-disease mosquito-borne-disease tick-borne-disease flea-borne-disease lice-borne-disease midge-borne-disease sandfly-borne-disease tsetse-borne-disease blackfly-borne-disease triatomine-borne-disease kissing-bug Chagas-disease trypanosomiasis leishmaniasis malaria dengue yellow-fever Zika-virus chikungunya West-Nile-virus Japanese-encephalitis tick-borne-encephalitis Lyme-disease Rocky-Mountain-spotted-fever ehlichiosis anaplasmosis babesiosis tularemia plague murine-typhus epidemic-typhus endemic-typhus scrub-typhus Q-fever trench-fever bartonellosis cat-scratch-disease rat-bite-fever leptospirosis brucellosis anthrax melioidosis glanders tularaemia francisellosis coxiellosis rickettsiosis orientia-infection ehrlichiosis neoehrlichiosis neorickettsiosis anaplasmataceae rickettsiaceae coxiellaceae bartonellaceae brucellaceae francisellaceae pasteurellaceae legionellaceae chlamydiaceae mycoplasmataceae ureaplasmataceae spiroplasmataceae achaenoplasmataceae entomoplasmataceae haloplasmataceae tenericutes mollicutes bacteroidetes fusobacteria spirochaetes synergistetes deferribacteres thermotogae aquificae caldiserica caldithrix deferrisoma desulfurobacterium thermovibrio thermocrinis hydrogenobacter sulfurihydrogenibium persephonella hydrogenobaculum hydrothermus thermothrix sulfuricurvum sulfurimonas sulfurovum thiovulum thiomicrospira pseudomonas vibrio aeromonas photobacterium aliivibrio gracilibacillus halobacillus halomonas chromohalobacter cobetia salinicola kushneria halotalea halovibrio salinivibrio thioalkalivibrio thiohalophilus ectothiorhodospira halorhodospira thiorhodospira halochromatium thioflavicoccus marichromatium thiocapsa lamprocystis thiodictyon thiopedia amoebobacter thiocystis chromatium allo-chromatium thermochromatium rhabdochromatium thiobaca thiohalocapsa halocapsa thiolamprovum thioploca thiomargarita beggiatoa methylococcus methylomonas methylomicrobium methylosinus methylocystis methylocella methylocapsa methylacidiphilum verrucomicrobia planctomycetes chlamydiae lentisphaerae kiritimatiellaeota calditrichaeota fervidibacteria
Stigmella multispicata
Stigmella multispicata is a pygmy moth in the family Nepticulidae, native to East Asia and invasive in eastern North America. It was first described from a single male holotype from Primorye, Russia in 2014, and subsequently identified as an established invasive species in North America through DNA barcoding that matched specimens from Beijing, China with adults found in the United States. The species is a leafminer specializing on Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila), distinguished by morphological features including a white collar, entirely dark antennae, and in females an elongated narrow ovipositor adapted for oviposition in hairy leaf vein axils. It is the only Ulmus-feeding nepticulid in North America with green larvae. First detected in North America around 2010, the species has since spread to ten US states and two Canadian provinces.
leafminer invasive-species Siberian-elm Nepticulidae DNA-barcoding urban-entomology
Stimulopalpus japonicus
Japanese barklouse
Stimulopalpus japonicus is a tropical barklouse species in the family Amphientomidae, first described by Günther Enderlein in 1906. Males have never been documented, suggesting females may reproduce via thelytoky (parthenogenesis). The species is native to Japan but has established populations across East Asia, South Asia, and as an introduced species in the United States (since the 1940s) and Italy. It is frequently observed aggregating on rocks and concrete surfaces.
barklouse parthenogenesis invasive-species urban-habitat
Sylvicola
wood gnats, window gnats, window midges, window flies
Sylvicola is a genus of wood gnats in the family Anisopodidae containing over 80 described species. The genus is widely distributed across the western Palaearctic, with some species introduced to North America and oceanic islands. Adults are active year-round in temperate regions and are frequently observed indoors near windows, earning them the common name 'window gnats.' The most thoroughly documented species, S. cinctus, serves as a representative for understanding genus-level traits.
Diptera Anisopodidae wood-gnats decomposers window-flies Palaearctic invasive-species year-round-activity swarming-behavior genome-sequenced
Symmetrischema
Symmetrischema is a genus of gelechiid moths established by Povolný in 1967. The genus includes economically significant agricultural pests, most notably the Andean potato tuber moth (S. tangolias), which causes severe postharvest losses to stored potatoes in highland regions. Some species exhibit specialized feeding strategies, including the ability to induce parthenocarpic fruit development in host plants. The genus occurs across the Americas with at least one species introduced to Oceania.
Gelechiidae agricultural-pest potato-pest Andean invasive-species stored-product-pest parthenocarpy-induction integrated-pest-management
Synanthedon tipuliformis
currant clearwing, currant borer moth, currant clearwing moth
Synanthedon tipuliformis, the currant clearwing, is a clearwing moth native to the Palearctic realm that has become invasive in the Nearctic and Australasian realms. Adults are diurnal wasp mimics with transparent wings scaled only along veins and margins. Larvae are internal feeders that bore into the pith of Ribes canes, causing significant damage to currant and gooseberry cultivation. The species is univoltine in temperate regions, with adults emerging in late spring to early summer.
pest clearwing-moth Ribes-pest invasive-species wasp-mimic internal-feeder univoltine
Synthesiomyia nudiseta
Synthesiomyia nudiseta is a large muscid fly (7–10 mm) and the sole species in its genus. It is necrophagous and facultatively predatory, with larvae known to consume other necrophagous fly larvae including Chrysomya rufifacies and C. albiceps. The species is forensically significant due to its predictable life cycle and tendency to pupate in confined locations near carcasses, such as within clothing. Originally tropical and subtropical in distribution, it has established in southwestern Europe (Spain, Italy, Portugal) and occurs in the southern United States.
forensic-entomology necrophagy predatory-larvae invasive-species phoresy myiasis synanthropic
Takecallis
bamboo aphids
Takecallis is a genus of bamboo-feeding aphids in the family Aphididae, containing approximately 7-8 species of Oriental origin. All species are specialized herbivores on bamboo (subfamily Bambusoideae). Native to Southeast Asia including China, India, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, several species have been introduced to Europe, Africa, the Americas, and Oceania through the ornamental bamboo trade. Some introduced populations exhibit invasive characteristics including range expansion and holocyclic or anholocyclic reproduction strategies.
bamboo-aphids invasive-species ornamental-plant-pest holocyclic anholocyclic phloem-feeder Bambusoideae-specialist
Talitroides
landhopper, lawn shrimp
Talitroides is a genus of terrestrial amphipod crustaceans commonly known as landhoppers or lawn shrimp. These small, laterally compressed crustaceans have adapted to life on land, inhabiting moist soil and leaf litter in forested environments. Several species have been introduced outside their native ranges and have become established in new regions, including T. topitotum in Brazil and Hong Kong. The genus has been documented in mosquito surveillance bycatch studies and ecological research on soil fauna.
terrestrial-amphipod landhopper soil-fauna invasive-species bycatch Crustacea
Tapinoma
Tapinoma is a moderately diverse genus of ants in the subfamily Dolichoderinae, comprising approximately 87 described species (81 extant, 6 fossil) with a crown age estimated at 34–49 million years. Species occur worldwide in tropical and temperate regions, exhibiting generalized foraging behavior and flexible nesting habits. Several species, including T. sessile and T. melanocephalum, are notable as household pests and invasive species associated with human disturbance.
ants Dolichoderinae invasive-species household-pest honeydew trophobiosis urban-adaptation tramp-species polygyny unicoloniality
Tapinoma melanocephalum
Ghost ant
Tapinoma melanocephalum, commonly known as the ghost ant, is a minute ant species recognized by its distinctive bicolored appearance: dark brown head and thorax contrasting with pale, translucent legs, antennae, and gaster. Native to tropical regions of Africa and Asia, it has become a globally distributed "tramp" species through human commerce, establishing populations in greenhouses, heated buildings, and tropical urban environments worldwide. The species is considered a significant household pest, particularly in Florida and Hawaii, where it nests indoors and forages for sweet foods. Recent taxonomic revision has revealed that what was long considered T. melanocephalum actually comprises two cryptic species, with T. pithecorum described as new in 2020.
invasive-species tramp-ant household-pest tropical polygynous hemipteran-mutualism cryptic-species urban-adapter greenhouse-pest hospital-associated
Tautoneura
Tautoneura is a genus of leafhoppers in the family Cicadellidae, subfamily Typhlocybinae, tribe Erythroneurini, established by Anufriev in 1969. The genus is native to the eastern Palearctic and Indo-Malay region, with T. polymitusa being the first species recorded in Europe, where it has established adventive populations. Species in this genus are small, slender insects associated with trees in the family Ulmaceae.
leafhopper invasive-species adventive Ulmaceae elm phloem-feeder
Tautoneura polymitusa
Tautoneura polymitusa is a small leafhopper (2.4–2.7 mm) in the family Cicadellidae, first described from South Korea in 2016. It represents the first European record of both the species and the genus Tautoneura, having been detected in Hungary in 2012 and subsequently found in Italy, Spain, Slovenia, Ukraine, Russia, and Moldova. The species is associated with Ulmaceae (elm family) and has established stable, locally abundant populations in parts of Europe. It hibernates as adults and is attracted to light traps.
invasive-species leafhopper Ulmaceae adventive Europe Asia Typhlocybinae Erythroneurini
Temoridae
Temoridae is a family of calanoid copepods established by Giesbrecht in 1893. The family includes seven genera: Epischura, Epischurella, Eurytemora, Ganchosia, Heterocope, Lahmeyeria, and Temora. Members inhabit diverse aquatic environments ranging from freshwater lakes to brackish estuaries and marine coastal waters. The genus Eurytemora has been extensively studied due to its species complex containing cryptic species with significant genetic and morphological heterogeneity.
copepod calanoid zooplankton estuarine freshwater brackish-water glacial-relict indicator-species cryptic-species invasive-species
Tephritidae
fruit flies, peacock flies
Tephritidae is a family of true fruit flies comprising nearly 5,000 described species across approximately 500 genera. Members are distinguished from Drosophilidae (also called fruit flies) by their larger size, patterned wings, and phytophagous larval biology. The family exhibits extraordinary morphological diversity, including elaborate wing markings that inspired the common name "peacock flies." Many species are economically significant agricultural pests, while others serve as biological control agents for invasive weeds. Taxonomy remains dynamic due to ongoing genetic and morphological revisions.
agricultural-pest biological-control gall-former invasive-species quarantine-pest phytophagous patterned-wings cosmopolitan Diptera true-fruit-fly
Terellia fuscicornis
Artichoke Fly
Terellia fuscicornis, commonly known as the Artichoke Fly, is a species of tephritid fruit fly first described by Loew in 1844. It is native to the Palearctic region and has been introduced to the United States. The species is associated with artichoke plants, which informs its common name.
invasive-species agricultural-pest introduced-species Palearctic-origin
Tetramesa
Tetramesa is a genus of minute phytophagous wasps in the family Eurytomidae comprising over 200 described species. Members are exclusively associated with grasses (Poaceae), where they typically induce stem or inflorescence galls. The genus exhibits pronounced host specificity, with most species restricted to a single grass species or closely related congeners. Several species have been deployed as biological control agents against invasive grasses, including T. romana for giant reed (Arundo donax) and candidate agents for medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) and African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). Adults feed on nectar. Recent phylogenomic studies have synonymized the genera Aiolomorphus and Cathilaria within Tetramesa.
biological-control gall-wasp grassland invasive-species-management host-specificity cryptic-species phylogenomics Eurytomidae Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera phytophagy Poaceae stem-gall inflorescence-gall integrated-pest-management riparian-restoration molecular-systematics species-delimitation GMYC COI 28S biocontrol-agent Arundo-donax giant-reed medusahead African-lovegrass Eragrostis Sporobolus barley-jointworm integrated-taxonomy Southern-Hemisphere-diversity grassland-expansion Miocene-diversification monophagy host-range-testing non-target-effects tick-habitat cattle-fever-tick Rio-Grande Big-Bend-National-Park greenhouse-rearing oviposition-behavior water-deficit-stress generation-time parasitoid Eurytoma-amicophaga Eurytominae Walker-1848 Terebrantes Apocrita microhymenoptera minute-wasp reduced-wing-venation antennal-segmentation mesosoma-sculpture ovipositor molecular-operational-taxonomic-units MOTU species-boundaries cryptic-diversity sampling-effects SPEDE-sampler host-genetic-proxies field-host-range no-choice-testing native-Australian-species non-target-risk host-phylogeny target-weed suppression topping mechanical-control integrated-weed-management native-vegetation-recovery light-penetration canopy-structure dispersal establishment post-release-evaluation adventive-population Austin-Texas Idaho England Wales Orissa Canary-Islands Canary-Is.Mediterranean South-Africa southern-Africa Northern-Hemisphere Australia North-America Texas California Greece central-Asia Iran Ukraine Moldova Russia Israel Tajikistan Japan Eragrostis-curvula Sporobolus-pyramidalis Sporobolus-natalensis Sporobolus-africanus Hyparrhenia-hirta Andropogon-gayanus Eragrostis-plana Eragrostis-planiculmis Eragrostis-biflora Eragrostis-capensis Eragrostis-trichophora Deschampsia-caespitosa Deschampsia-setacea Taeniatherum-caput-medusae Hordeum barley Phragmites common-reed Dactylis-glomerata orchardgrass Poales grass graminoid cereal-crop pasture rangeland invasive-weed noxious-weed habitat-structure ecosystem-functioning naturalised-species alien-grass donor-country receiver-country biocontrol-practitioner host-plant-resistance internode-infestation oviposition-preference behavioral-categories antennae-attitude laboratory-artifact polyphagy specialist generalist climate-fluctuation molecular-clock dated-analysis phylogenetic-clade intrapopulation-variation geographic-sub-structuring singleton-effect overestimation consensus-delimitation operational-taxonomic-unit integrative-taxonomy evidence-line caveat putative-species novel-taxon undescribed-species biodiversity-assessment faunal-survey field-collection genetic-sequence mitochondrial-DNA nuclear-DNA cytochrome-c-oxidase-I ribosomal-DNA internal-transcribed-spacer chloroplast-DNA rps16 rpl32 trnK trnL ITS plant-insect-interaction herbivore phytophage primary-consumer trophic-level food-web community-ecology restoration-ecology conservation-biological-control classical-biological-control augmentative-biological-control inundative-release establishment-rate population-increase downstream-dispersal river-mile biomass-reduction plant-community tick-feeding-ant tick-feeding-beetle habitat-modification law-enforcement international-border flood-control irrigation-channel stream-clogging river-bank-weakening native-vegetation-stifling wildlife-habitat-reduction cattle-inspection deer-inspection Rhipicephalus Boophilus tick-population vegetation-transition shading-effect long-term-suppression high-suppression cane-thinning mechanical-cutting growth-suppression susceptibility-to-attack combination-treatment synergistic-effect research-demonstration USDA Agricultural-Research-Service entomologist field-measurement post-release-monitoring impact-assessment agent-efficacy non-target-damage crop-safety agricultural-importance host-specific-herbivore sustainable-method cost-effective-method weed-control invasive-plant-management habitat-restoration ecosystem-service provisioning-service regulating-service supporting-service cultural-service biodiversity-conservation threatened-species endangered-species habitat-loss climate-change land-use-change anthropogenic-disturbance urbanization agricultural-intensification grazing-pressure fire-regime nitrogen-deposition carbon-sequestration soil-stabilization water-quality air-quality pollinator nectar-feeding adult-diet larval-diet tissue-feeding gall-induction plant-manipulation phytohormone cytokinin auxin cell-proliferation tissue-differentiation nutrient-sink sink-strength source-sink-dynamics plant-physiology reproductive-output seed-production seed-weight flowering-head inflorescence stem-elongation tiller-production biomass-allocation growth-rate relative-growth-rate net-primary-productivity ecosystem-productivity carbon-cycling nitrogen-cycling phosphorus-cycling decomposition litter-quality herbivory-impact top-down-control bottom-up-control trophic-cascade indirect-effect direct-effect density-dependence density-independence population-regulation population-dynamics life-table survivorship fecundity reproductive-rate intrinsic-rate-of-increase doubling-time carrying-capacity population-growth exponential-growth logistic-growth Allee-effect stochasticity environmental-variation demographic-variation genetic-variation phenotypic-plasticity local-adaptation evolutionary-response coevolution arms-race escape-and-radiate diversification-rate speciation extinction phylogenetic-diversity functional-diversity taxonomic-diversity alpha-diversity beta-diversity gamma-diversity species-richness species-evenness species-abundance-distribution rank-abundance-curve diversity-index Shannon-index Simpson-index evenness-index dominance-index similarity-index dissimilarity-index cluster-analysis ordination principal-component-analysis principal-coordinate-analysis non-metric-multidimensional-scaling canonical-correspondence-analysis redundancy-analysis variation-partitioning structural-equation-modeling path-analysis meta-analysis systematic-review evidence-synthesis research-priority knowledge-gap data-deficiency IUCN-Red-List conservation-status protected-area management-plan monitoring-protocol adaptive-management stakeholder-engagement policy-recommendation legislation regulation incentive market-based-instrument payment-for-ecosystem-services carbon-credit biodiversity-offset habitat-banking conservation-easement land-trust stewardship sustainable-agriculture organic-farming agroecology precision-agriculture conservation-tillage cover-cropping crop-rotation intercropping agroforestry silvopasture riparian-buffer filter-strip grassed-waterway wetland-restoration prairie-restoration savanna-restoration forest-restoration degraded-land abandoned-land marginal-land set-aside wildlife-corridor habitat-connectivity landscape-matrix patch-dynamics edge-effect interior-habitat core-area buffer-zone permeability resistance least-cost-path circuit-theory isolation-by-distance isolation-by-resistance gene-flow genetic-drift inbreeding outbreeding hybridization introgression admixture population-structure genetic-differentiation FST GST D allele-frequency haplotype genotype phenotype quantitative-trait morphological-trait behavioral-trait life-history-trait reproductive-trait survival-trait developmental-trait physiological-trait metabolic-trait stress-response immune-response defense-trait resistance-trait tolerance-trait avoidance-trait antipredator-defense chemical-defense mechanical-defense crypsis mimicry aposematism startle-display thanatosis autotomy regeneration compensatory-growth induced-defense constitutive-defense direct-defense indirect-defense volatile-organic-compound extrafloral-nectar domatia mutualism ant-plant-mutualism pollination-mutualism seed-dispersal-mutualism protection-mutualism nutrition-mutualism transport-mutualism cleaning-mutualism agricultural-mutualism domestication crop-wild-relative landrace cultivar variety breeding selection genetic-improvement yield quality stress-tolerance nutrient-use-efficiency water-use-efficiency photosynthetic-efficiency harvest-index grain-filling source-limitation sink-limitation assimilate-transport phloem-loading phloem-unloading remobilization senescence stay-green antioxidant reactive-oxygen-species oxidative-stress heat-stress cold-stress drought-stress salinity-stress metal-stress nutrient-deficiency nutrient-toxicity soil-pH soil-texture soil-structure soil-organic-matter soil-microbial-community rhizosphere mycorrhiza nitrogen-fixation phosphorus-solubilization potassium-mobilization micronutrient-uptake allelopathy competition facilitation niche-differentiation resource-partitioning temporal-partitioning spatial-partitioning morphological-partitioning physiological-partitioning phenological-partitioning competitive-exclusion competitive-displacement priority-effect founder-effect mass-effect species-sorting neutral-theory ecological-drift dispersal-limitation environmental-filtering biotic-filtering abiotic-filtering trait-based-approach functional-trait response-trait effect-trait community-assembly community-disassembly community-reassembly succession primary-succession secondary-succession pioneer-species climax-species keystone-species ecosystem-engineer foundation-species dominant-species subordinate-species transient-species resident-species migrant-species nomadic-species irruptive-species invasive-species naturalized-species casual-species established-species spreading-species widespread-species restricted-species endemic-species cosmopolitan-species disjunct-distribution relict-distribution refugium glacial-refugium interglacial-refugium postglacial-colonization range-shift range-expansion range-contraction range-fragmentation source-population sink-population metapopulation population-viability minimum-viable-population effective-population-size genetic-rescue demographic-rescue assisted-migration managed-relocation ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation cryopreservation seed-bank gene-bank botanic-garden arboretum zoo aquarium microbial-culture-collection DNA-bank tissue-bank sperm-bank oocyte-bank embryo-bank reintroduction translocation reinforcement supplementation headstarting captive-breeding propagation nucleus-population release-program soft-release hard-release acclimatization habitat-preparation predator-control competitor-control disease-control parasite-control health-screening quarantine veterinary-care nutrition-management environmental-enrichment behavioral-training imprinting fostering cross-fostering hand-rearing parent-rearing semi-natural-enclosure pre-release-conditioning survival-rate reproduction-rate dispersal-rate site-fidelity homeward-orientation migration navigation orientation magnetic-sense olfactory-sense visual-sense auditory-sense mechanosensory-sense thermosensory-sense hygrosensory-sense electrosensory-sense polarized-light celestial-cues landmark-cues odor-plume wind-direction sun-compass star-compass moon-compass magnetic-compass inertial-navigation path-integration cognitive-map spatial-memory temporal-memory episodic-memory procedural-memory associative-learning operant-conditioning classical-conditioning habituation sensitization song-learning tool-use problem-solving innovation social-learning cultural-transmission teaching cooperation altruism kin-selection reciprocal-altruism group-selection multilevel-selection selfish-gene inclusive-fitness reproductive-skew dominance-hierarchy territoriality home-range activity-center den-site nest-site roost-site singing-post display-site lek arena scrape burrow cavity crevice hole tunnel gallery chamber cell comb paper-nest mud-nest silk-nest spun-cocoon pupal-case ootheca egg-mass clutch brood litter covey pack herd flock colony society superorganism eusociality cooperative-breeding communal-breeding polygyny polyandry promiscuity monogamy serial-monogamy genetic-monogamy social-monogamy extra-pair-copulation sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice sexual-selection intersexual-selection intrasexual-selection mate-choice mate-guarding mate-switching divorce widowhood mate-replacement breeding-season breeding-cycle breeding-attempt breeding-success fledging-success recruitment juvenile-survival adult-survival longevity life-expectancy maximum-lifespan aging telomere oxidative-damage mitochondrial-dysfunction cellular-senescence apoptosis necrosis autophagy proteostasis DNA-repair epigenetic-modification transgenerational-effect maternal-effect paternal-effect parental-care maternal-care paternal-care biparental-care alloparental-care brood-care egg-care larval-care pupal-care food-provisioning nest-defense territory-defense predator-defense disease-defense parasite-defense hygiene-behavior grooming nest-cleaning cannibalism siblicide infanticide filial-cannibalism sexual-cannibalism cannibalistic-oophagy trophic-egg regurgitation trophallaxis food-sharing information-sharing alarm-call mobbing distraction-display broken-wing-display tailing persecution attack escape flight fight freeze faint death-feigning tonic-immobility startle-response withdrawal avoidance dishabituation latent-inhibition blocking overshadowing relative-validity conditioned-inhibition spontaneous-recovery renewal reinstatement rapid-reacquisition latent-learning insight-learning observational-learning vicarious-learning emulation imitation social-facilitation social-inhibition audience-effect bystander-effect conformity obedience compliance commitment consistency foot-in-the-door door-in-the-face low-ball that's-not-all sunk-cost endowment-effect loss-aversion risk-aversion risk-seeking probability-weighting hyperbolic-discounting temporal-discounting intertemporal-choice optimal-foraging marginal-value-theorem prey-choice patch-choice diet-breadth central-place-foraging load-size travel-time handling-time search-time encounter-rate prey-density prey-profitability prey-handling prey-detection prey-pursuit prey-capture prey-consumption prey-rejection ingestion-rate digestion-rate assimilation-efficiency production-efficiency ecological-efficiency trophic-transfer-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency ten-percent-rule pyramid-of-numbers pyramid-of-biomass pyramid-of-energy food-chain trophic-network energy-flow material-cycling biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle water-cycle hydrological-cycle atmospheric-circulation ocean-circulation thermohaline-circulation El-Niño La-Niña ENSO NAO AO PDO AMO climate-oscillation climate-anomaly weather-extreme drought flood heat-wave cold-snap storm hurricane typhoon cyclone tornado thunderstorm lightning wildfire volcanic-eruption earthquake tsunami landslide avalanche meteor-impact mass-extinction background-extinction speciation-rate extinction-rate net-diversification turnover standing-diversity fossil-record taphonomy preservation-bias sampling-bias collection-bias publication-bias citation-bias language-bias geographic-bias temporal-bias taxonomic-bias size-bias abundance-bias habitat-bias facies-bias Lagerstätte Konservat-Lagerstätte Konzentrat-Lagerstätte trace-fossil body-fossil chemical-fossil molecular-fossil biomarker isotope-signature paleoclimate-proxy paleoecology paleobiogeography paleoecosystem paleocommunity paleoenvironment paleogeography paleolatitude paleolongitude continental-drift plate-tectonics seafloor-spreading subduction orogeny mountain-building basin-formation sedimentation erosion weathering soil-formation pedogenesis horizon-development profile-development chronosequence toposequence biosequence climosequence landform geomorphology topography relief elevation slope aspect curvature roughness drainage watershed catchment basin subbasin reach segment zone riffle pool run glide cascade waterfall wetland marsh swamp bog fen mire peatland tundra taiga boreal-forest temperate-forest temperate-rainforest temperate-grassland tropical-forest tropical-rainforest tropical-dry-forest tropical-savanna tropical-grassland desert hot-desert cold-desert semiarid steppe prairie pampas veld savanna woodland shrubland chaparral maquis garigue fynbos kwongan mallee mulga mogote karst cave sinkhole doline polje uvala ponor spring seep oasis wadi arroyo gully ravine canyon gorge valley dale glen strath rift graben horst fault fold anticline syncline monocline dome plateau mesa butte escarpment bluff cliff crag tor inselberg bornhardt kopje hill knoll mound ridge spur saddle pass col gap notch cleft fissure joint bedding-plane foliation lineation cleavage schistosity gneissic-banding magma lava igneous-rock sedimentary-rock metamorphic-rock mineral crystal grain texture structure fabric composition chemistry mineralogy petrology geochemistry geophysics geochronology radiometric-dating isotopic-dating dendrochronology varve-chronology lichenometry archaeomagnetism paleomagnetism thermoluminescence optically-stimulated-luminescence electron-spin-resonance cosmogenic-nuclide exposure-dating burial-dating terrestrial-cosmogenic-nuclide in-situ-cosmogenic-nuclide meteoric-cosmogenic-nuclide fallout-radionuclide lead-210 cesium-137 plutonium americium radiocarbon carbon-14 calibration-curve intcal marine-reservoir-effect terrestrial-reservoir-effect hard-water-effect contamination pretreatment combustion graphitization accelerator-mass-spectrometry liquid-scintillation-counting gas-proportional-counting beta-counting gamma-spectrometry alpha-spectrometry mass-spectrometry inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry thermal-ionization-mass-spectrometry secondary-ion-mass-spectrometry laser-ablation-inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry electron-microprobe scanning-electron-microscopy transmission-electron-microscopy light-microscopy confocal-microscopy fluorescence-microscopy polarizing-microscopy phase-contrast-microscopy differential-interference-contrast-microscopy dark-field-microscopy bright-field-microscopy stereomicroscopy dissecting-microscopy microtomy sectioning staining mounting embedding fixation preservation collection curation vouchering repository herbarium museum archive database registry catalogue checklist inventory survey monitoring assessment evaluation appraisal audit review synthesis rapid-review scoping-review narrative-review critical-review state-of-the-art-review literature-review bibliometric-analysis citation-analysis co-citation-analysis bibliographic-coupling co-authorship-analysis collaboration-network knowledge-map concept-map ontology taxonomy classification nomenclature typification designation description diagnosis illustration measurement morphometry meristics count ratio index score rank grade scale level category class group set subset cluster clade lineage branch stem crown root node tip terminal internal basal derived ancestral plesiomorphic apomorphic synapomorphic autapomorphic homologous homoplastic convergent parallel reversal gain loss duplication deletion insertion inversion fusion fission polyploidy aneuploidy chromosome-number genome-size gene-number transcriptome proteome metabolome lipidome glycome interactome phenome connectome epigenome microbiome virome mycobiome bacteriome phytobiome rhizobiome endobiome ectobiome parasitome pathobiome diseasome toxome exposome foodome nutriome pharmacome toxicome adverse-outcome-pathway mode-of-action mechanism-of-action target-site receptor-binding enzyme-inhibition ion-channel-blockade membrane-disruption DNA-intercalation inflammation cell-differentiation cell-migration cell-adhesion cell-signaling signal-transduction gene-expression transcription translation post-translational-modification protein-folding protein-degradation protein-trafficking vesicle-transport exocytosis endocytosis phagocytosis pinocytosis mitophagy pexophagy ribophagy ER-phagy lysophagy lipophagy glycophagy ferritinophagy aggrephagy xenophagy entosis cytosis syncytium plasmodesmata gap-junction tight-junction adherens-junction desmosome hemidesmosome focal-adhesion cell-polarity cell-asymmetry cell-division mitosis meiosis cytokinesis karyokinesis chromosome-segregation spindle-assembly checkpoint DNA-replication DNA-recombination transposition retrotransposition horizontal-gene-transfer vertical-gene-transfer endosymbiosis symbiogenesis holobiont hologenome extended-phenotype niche-construction ecosystem-engineering keystone-process ecological-function ecosystem-function ecosystem-good natural-capital natural-resource renewable-resource non-renewable-resource common-pool-resource public-good private-good club-good externality market-failure government-failure policy-failure institutional-failure tragedy-of-the-commons free-rider collective-action social-dilemma prisoner's-dilemma chicken-game assurance-game coordination-game zero-sum-game positive-sum-game negative-sum-game win-win lose-lose win-lose Pareto-optimal Pareto-improvement Kaldor-Hicks-improvement cost-benefit-analysis cost-effectiveness-analysis multi-criteria-decision-analysis decision-support-system expert-system knowledge-based-system rule-based-system case-based-reasoning machine-learning deep-learning neural-network random-forest support-vector-machine decision-tree regression-tree classification-tree clustering-algorithm dimensionality-reduction feature-selection feature-extraction pattern-recognition image-analysis signal-processing time-series-analysis spatial-analysis geographic-information-system remote-sensing satellite-imagery aerial-photography drone-imagery LiDAR radar sonar seismic geophysical geochemical biogeochemical ecoinformatics bioinformatics computational-biology systems-biology synthetic-biology biotechnology nanotechnology genetic-engineering genome-editing CRISPR TALEN zinc-finger-nuclease transgenic cisgenic intragenic subgenic agrobacterium-mediated-transformation biolistics electroporation microinjection protoplast-fusion somatic-hybridization cybrid asymmetric-hybrid synthetic-polyploid doubled-haploid haploid-induction anther-culture microspore-culture ovule-culture embryo-culture endosperm-culture protoplast-culture cell-culture tissue-culture organ-culture shoot-culture root-culture callus-culture suspension-culture bioreactor hairy-root-culture transformation hardening micropropagation clonal-propagation meristem-culture shoot-tip-culture axillary-bud-culture nodal-culture leaf-culture petiole-culture stem-culture internode-culture rhizome-culture bulb-culture corm-culture tuber-culture seed-culture zygotic-embryo-culture somatic-embryo-culture somatic-embryogenesis organogenesis caulogenesis rhizogenesis adventitious-shoot-formation direct-regeneration indirect-regeneration primary-metabolism secondary-metabolism biosynthesis biotransformation bioconversion biodegradation bioremediation phytoremediation mycoremediation zooremediation bioaugmentation biostimulation natural-attenuation monitored-natural-attenuation engineered-natural-attenuation permeable-reactive-barrier pump-and-treat soil-vapor-extraction air-sparging thermal-desorption incineration landfilling containment capping slurry-wall grout-curtain sheet-piling clay-liner geomembrane geotextile geogrid geocomposite geosynthetic geofabric geonet geocell geopipe geostrip geofoam geobag geotube geocontainer geomat geoblanket geospacer geodrain geoinjection geogrout geopier geocolumn geopile geowall geoberm geotrench geocut geofill geolift geoslab geopanel geoblock geobrick geotile geopaver geoweb geomattress geocushion
Tetramorium immigrans
Immigrant Pavement Ant, Pavement Ant, Sugar Ant
Tetramorium immigrans is a highly successful invasive ant native to Europe that has become one of the most abundant ant species in urban North America. The species thrives in disturbed, paved environments and exhibits remarkable thermal tolerance, with workers surviving temperatures up to 46°C. Colonies are typically large, with thousands to over 10,000 workers, and are highly territorial, engaging in conspicuous inter-colony battles. The species was previously misidentified as Tetramorium caespitum until a 2017 taxonomic revision clarified its status as a distinct species within the T. caespitum complex.
invasive-species urban-ecology thermal-tolerance territorial-behavior generalist-forager formicidae myrmicinae
Tetramorium tsushimae
Japanese pavement ant
Tetramorium tsushimae, commonly known as the Japanese pavement ant, is a small myrmicine ant native to Asia that has become invasive in North America. Workers are approximately 2.5 mm in length. The species exhibits both monogyne and polygyne colony structures and is known for its territorial behavior, with colonies competing for high-temperature nesting sites to rear reproductives. It has been extensively used as a laboratory surrogate for the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) in toxicity and control studies. The species displays notable cadaveric behaviors on animal remains, creating scratched scars, mounds, and soil-covered nests that have forensic implications.
invasive-species urban-pest laboratory-model forensic-entomology territorial-behavior thermal-ecology
Tetraneura nigriabdominalis
Tetraneura nigriabdominalis is a holocyclic, heteroecious gall-forming aphid native to East Asia that has expanded its range globally and is now established in Europe and North America. The species alternates between primary hosts (elm trees, genus Ulmus) and secondary hosts (roots of grasses in the family Poaceae, including maize). On elms, fundatrices induce characteristic galls on leaves, with development rates and fecundity strongly influenced by spring temperatures. The species has been documented as a potential agricultural pest due to its association with cultivated maize.
gall-forming-aphid heteroecious holocyclic invasive-species climate-change agricultural-pest elm maize Poaceae plant-defense-manipulation
Tetranychinae
Tetranychinae is a subfamily of spider mites (Tetranychidae) containing economically significant agricultural and ornamental crop pests. The subfamily includes the genera Tetranychus, Eutetranychus, Oligonychus, Panonychus, Amphitetranychus, Schizotetranychus, Aponychus, Paraponychus, and Stylophoronychus. Species within this subfamily are phytophagous and pose serious threats to crop yield and quality. Identification relies primarily on morphological examination of adult male genitalia, though molecular and biochemical methods are increasingly employed for accurate species discrimination.
spider-mites agricultural-pests phytophagous-mites crop-pests invasive-species acarology integrated-pest-management molecular-identification DNA-barcoding Turkey Russia Paleotropical Neotropical North-America Malus Prunus Quercus Picea Abies rosaceous-plants coniferous-plants monocotyledons dicotyledons acaricide-resistance quarantine-pests diapause male-genitalia aedeagus PCR-RFLP real-time-PCR LAMP MALDI-TOF-MS allozyme-analysis species-discrimination reproductive-isolation Tetranychus Eutetranychus Oligonychus Panonychus Amphitetranychus Schizotetranychus Aponychus Paraponychus Stylophoronychus Eotetranychus Bryobia Prostigmata Acari Arachnida Arthropoda Animalia
Tetranychus
spider mite
Tetranychus is a genus of spider mites (Family Tetranychidae) comprising over 140 described species, including some of the most economically destructive agricultural pests worldwide. The genus is characterized by haplodiploid reproduction, silk production, and rapid population growth under favorable conditions. Tetranychus urticae (two-spotted spider mite) is the most significant species, though T. evansi (tomato red spider mite) and T. ludeni have emerged as major invasive pests. These mites feed on plant cell contents, causing stippling damage, and are notoriously difficult to control due to their short generation times and ability to develop pesticide resistance.
agricultural-pest invasive-species spider-mite phytophagous silk-production haplodiploidy greenhouse-pest acarology
Tetropium
spruce longhorn beetles
Tetropium is a genus of long-horned beetles (Cerambycidae) containing at least 20 described species, sometimes classified in its own monotypic tribe Tetropiini. Several species are significant forest pests, particularly of spruce (Picea) trees. The genus includes economically important species such as T. fuscum (brown spruce longhorn beetle), an invasive pest in Atlantic Canada, and T. castaneum. Adults are attracted to synthetic pheromones and host tree volatiles, making them amenable to detection and monitoring using baited traps.
forest-pest invasive-species spruce pheromone fuscumol phloeophagous wood-borer integrated-pest-management biological-invasion
Tetropium fuscum
Brown Spruce Longhorn Beetle
Tetropium fuscum is a wood-boring cerambycid beetle native to Europe and Northern Asia, established as an invasive species in Atlantic Canada since at least 1990. The species is a documented pest of spruce trees (Picea spp.), with larvae developing in the phloem of host trees. Adult males produce an aggregation pheromone called fuscumol that attracts both sexes, particularly when combined with host tree volatiles. In its introduced Canadian range, it has been observed infesting stressed and moribund red spruce, with larval galleries sometimes girdling stems and causing tree mortality.
cerambycidae spondylidinae longhorn-beetle wood-borer forest-pest invasive-species pheromone fuscumol spruce-pest phloeophagous
Thaumastocoridae
palm bugs, bronze bugs
Thaumastocoridae is a small family of true bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) comprising approximately 9 extant genera and more than 20 described species. The family is divided into two recognized subfamilies: Thaumastocorinae, whose members are primarily associated with Eucalyptus and other Myrtaceae as pests, and Xylastodorinae, which exhibit strict specialism on palms (Arecaceae). The family includes significant agricultural pests, notably Thaumastocoris peregrinus, an Australian native that has become a cosmopolitan invasive species damaging eucalyptus plantations worldwide. The fossil record includes Dominican amber and Baltic amber specimens dating to the Miocene and Eocene respectively.
true-bugs Hemiptera Heteroptera Cimicomorpha phytophagous palm-specialist eucalyptus-pest invasive-species Thaumastocoris-peregrinus bronze-bug flattened-body-morphology cryptic-habitat-use