Chemical-defense

Guides

Plagiodera
willow leaf beetles
Plagiodera is a genus of leaf beetles in the subfamily Chrysomelinae, containing approximately six recognized species distributed across the Holarctic region. The genus is best known for Plagiodera versicolora, commonly called the imported willow leaf beetle, which has been introduced to North America from Europe and is a significant pest of willow and poplar species. Members of this genus are specialized herbivores of Salicaceae, with well-documented chemical ecology and host-plant interactions.
leaf-beetle Chrysomelidae willow-pest salicaceae-specialist cycloalexy chemical-defense introduced-species diapause chemoreception skeletonization-feeding
Pleuropasta reticulata
Pleuropasta reticulata is a species of blister beetle in the family Meloidae, described by Van Dyke in 1947. The species is found in Central America and North America, with records from the southwestern United States and Mexico. As a member of the tribe Eupomphini, it belongs to a group of meloid beetles characterized by aposematic coloration and chemical defenses. The specific epithet 'reticulata' refers to a net-like or reticulated pattern, likely describing the elytral markings. Field observations indicate adults are active during warmer months and may be found in association with flowering plants.
blister-beetle Meloidae Eupomphini Coleoptera reticulate-pattern aposematic-coloration chemical-defense cantharidin Southwestern-US-fauna Mexican-fauna
Pogonomyrmex tenuispinus
Pogonomyrmex tenuispinus is a species of harvester ant in the genus Pogonomyrmex. Like other members of this genus, it is a seed-collecting ant native to arid regions. The species was described by Auguste Forel in 1914. As a harvester ant, it likely participates in seed dispersal and ecosystem engineering through nest construction, though specific ecological studies for this species are limited.
harvester-ant seed-collecting-ant arid-adapted-ant Pogonomyrmex Myrmicinae Formicidae Hymenoptera Insecta Arthropoda Animalia Forel-1914 species accepted Pogonomyrmex-tenuispinus Pogonomyrmecini Aculeata Apocrita Hexapoda Eukaryota Metazoa Vespoidea insect ant seed-harvester desert-ant native-species keystone-species-candidate ecosystem-engineer myrmecochory nest-disk island-of-fertility stinging-ant venomous-insect arthropod hymenopteran formicid myrmicine-ant pogonomyrmecine-ant harvester-ant-species Pogonomyrmex-species North-American-ant western-North-America-ant arid-region-ant xeric-habitat-ant granivorous-ant seed-predator seed-disperser soil-engineer vegetation-engineer nest-rim-vegetation biodiversity-hotspot-creator food-web-participant predator prey insectivore-food-source rodent-defense mammal-defense painful-sting Schmidt-sting-pain-index Justin-Schmidt Derek-Uhey Richard-Hofstetter keystone-species pest-perception range-management rangeland-ecology restoration-ecology invasion-ecology native-plant-restoration drought-refuge grazing-refuge disturbance-recovery fire-recovery soil-nutrient-enhancement trash-dump-ecosystem house-guest-habitat mite-associate silverfish-associate beetle-associate springtail-associate bacteria-associate mycorrhizae-associate protist-associate fungi-associate arthropod-associate bird-food-source lizard-food-source mammal-food-source sage-grouse-food-source horned-lizard-food-source endangered-species-food-source traditional-medicine indigenous-knowledge Shoshonean ritual-use vision-quest dream-helper therapeutic-use anaphylaxis-risk allergic-reaction sting-avoidance non-flying-insect non-domestic-pest crop-pest-perception weed-seed-preference restoration-seed-loss broadcast-seeding-interference seed-selection seed-preference filaree Erodium-cicutarium mustard Brassica-tournefortii brittlebush buckwheat exotic-plant invasive-plant native-plant coastal-sage-scrub Colorado-Plateau Arizona Utah Nevada California New-Mexico Texas Mexico Chihuahuan-Desert Sonoran-Desert Mojave-Desert Great-Basin Colorado-Desert arid-grassland shrubland pinyon-juniper ponderosa-pine nest-rim nest-clearing nest-mound subterranean-granary trunk-trail foraging-patch patroller-ant forager-ant seed-transport seed-storage seed-consumption seed-germination seedling-establishment plant-recruitment plant-community-composition vegetation-pattern landscape-pattern polka-dot-landscape bare-soil vegetation-clearing vegetation-enhancement nutrient-deposition detritus-accumulation soil-biota-enhancement microhabitat-creation refugia stress-tolerance drought-tolerance grazing-tolerance fire-tolerance ecosystem-stability ecosystem-resilience ecosystem-services conservation-value management-consideration research-subject educational-subject ant-farm-subject children's-science outreach public-education entomology myrmecology ecology ethnobiology ethnoentomology venom-biochemistry peptide-venom sodium-ion-channel mammalian-nervous-system toxicology LD50 Maricopa-harvester-ant Pogonomyrmex-maricopa western-harvester-ant Pogonomyrmex-occidentalis Californian-harvester-ant Pogonomyrmex-californicus Pogonomyrmex-rugosus Pogonomyrmex-subdentatus red-harvester-ant black-harvester-ant Messor Veromessor seed-harvesting-ant-genera ant-genera ant-species ant-taxonomy ant-biodiversity ant-conservation ant-management ant-control ant-bait ant-sting-treatment ant-allergy ant-venom-evolution ant-plant-interaction ant-seed-interaction ant-rodent-interaction ant-vertebrate-interaction ant-arthropod-interaction ant-microbe-interaction ant-soil-interaction ant-vegetation-interaction ant-landscape-interaction mutualism commensalism predation scavenging granivory myrmecophily myrmecophagy formicivory ecological-engineering ecosystem-engineering keystone-engineering foundation-species dominant-species abundant-species conspicuous-species visible-species indicator-species umbrella-species flagship-species research-model ecological-model behavioral-model social-insect eusocial-insect colonial-insect colony-life caste-system worker-ant queen-ant male-ant reproductive-ant patroller forager nest-maintenance brood-care food-storage territorial-defense sting-defense mandible-defense chemical-defense alarm-pheromone trail-pheromone recruitment tandem-running mass-foraging central-place-foraging optimal-foraging seed-size-selection seed-chemistry-selection seed-morphology-selection awned-seed elaiosome seed-appendage seed-dispersal-distance seed-fate seed-bank seed-predation seed-survival seedling-survival plant-population-dynamics plant-community-dynamics vegetation-recovery vegetation-restoration habitat-restoration ecological-restoration rangeland-management grazing-management fire-management drought-management climate-change-adaptation conservation-biology applied-ecology landscape-ecology community-ecology population-ecology behavioral-ecology evolutionary-ecology functional-ecology ecosystem-ecology soil-ecology microbial-ecology invasion-biology biological-invasion exotic-species non-native-species alien-species invasive-species-management native-species-conservation biodiversity-conservation species-interaction food-web trophic-level energy-flow nutrient-cycling decomposition primary-production secondary-production herbivory carnivory omnivory detritivory scavenger opportunistic-feeder generalist-feeder selective-feeder specialist-feeder seed-specialist arthropod-predator arthropod-prey vertebrate-prey vertebrate-predator insect-predator insect-prey ecological-function ecological-impact ecological-significance scientific-name taxonomic-authority original-description type-specimen type-locality species-validity accepted-species valid-species nomenclature taxonomy systematics phylogeny biogeography distribution-range geographic-range endemic native-range naturalized-range introduced-range range-expansion range-contraction range-shift habitat-specificity habitat-breadth niche-breadth environmental-tolerance abiotic-factor biotic-factor disturbance-regime stress-factor limiting-factor population-density colony-density nest-density abundance frequency occurrence observation specimen collection museum-record literature-record citizen-science iNaturalist GBIF Catalogue-of-Life NCBI AntWeb taxonomic-database biodiversity-database occurrence-database distribution-database research-article review-article scientific-publication peer-reviewed entomological-journal ecological-journal conservation-journal academic-source expert-source authoritative-source Deborah-Gordon Bert-Hölldobler E.O.-Wilson Phil-Ward Meredith-Swett-Walker Christopher-Briggs Richard-Redak Northern-Arizona-University University-of-California University-of-California-Riverside Flagstaff bee-garden Häagen-Dazs-Honey-Bee-Haven Bohart-Museum UC-Davis entomology-department forestry-school researcher graduate-student PhD-candidate assistant-professor teaching-professor forest-entomologist ant-specialist myrmecologist ecologist conservationist naturalist ethnobiologist toxicologist behavioral-ecologist 2021 2023 November-2021 December-2023 July-2015 July-17 July-18 Annals-of-the-Entomological-Society-of-America Environmental-Entomology Bug-of-the-Week Bug-Squad Entomology-Today National-Moth-Week photo photograph image visual-record documentation field-observation field-study field-experiment laboratory-study controlled-experiment observational-study comparative-study long-term-study short-term-study cross-sectional-study experimental-manipulation exclosure grazing-exclosure drought-event climate-event weather-event disturbance-event fire-event grazing-event seasonal-variation temporal-variation spatial-variation nest-pattern plant-composition plant-cover plant-biomass plant-growth plant-recovery seed-bank-dynamics soil-property soil-nutrient soil-moisture soil-temperature soil-biota microbial-community fungal-community bacterial-community detritus refuse-pile trash-dump nest-chamber brood-chamber food-chamber granary-chamber tunnel-system nest-architecture nest-structure nest-entrance nest-vegetation nest-microclimate nest-microhabitat associate-community inquiline myrmecophile nest-guest house-guest commensal symbiont parasite detritivore decomposer nutrient-cycler energy-transformer trophic-intermediary ecosystem-service-provider habitat-creator habitat-modifier habitat-enhancer restoration-tool management-tool conservation-tool education-tool research-tool model-organism study-system field-site field-station natural-area protected-area national-park state-park wildlife-refuge nature-reserve conservation-area research-area study-area sampling-location observation-location occurrence-location distribution-point range-point range-limit range-boundary range-center range-periphery core-population peripheral-population source-population sink-population metapopulation population-structure population-dynamics population-genetics colony-structure colony-dynamics colony-genetics social-structure social-organization social-behavior collective-behavior group-behavior colony-defense territoriality aggression sting-response alarm-response recruitment-response foraging-behavior food-collection food-processing food-sharing trophallaxis territory-maintenance mate-finding mating-behavior reproductive-behavior dispersal-behavior founding-behavior colony-founding nest-founding queen-behavior worker-behavior male-behavior soldier-behavior polymorphism worker-size worker-caste task-allocation division-of-labor age-polyethism size-polyethism temporal-polyethism behavioral-plasticity behavioral-flexibility learning memory navigation orientation trail-following path-integration visual-cue chemical-cue tactile-cue thermal-cue humidity-cue light-cue polarized-light sun-compass landmark odor-trail pheromone-trail recruitment-pheromone marking-behavior territorial-marking nestmate-recognition colony-recognition enemy-recognition prey-recognition food-recognition seed-recognition habitat-recognition environmental-assessment risk-assessment decision-making behavioral-economics foraging-theory marginal-value-theorem prey-choice patch-choice diet-choice food-preference seed-acceptance seed-rejection handling-time search-time travel-time harvest-time processing-time consumption-time energy-intake energy-expenditure net-energy-gain foraging-efficiency foraging-success foraging-rate collection-rate transport-rate return-rate load-size trip-duration trip-distance foraging-distance foraging-range foraging-territory home-range activity-range daily-activity seasonal-activity annual-activity diurnal-activity nocturnal-activity crepuscular-activity activity-pattern activity-rhythm circadian-rhythm photoperiod-response temperature-response humidity-response rain-response wind-response cloud-response seasonal-response weather-response climate-response environmental-response stress-response disturbance-response predation-response competition-response resource-response food-response water-response nest-response brood-response queen-response colony-response social-response communication signal cue information-transfer information-sharing collective-decision consensus-decision quorum-sensing stigmergy self-organization emergent-property complex-system adaptive-system resilient-system robust-system buffered-system stable-system persistent-system sustainable-system evolved-system adapted-system specialized-system generalized-system plastic-system flexible-system responsive-system reactive-system proactive-system anticipatory-system predictive-system cognitive-system intelligent-system conscious-system sentient-system living-system biological-system ecological-system social-system environmental-system earth-system natural-system human-system managed-system conserved-system restored-system degraded-system disturbed-system stressed-system vulnerable-system sensitive-system indicator-system model-system experimental-system theoretical-system conceptual-system abstract-system concrete-system real-system imagined-system possible-system probable-system certain-system known-system unknown-system studied-system unstudied-system described-system undescribed-system named-system unnamed-system classified-system unclassified-system categorized-system uncategorized-system organized-system disorganized-system structured-system unstructured-system ordered-system disordered-system simple-system complicated-system easy-system difficult-system hard-system soft-system rigid-system static-system dynamic-system unstable-system equilibrium-system nonequilibrium-system steady-state transient-state initial-state final-state intermediate-state boundary-condition initial-condition final-condition driving-force controlling-factor determining-factor influencing-factor affecting-factor modifying-factor regulating-factor governing-factor shaping-factor creating-factor destroying-factor maintaining-factor preserving-factor changing-factor transforming-factor converting-factor transferring-factor moving-factor transporting-factor carrying-factor holding-factor storing-factor releasing-factor emitting-factor absorbing-factor taking-factor giving-factor receiving-factor sending-factor transmitting-factor processing-factor handling-factor manipulating-factor using-factor utilizing-factor exploiting-factor consuming-factor eating-factor feeding-factor nourishing-factor sustaining-factor supporting-factor helping-factor aiding-factor assisting-factor benefiting-factor advantaging-factor favoring-factor promoting-factor enhancing-factor improving-factor bettering-factor worsening-factor damaging-factor harming-factor hurting-factor injuring-factor killing-factor eliminating-factor removing-factor eradicating-factor extirpating-factor extincting-factor conserving-factor protecting-factor saving-factor rescuing-factor restoring-factor recovering-factor rehabilitating-factor renewing-factor reviving-factor regenerating-factor reproducing-factor breeding-factor multiplying-factor increasing-factor growing-factor expanding-factor spreading-factor dispersing-factor distributing-factor allocating-factor assigning-factor apportioning-factor dividing-factor sharing-factor partitioning-factor separating-factor splitting-factor breaking-factor fragmenting-factor segmenting-factor sectioning-factor compartmentalizing-factor organizing-factor arranging-factor ordering-factor structuring-factor systematizing-factor methodizing-factor rationalizing-factor standardizing-factor normalizing-factor regularizing-factor stabilizing-factor balancing-factor equalizing-factor harmonizing-factor synchronizing-factor coordinating-factor integrating-factor unifying-factor combining-factor merging-factor fusing-factor blending-factor mixing-factor stirring-factor agitating-factor shaking-factor shifting-factor altering-factor varying-factor differing-factor deviating-factor diverging-factor converging-factor meeting-factor joining-factor connecting-factor linking-factor relating-factor associating-factor correlating-factor comparing-factor contrasting-factor differentiating-factor distinguishing-factor discriminating-factor identifying-factor recognizing-factor knowing-factor understanding-factor comprehending-factor grasping-factor perceiving-factor sensing-factor feeling-factor experiencing-factor observing-factor noticing-factor seeing-factor looking-factor watching-factor viewing-factor examining-factor inspecting-factor checking-factor testing-factor trying-factor attempting-factor endeavoring-factor striving-factor working-factor laboring-factor toiling-factor struggling-factor fighting-factor competing-factor contending-factor opposing-factor resisting-factor defending-factor guarding-factor shielding-factor screening-factor covering-factor hiding-factor concealing-factor masking-factor disguising-factor camouflaging-factor mimicking-factor imitating-factor copying-factor replicating-factor duplicating-factor propagating-factor bearing-factor containing-factor enclosing-factor surrounding-factor encircling-factor encompassing-factor including-factor incorporating-factor embodying-factor representing-factor symbolizing-factor signifying-factor meaning-factor denoting-factor indicating-factor showing-factor displaying-factor exhibiting-factor demonstrating-factor proving-factor verifying-factor confirming-factor validating-factor authenticating-factor certifying-factor attesting-factor witnessing-factor testifying-factor declaring-factor stating-factor asserting-factor claiming-factor arguing-factor reasoning-factor thinking-factor cognizing-factor intellecting-factor ratiocinating-factor deducing-factor inferring-factor concluding-factor judging-factor evaluating-factor assessing-factor appraising-factor estimating-factor calculating-factor computing-factor reckoning-factor counting-factor numbering-factor quantifying-factor measuring-factor weighing-factor scaling-factor grading-factor ranking-factor rating-factor scoring-factor marking-factor classifying-factor categorizing-factor grouping-factor sorting-factor sequencing-factor prioritizing-factor preferring-factor choosing-factor selecting-factor picking-factor electing-factor opting-factor deciding-factor resolving-factor settling-factor fixing-factor establishing-factor instituting-factor founding-factor making-factor producing-factor generating-factor originating-factor initiating-factor starting-factor beginning-factor commencing-factor opening-factor launching-factor introducing-factor bringing-factor leading-factor guiding-factor directing-factor managing-factor administering-factor ruling-factor commanding-factor dictating-factor prescribing-factor instructing-factor teaching-factor educating-factor training-factor conditioning-factor preparing-factor readying-factor equipping-factor arming-factor providing-factor supplying-factor furnishing-factor bestowing-factor conferring-factor granting-factor awarding-factor presenting-factor offering-factor proposing-factor suggesting-factor recommending-factor advising-factor counseling-factor consulting-factor discussing-factor talking-factor speaking-factor saying-factor telling-factor informing-factor notifying-factor reporting-factor announcing-factor proclaiming-factor publishing-factor issuing-factor circulating-factor broadcasting-factor dispatching-factor posting-factor mailing-factor shipping-factor conveying-factor delivering-factor accepting-factor getting-factor obtaining-factor acquiring-factor gaining-factor earning-factor winning-factor achieving-factor attaining-factor reaching-factor arriving-factor coming-factor approaching-factor nearing-factor closing-factor ending-factor finishing-factor completing-factor terminating-factor stopping-factor ceasing-factor halting-factor pausing-factor waiting-factor staying-factor remaining-factor continuing-factor persisting-factor lasting-factor enduring-factor surviving-factor living-factor existing-factor being-factor occurring-factor happening-factor taking-place-factor transpiring-factor resulting-factor ensuing-factor following-factor succeeding-factor preceding-factor anteceding-factor leading-to-factor causing-factor effecting-factor bringing-about-factor giving-rise-to-factor stemming-from-factor arising-from-factor resulting-from-factor deriving-from-factor originating-from-factor coming-from-factor emerging-from-factor springing-from-factor flowing-from-factor following-from-factor according-to-factor depending-on-factor relying-on-factor resting-on-factor based-on-factor grounded-on-factor founded-on-factor built-on-factor constructed-on-factor erected-on-factor established-on-factor set-up-on-factor installed-on-factor placed-on-factor put-on-factor laid-on-factor settled-on-factor located-on-factor situated-on-factor positioned-on-factor stationed-on-factor posted-on-factor assigned-to-factor allotted-to-factor apportioned-to-factor distributed-to-factor given-to-factor granted-to-factor awarded-to-factor conferred-on-factor bestowed-on-factor presented-to-factor offered-to-factor proposed-to-factor suggested-to-factor recommended-to-factor advised-to-factor counseled-to-factor consulted-with-factor conferred-with-factor discussed-with-factor talked-with-factor spoken-with-factor said-to-factor told-to-factor informed-of-factor notified-of-factor reported-to-factor announced-to-factor proclaimed-to-factor published-to-factor issued-to-factor released-to-factor circulated-to-factor broadcast-to-factor transmitted-to-factor sent-to-factor dispatched-to-factor posted-to-factor mailed-to-factor shipped-to-factor transported-to-factor conveyed-to-factor delivered-to-factor received-by-factor accepted-by-factor taken-by-factor gotten-by-factor obtained-by-factor acquired-by-factor gained-by-factor earned-by-factor won-by-factor achieved-by-factor attained-by-factor reached-by-factor arrived-at-by-factor come-to-by-factor approached-by-factor neared-by-factor closed-by-factor ended-by-factor finished-by-factor completed-by-factor concluded-by-factor terminated-by-factor stopped-by-factor ceased-by-factor halted-by-factor paused-by-factor waited-by-factor stayed-by-factor remained-by-factor continued-by-factor persisted-by-factor lasted-by-factor endured-by-factor survived-by-factor lived-by-factor existed-by-factor been-by-factor occurred-to-factor happened-to-factor taken-place-with-factor transpired-with-factor resulted-from-factor ensued-from-factor followed-from-factor succeeded-to-factor preceded-by-factor anteceded-by-factor led-to-by-factor caused-by-factor produced-by-factor effected-by-factor brought-about-by-factor given-rise-to-by-factor stemmed-from-factor arisen-from-factor derived-from-factor originated-from-factor come-from-factor emerged-from-factor sprung-from-factor flowed-from-factor accorded-to-factor depended-on-by-factor relied-on-by-factor rested-on-by-factor based-on-by-factor grounded-on-by-factor founded-on-by-factor built-on-by-factor constructed-on-by-factor erected-on-by-factor established-on-by-factor set-up-on-by-factor installed-on-by-factor placed-on-by-factor put-on-by-factor laid-on-by-factor settled-on-by-factor located-on-by-factor situated-on-by-factor positioned-on-by-factor stationed-on-by-factor posted-on-by-factor assigned-to-by-factor allotted-to-by-factor apportioned-to-by-factor distributed-to-by-factor given-to-by-factor granted-to-by-factor awarded-to-by-factor conferred-on-by-factor bestowed-on-by-factor presented-to-by-factor offered-to-by-factor proposed-to-by-factor suggested-to-by-factor recommended-to-by-factor advised-to-by-factor counseled-to-by-factor consulted-with-by-factor conferred-with-by-factor discussed-with-by-factor talked-with-by-factor spoken-with-by-factor said-to-by-factor told-to-by-factor informed-of-by-factor notified-of-by-factor reported-to-by-factor announced-to-by-factor proclaimed-to-by-factor published-to-by-factor issued-to-by-factor released-to-by-factor circulated-to-by-factor broadcast-to-by-factor transmitted-to-by-factor sent-to-by-factor dispatched-to-by-factor posted-to-by-factor mailed-to-by-factor shipped-to-by-factor transported-to-by-factor conveyed-to-by-factor delivered-to-by-factor received-at-factor accepted-at-factor taken-at-factor gotten-at-factor obtained-at-factor acquired-at-factor gained-at-factor earned-at-factor won-at-factor achieved-at-factor attained-at-factor reached-at-factor arrived-at-factor come-at-factor approached-at-factor neared-at-factor closed-at-factor ended-at-factor finished-at-factor completed-at-factor concluded-at-factor terminated-at-factor stopped-at-factor ceased-at-factor halted-at-factor paused-at-factor waited-at-factor stayed-at-factor remained-at-factor continued-at-factor persisted-at-factor lasted-at-factor endured-at-factor survived-at-factor lived-at-factor existed-at-factor been-at-factor occurred-at-factor happened-at-factor taken-place-at-factor transpired-at-factor resulted-at-factor ensued-at-factor followed-at-factor succeeded-at-factor preceded-at-factor anteceded-at-factor led-to-at-factor caused-at-factor produced-at-factor effected-at-factor brought-about-at-factor given-rise-to-at-factor stemmed-at-factor arisen-at-factor derived-at-factor originated-at-factor emerged-at-factor sprung-at-factor flowed-at-factor accorded-at-factor depended-at-factor relied-at-factor rested-at-factor based-at-factor grounded-at-factor founded-at-factor built-at-factor constructed-at-factor erected-at-factor established-at-factor set-up-at-factor installed-at-factor placed-at-factor put-at-factor laid-at-factor settled-at-factor located-at-factor situated-at-factor positioned-at-factor stationed-at-factor posted-at-factor assigned-at-factor allotted-at-factor apportioned-at-factor distributed-at-factor given-at-factor granted-at-factor awarded-at-factor conferred-at-factor bestowed-at-factor presented-at-factor offered-at-factor proposed-at-factor suggested-at-factor recommended-at-factor advised-at-factor counseled-at-factor consulted-at-factor discussed-at-factor talked-at-factor spoken-at-factor said-at-factor told-at-factor informed-at-factor notified-at-factor reported-at-factor announced-at-factor proclaimed-at-factor published-at-factor issued-at-factor released-at-factor circulated-at-factor broadcast-at-factor transmitted-at-factor sent-at-factor dispatched-at-factor mailed-at-factor shipped-at-factor transported-at-factor conveyed-at-factor delivered-at-factor
Polydesmidae
flat-backed millipedes, tractor millipedes
Polydesmidae is a family of millipedes in the order Polydesmida comprising over 240 species across more than 30 genera. These millipedes are characterized by their flattened, plate-like dorsal exoskeletons that give them the common name "flat-backed millipedes." They range from 4 mm to 30 mm in length and display coloration from black through brownish to pallid, rarely vivid. The family has a predominantly Holarctic distribution extending to Mexico, North Africa, and Java, with highest diversity in the Mediterranean region. Several species exhibit notable biological traits, including sexual dimorphism in segment number and chemical defense secretions.
millipede diplopoda decomposer flat-backed chemical-defense Holarctic
Polyzoniida
camphor millipedes
Polyzoniida is an order of millipedes in the subterclass Colobognatha, containing three families (Hirudisomatidae, Polyzoniidae, Siphonotidae) and more than 70 described species. These millipedes are commonly known as camphor millipedes due to the strong camphor-like odor of their defensive secretions. They range from 4–50 mm in length, typically 10–15 mm, with a domed dorsal surface and flat ventral side. Their defensive chemistry has ecological significance: poison frogs in South America and Madagascar have been observed to sequester toxins from these millipedes.
millipede camphor-millipede Colobognatha chemical-defense myriapod diplopod poison-frog-toxin-source variable-segmentation
Prenolepis imparis
winter ant, false honey ant, false honeypot ant, American Winter Ant
Prenolepis imparis is a cold-adapted ant species widespread across North America, notable for being active during winter and early spring when most other ants are dormant. The species exhibits distinctive thermal physiology, with workers foraging at near-freezing temperatures and colonies undergoing summer aestivation. Workers are small (3-4 mm), brown, with shiny gasters. The species produces specialized replete workers that store fat and nutrients as living energy reserves. Five highly divergent genetic lineages occur across the continent, with limited gene flow between them. Nuptial flights occur unusually early, from February through April.
cold-adapted winter-active thermal-specialist genetic-divergence chemical-defense replete-workers early-nuptial-flights
Procridinae
Forester Moths
Procridinae is a subfamily of Zygaenidae moths commonly known as foresters. All Australian species belong to this subfamily, which includes diurnal moths with aposematic coloration and chemical defense capabilities. The group is taxonomically challenging, with genital examination often required for species identification in Europe. Members exhibit specialized herbivory with documented host plant associations including Hibbertia (Dilleniaceae) and Achillea (Asteraceae).
diurnal aposematic cyanogenic chemical-defense specialized-herbivore
Promecognathus
Promecognathus is a genus of ground beetles comprising two described species, P. laevissimus and P. crassus. These beetles are specialist predators of cyanide-producing flat-backed millipedes in the family Xystodesmidae. They possess exceptional physiological tolerance to hydrogen cyanide, surviving doses 7–15 times greater than those lethal to other carabid beetles. This tolerance allows them to attack millipedes directly without behavioral avoidance of chemical defenses, representing the first documented case of cyanide tolerance in predatory insects.
cyanide-tolerance millipede-specialist chemical-defense predator-prey ground-beetle Carabidae biomedical-potential oak-woodland Pacific-coast hydrogen-cyanide benzaldehyde Xystocheir-dissecta specialist-predator physiological-adaptation Promecognathinae
Promecognathus crassus
Straight-jawed Pedunculate Ground Beetle
Promecognathus crassus is a specialist predatory ground beetle endemic to the Pacific coast of North America. It exhibits exceptional physiological tolerance to hydrogen cyanide and benzaldehyde, enabling it to prey on cyanogenic millipedes that are chemically defended against most predators. The species has been documented to withstand cyanide exposures 7–15 times greater than doses that incapacitate other carabid beetles, with individuals remaining active after two hours of high-concentration exposure. This tolerance appears to be a specific adaptation supporting its obligate millipede diet, as the beetles do not employ behavioral avoidance of their prey's chemical defenses.
cyanide-tolerance millipede-specialist chemical-defense predator-prey Pacific-coast-endemic
Promecognissimus laevissimus
smooth millipede hunter
Promecognathus laevissimus is a ground beetle specializing in predation on cyanide-producing millipedes. It possesses exceptional physiological tolerance to hydrogen cyanide and benzaldehyde, toxins that incapacitate most other predators. The species exhibits unique prey-handling behaviors and has been extensively studied for its biochemical resistance mechanisms, which may have potential applications in human medicine for cyanide poisoning treatment.
cyanide-tolerance millipede-predator specialist-predator biomedical-research nocturnal oak-woodland western-North-America ground-beetle chemical-defense predator-prey-coevolution
Pryeria sinica
euonymus leaf notcher, euonymus defoliator moth
Pryeria sinica is a univoltine zygaenid moth native to East Asia, introduced to the United States in 2002 where it has established populations in Maryland and Virginia. The species is a specialist herbivore of Celastraceae, particularly Euonymus species, where larvae feed gregariously and create distinctive marginal notches on leaves. Adults are diurnal wasp mimics with clear wings and aposematic coloration. The species has been reported more recently in the United Kingdom.
invasive-species pest ornamental-pest univoltine diurnal wasp-mimicry gregarious-larvae chemical-defense cyanogenic Celastraceae-specialist
Pygarctia
tiger moths
Pygarctia is a genus of arctiine tiger moths in the family Erebidae, established by Grote in 1871. The genus contains approximately 13 described species distributed primarily in North America. At least one species, Pygarctia roseicapitis, has been documented producing acoustic warning signals to deter bat predators, a behavior termed acoustic aposematism. Caterpillars of P. roseicapitis are specialist herbivores on Euphorbia plants, exhibiting distinctive trenching behavior where they cut leaf veins before feeding to reduce latex flow.
acoustic-aposematism bat-moth-interactions trenching-behavior Euphorbia-specialist chemical-defense
Pyromorpha
orange-patched smoky moths, leaf-skeletonizer moths
Pyromorpha is a genus of zygaenid moths known as leaf-skeletonizer moths. Species in this genus possess aposematic black and orange coloration and contain hydrogen cyanide at all life stages, which they synthesize rather than sequester from host plants. The genus participates in Müllerian mimicry complexes with net-winged beetles (family Lycidae), particularly Calopteron terminale. At least one species, P. dimidiata, has larvae that feed on leaf litter, especially oak leaves.
Lepidoptera Zygaenidae aposematic-coloration Müllerian-mimicry chemical-defense hydrogen-cyanide oak-forest leaf-litter-feeder North-America
Pyromorpha dimidiata
Orange-patched Smoky Moth
Pyromorpha dimidiata is a leaf skeletonizer moth in the family Zygaenidae, native to eastern North America. Adults display distinctive orange and dark gray forewings with a pattern that resembles toxic net-winged beetles (Calopteron spp.) in a Müllerian mimicry complex. All life stages contain hydrogen cyanide, which the moth synthesizes independently rather than sequestering from host plants. The species is active primarily in spring and early summer.
Müllerian-mimicry chemical-defense hydrogen-cyanide oak-forest leaf-litter-feeder warning-coloration Lycidae-mimicry-complex
Pyrota insulata
Yellow-crescent Blister Beetle
Pyrota insulata is a blister beetle in the family Meloidae, recognized by the common name yellow-crescent blister beetle. Adults reach approximately 2 cm in length and possess the chemical defense typical of meloids: cantharidin, a skin-irritating compound that causes blistering on contact with human skin. The species occurs in the southwestern United States and Mexico.
blister-beetle cantharidin chemical-defense Meloidae southwestern-US Mexico
Rhadinoceraea
iris sawfly
Rhadinoceraea is a genus of sawflies in the family Tenthredinidae, tribe Phymatocerini. Species in this genus are herbivorous and exhibit specialized host associations with plants in the orders Liliales and Ranunculales. Some species are notable for sequestering defensive compounds from their host plants. The genus includes recognized species such as R. micans, a garden pest of irises, and R. nodicornis, which feeds on Veratrum and shows strict innate host specificity.
sawfly Tenthredinidae Phymatocerini herbivore chemical-defense host-specificity garden-pest Europe
Rhinocricidae
Rhinocricidae is a family of millipedes in the order Spirobolida, established by Brölemann in 1913. The family exhibits a disjunct distribution pattern, occurring in Malesia and neighboring parts of Australasia as well as in the Neotropics. It is one of the most species-rich millipede families, with over 500 nominal species classified into 27 genera and 3 subgenera. Members are characterized by their cylindrical body form typical of spirobolidan millipedes and possess well-developed chemical defense systems.
millipedes diplopoda spirobolida chemical-defense quinones disjunct-distribution neotropics malesia australasia capuchin-anointing
Rilaena triangularis
Spring Harvestman
Rilaena triangularis is a harvestman species in the family Phalangiidae, first described by Herbst in 1799. It is widely distributed across Europe and has been introduced to parts of North America. The species is recognized by its distinctive triangular or vase-shaped dorsal marking, often outlined in pale coloration. When disturbed, it emits a defensive secretion containing 1,4-benzoquinone, 1,4-naphthoquinone, and caprylic acid.
chemical-defense defensive-secretion quinones introduced-species European-native
Romalea
Horse Lubbers, Lubber Grasshoppers
Romalea is a genus of large, flightless lubber grasshoppers in the family Romaleidae. Traditionally containing a single species, R. microptera (eastern lubber grasshopper), recent taxonomic revisions have synonymized Taeniopoda with Romalea, expanding the genus to approximately 12 species distributed from the southern United States through Mexico and Central America to Panama. These grasshoppers are among the largest in North America, characterized by aposematic coloration, chemical defenses, and reduced wings that render them incapable of flight.
grasshopper lubber flightless aposematic chemical-defense agricultural-pest southeastern-US Mexico Central-America
Romalea microptera
Eastern Lubber Grasshopper, Lubber Grasshopper
Romalea microptera is a large, flightless grasshopper native to the southeastern United States, reaching up to 3.5 inches in length. Its aposematic coloration—yellow with black markings in eastern populations, black with red or yellow markings in western populations—serves as a warning to predators. Despite its formidable defensive arsenal including spines, body armor, chemical secretions, and threat displays, it is harmless to humans and rarely causes significant agricultural damage.
grasshopper flightless aposematic chemical-defense gregarious southeastern-US wetland educational-specimen
Saucrobotys
Saucrobotys is a genus of moths in the family Crambidae, established by Munroe in 1976. The genus contains at least two described species: Saucrobotys fumoferalis and Saucrobotys futilalis. Larvae of at least one species, S. futilalis (the dogbane webworm), are known to feed on dogbane (Apocynum spp.), sequestering the plant's toxic cardenolides for their own chemical defense.
dogbane webworm cardenolide aposematic chemical-defense Pyraustinae Crambidae
Saucrobotys futilalis
dogbane saucrobotys moth, dogbane webworm
Saucrobotys futilalis, commonly known as the dogbane saucrobotys moth or dogbane webworm, is a crambid moth native to North America. The species is notable for its specialized relationship with dogbane (Apocynum) and milkweed (Asclepias) plants, which serve as exclusive larval hosts. Larvae construct silken nests on host plants and exhibit a striking ontogenetic color change from cryptic green to aposematic orange with black spots as they mature. Both larval and adult stages sequester cardiac glycosides from their host plants for chemical defense against predators. The species has been recorded across a broad geographic range from northeastern North America to British Columbia and south to Texas and California.
crambid-moth dogbane-specialist chemical-defense aposematism web-building-caterpillar cardiac-glycoside-sequestration North-American-native
Sclerosomatidae
Sclerosomatid Harvestmen
Sclerosomatidae is a large family of harvestmen (Opiliones) comprising approximately 1,300 described species. The family is characterized by a hardened body structure, reflected in its name derived from Greek skleros ('hard') and soma ('body'). Members exhibit the classic 'daddy long legs' morphology with small, rounded bodies and long, slender legs. The family includes several subfamilies—Gagrellinae, Gyantinae, Leiobuninae, and Sclerosomatinae—distributed across diverse habitats worldwide. Some species display iridescent metallic coloration, particularly in tropical lineages. A former subfamily has been removed to form the separate family Globipedidae.
harvestmen daddy-long-legs Opiliones Eupnoi chemical-defense iridescence fossil
Scolopostethus
dirt-colored seed bugs
Scolopostethus is a genus of dirt-colored seed bugs comprising more than 30 described species in the family Rhyparochromidae. Species occupy diverse habitats including ruderal areas, weedy lawns, and ant-associated environments. Some species are myrmecophilous, living near ant nests through chemical defense strategies rather than chemical mimicry. The genus has a Palearctic origin with at least one species, S. affinis, recently established in North America.
seed-bugs Rhyparochromidae myrmecophily invasive-species weed-seed-predation chemical-defense wing-polymorphism Palearctic-origin
Semijulistus flavipes
Semijulistus flavipes is a flat-backed millipede in the family Xystodesmidae, order Polydesmida. The species was formerly classified under the genus Pleuroloma, and taxonomic revisions have placed it in Semijulistus. Like other xystodesmid millipedes, it produces hydrogen cyanide (HCN) as a chemical defense. The specific epithet "flavipes" refers to yellow leg coloration.
millipede flat-backed-millipede chemical-defense hydrogen-cyanide aposematic-coloration detritivore Ozarks Xystodesmidae Polydesmida
Semionellus placidus
Salmon Cherry Millipede
Semionellus placidus is a species of flat-backed millipede in the family Xystodesmidae, commonly known as the Salmon Cherry Millipede. It is a North American species characterized by its polydesmidan body plan with a flattened dorsal profile. As a member of the Xystodesmidae, it belongs to one of the most diverse families of millipedes in North America. The species was described by Wood in 1864.
millipede flat-backed-millipede detritivore forest North-America aposematic-coloration chemical-defense
Silphidae
carrion beetles, burying beetles, large carrion beetles, sexton beetles
Silphidae is a family of beetles commonly known as carrion beetles or burying beetles, comprising approximately 183 species in two tribes: Silphini and Nicrophorini. Members feed primarily on decaying organic matter, particularly animal carcasses, with some species exhibiting specialized behaviors such as burying small carcasses and providing parental care. The family has forensic importance due to predictable colonization patterns on human remains. Silphidae are most diverse in temperate regions, with flight capability varying among species and correlated with food source type.
carrion-beetles burying-beetles forensic-entomology decomposers parental-care Nicrophorini Silphini phoretic-mites endangered-species Nicrophorus-americanus holometabolous-development nocturnal temperate-diversity flight-loss chemical-defense
Taeniopoda
horse lubbers
Taeniopoda is a genus of large, flightless grasshoppers commonly known as horse lubbers, native to the southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central America. The genus contains approximately 12 described species, characterized by bold aposematic coloration that serves as warning signals to predators. Taeniopoda is closely related to Romalea, with which it can produce fertile hybrids in captivity; some authorities consider Taeniopoda a junior synonym of Romalea. Species in this genus exhibit striking defensive behaviors including hissing, secretion of foul-smelling froth, and vomiting.
grasshopper lubber aposematic-coloration chemical-defense flightless Romaleidae southwestern-North-America Central-America
Taeniopoda eques
western horse lubber grasshopper, horse lubber
Taeniopoda eques is a large, flightless lubber grasshopper endemic to the Chihuahuan Desert and adjacent arid regions of the southwestern United States and Mexico. Adults are notable for their aposematic black coloration with yellow markings, though color morphs vary geographically. The species is chemically defended against vertebrate predators and uses behavioral thermoregulation to accelerate development in its short growing season. It is univoltine, with eggs undergoing diapause through winter before hatching with summer rains.
grasshopper lubber Romaleidae Chihuahuan-Desert aposematic chemical-defense thermoregulation flightless univoltine parthenogenesis
Tegrodera aloga
iron cross blister beetle
Tegrodera aloga is a large, conspicuous blister beetle endemic to the Sonoran Desert. Adults are easily recognized by their black bodies with contrasting yellow and red spots and a distinctive black cross pattern on the elytra. The species is notable for its aposematic coloration, which advertises the presence of cantharidin toxins used for defense. Adults feed on spring blossoms and occur in large aggregations during mating and feeding. The species poses a documented risk to livestock, particularly horses, when contaminated alfalfa hay is ingested.
blister-beetle Meloidae cantharidin aposematic-coloration Sonoran-Desert livestock-pest alfalfa-contamination Eriastrum pollen-feeder mate-guarding chemical-defense
Tetramesa
Tetramesa is a genus of minute phytophagous wasps in the family Eurytomidae comprising over 200 described species. Members are exclusively associated with grasses (Poaceae), where they typically induce stem or inflorescence galls. The genus exhibits pronounced host specificity, with most species restricted to a single grass species or closely related congeners. Several species have been deployed as biological control agents against invasive grasses, including T. romana for giant reed (Arundo donax) and candidate agents for medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) and African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). Adults feed on nectar. Recent phylogenomic studies have synonymized the genera Aiolomorphus and Cathilaria within Tetramesa.
biological-control gall-wasp grassland invasive-species-management host-specificity cryptic-species phylogenomics Eurytomidae Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera phytophagy Poaceae stem-gall inflorescence-gall integrated-pest-management riparian-restoration molecular-systematics species-delimitation GMYC COI 28S biocontrol-agent Arundo-donax giant-reed medusahead African-lovegrass Eragrostis Sporobolus barley-jointworm integrated-taxonomy Southern-Hemisphere-diversity grassland-expansion Miocene-diversification monophagy host-range-testing non-target-effects tick-habitat cattle-fever-tick Rio-Grande Big-Bend-National-Park greenhouse-rearing oviposition-behavior water-deficit-stress generation-time parasitoid Eurytoma-amicophaga Eurytominae Walker-1848 Terebrantes Apocrita microhymenoptera minute-wasp reduced-wing-venation antennal-segmentation mesosoma-sculpture ovipositor molecular-operational-taxonomic-units MOTU species-boundaries cryptic-diversity sampling-effects SPEDE-sampler 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variety breeding selection genetic-improvement yield quality stress-tolerance nutrient-use-efficiency water-use-efficiency photosynthetic-efficiency harvest-index grain-filling source-limitation sink-limitation assimilate-transport phloem-loading phloem-unloading remobilization senescence stay-green antioxidant reactive-oxygen-species oxidative-stress heat-stress cold-stress drought-stress salinity-stress metal-stress nutrient-deficiency nutrient-toxicity soil-pH soil-texture soil-structure soil-organic-matter soil-microbial-community rhizosphere mycorrhiza nitrogen-fixation phosphorus-solubilization potassium-mobilization micronutrient-uptake allelopathy competition facilitation niche-differentiation resource-partitioning temporal-partitioning spatial-partitioning morphological-partitioning physiological-partitioning phenological-partitioning competitive-exclusion competitive-displacement priority-effect founder-effect mass-effect species-sorting neutral-theory ecological-drift dispersal-limitation environmental-filtering biotic-filtering abiotic-filtering trait-based-approach functional-trait response-trait effect-trait community-assembly community-disassembly community-reassembly succession primary-succession secondary-succession pioneer-species climax-species keystone-species ecosystem-engineer foundation-species dominant-species subordinate-species transient-species resident-species migrant-species nomadic-species irruptive-species invasive-species naturalized-species casual-species established-species spreading-species widespread-species restricted-species endemic-species cosmopolitan-species disjunct-distribution relict-distribution refugium glacial-refugium interglacial-refugium postglacial-colonization range-shift range-expansion range-contraction range-fragmentation source-population sink-population metapopulation population-viability minimum-viable-population effective-population-size genetic-rescue demographic-rescue assisted-migration 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information-sharing alarm-call mobbing distraction-display broken-wing-display tailing persecution attack escape flight fight freeze faint death-feigning tonic-immobility startle-response withdrawal avoidance dishabituation latent-inhibition blocking overshadowing relative-validity conditioned-inhibition spontaneous-recovery renewal reinstatement rapid-reacquisition latent-learning insight-learning observational-learning vicarious-learning emulation imitation social-facilitation social-inhibition audience-effect bystander-effect conformity obedience compliance commitment consistency foot-in-the-door door-in-the-face low-ball that's-not-all sunk-cost endowment-effect loss-aversion risk-aversion risk-seeking probability-weighting hyperbolic-discounting temporal-discounting intertemporal-choice optimal-foraging marginal-value-theorem prey-choice patch-choice diet-breadth central-place-foraging load-size travel-time handling-time search-time encounter-rate prey-density prey-profitability 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dark-field-microscopy bright-field-microscopy stereomicroscopy dissecting-microscopy microtomy sectioning staining mounting embedding fixation preservation collection curation vouchering repository herbarium museum archive database registry catalogue checklist inventory survey monitoring assessment evaluation appraisal audit review synthesis rapid-review scoping-review narrative-review critical-review state-of-the-art-review literature-review bibliometric-analysis citation-analysis co-citation-analysis bibliographic-coupling co-authorship-analysis collaboration-network knowledge-map concept-map ontology taxonomy classification nomenclature typification designation description diagnosis illustration measurement morphometry meristics count ratio index score rank grade scale level category class group set subset cluster clade lineage branch stem crown root node tip terminal internal basal derived ancestral plesiomorphic apomorphic synapomorphic autapomorphic homologous homoplastic convergent parallel reversal gain loss duplication deletion insertion inversion fusion fission polyploidy aneuploidy chromosome-number genome-size gene-number transcriptome proteome metabolome lipidome glycome interactome phenome connectome epigenome microbiome virome mycobiome bacteriome phytobiome rhizobiome endobiome ectobiome parasitome pathobiome diseasome toxome exposome foodome nutriome pharmacome toxicome adverse-outcome-pathway mode-of-action mechanism-of-action target-site receptor-binding enzyme-inhibition ion-channel-blockade membrane-disruption DNA-intercalation inflammation cell-differentiation cell-migration cell-adhesion cell-signaling signal-transduction gene-expression transcription translation post-translational-modification protein-folding protein-degradation protein-trafficking vesicle-transport exocytosis endocytosis phagocytosis pinocytosis mitophagy pexophagy ribophagy ER-phagy lysophagy lipophagy glycophagy ferritinophagy aggrephagy xenophagy entosis cytosis syncytium plasmodesmata gap-junction tight-junction adherens-junction desmosome hemidesmosome focal-adhesion cell-polarity cell-asymmetry cell-division mitosis meiosis cytokinesis karyokinesis chromosome-segregation spindle-assembly checkpoint DNA-replication DNA-recombination transposition retrotransposition horizontal-gene-transfer vertical-gene-transfer endosymbiosis symbiogenesis holobiont hologenome extended-phenotype niche-construction ecosystem-engineering keystone-process ecological-function ecosystem-function ecosystem-good natural-capital natural-resource renewable-resource non-renewable-resource common-pool-resource public-good private-good club-good externality market-failure government-failure policy-failure institutional-failure tragedy-of-the-commons free-rider collective-action social-dilemma prisoner's-dilemma chicken-game assurance-game coordination-game zero-sum-game positive-sum-game negative-sum-game win-win lose-lose win-lose Pareto-optimal Pareto-improvement Kaldor-Hicks-improvement cost-benefit-analysis cost-effectiveness-analysis multi-criteria-decision-analysis decision-support-system expert-system knowledge-based-system rule-based-system case-based-reasoning machine-learning deep-learning neural-network random-forest support-vector-machine decision-tree regression-tree classification-tree clustering-algorithm dimensionality-reduction feature-selection feature-extraction pattern-recognition image-analysis signal-processing time-series-analysis spatial-analysis geographic-information-system remote-sensing satellite-imagery aerial-photography drone-imagery LiDAR radar sonar seismic geophysical geochemical biogeochemical ecoinformatics bioinformatics computational-biology systems-biology synthetic-biology biotechnology nanotechnology genetic-engineering genome-editing CRISPR TALEN zinc-finger-nuclease transgenic cisgenic intragenic subgenic agrobacterium-mediated-transformation biolistics electroporation microinjection protoplast-fusion somatic-hybridization cybrid asymmetric-hybrid synthetic-polyploid doubled-haploid haploid-induction anther-culture microspore-culture ovule-culture embryo-culture endosperm-culture protoplast-culture cell-culture tissue-culture organ-culture shoot-culture root-culture callus-culture suspension-culture bioreactor hairy-root-culture transformation hardening micropropagation clonal-propagation meristem-culture shoot-tip-culture axillary-bud-culture nodal-culture leaf-culture petiole-culture stem-culture internode-culture rhizome-culture bulb-culture corm-culture tuber-culture seed-culture zygotic-embryo-culture somatic-embryo-culture somatic-embryogenesis organogenesis caulogenesis rhizogenesis adventitious-shoot-formation direct-regeneration indirect-regeneration primary-metabolism secondary-metabolism biosynthesis biotransformation bioconversion biodegradation bioremediation phytoremediation mycoremediation zooremediation bioaugmentation biostimulation natural-attenuation monitored-natural-attenuation engineered-natural-attenuation permeable-reactive-barrier pump-and-treat soil-vapor-extraction air-sparging thermal-desorption incineration landfilling containment capping slurry-wall grout-curtain sheet-piling clay-liner geomembrane geotextile geogrid geocomposite geosynthetic geofabric geonet geocell geopipe geostrip geofoam geobag geotube geocontainer geomat geoblanket geospacer geodrain geoinjection geogrout geopier geocolumn geopile geowall geoberm geotrench geocut geofill geolift geoslab geopanel geoblock geobrick geotile geopaver geoweb geomattress geocushion
Trachyrhinus marmoratus
A species of harvestman in the family Sclerosomatidae, described by Banks in 1894. As with other harvestmen in the genus Trachyrhinus, it belongs to the order Opiliones—arachnids distinct from spiders that lack fangs, venom glands, and silk production. Members of this genus are known to employ chemical defenses through repugnatorial glands.
harvestman Opiliones Sclerosomatidae arachnid chemical-defense repugnatorial-glands North-America
Trirhabda flavolimbata
Coyote Brush Leaf Beetle
Trirhabda flavolimbata, commonly called the coyote brush leaf beetle, is a skeletonizing leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. It is restricted to California where it inhabits coastal scrublands and chaparral. Both larvae and adults are metallic green and sequester toxins from their host plants, rendering them unpalatable to predators. The species has a single annual brood with a distinctive life cycle involving extended egg diapause.
leaf-beetle Chrysomelidae California-endemic coastal-scrub chaparral coyote-brush Baccharis aposematic-coloration chemical-defense univoltine skeletonizing-feeder
Tritoma
pleasing fungus beetles
Tritoma is a genus of pleasing fungus beetles (family Erotylidae) comprising over 100 species distributed worldwide, with greatest diversity in the Old World. Members are associated with fungi, with some species feeding on euagaric mushrooms and mycorrhizae. The genus is currently considered paraphyletic based on molecular evidence and may require taxonomic revision into two separate genera. Tritoma bipustulata, a common European species with distinctive black-and-red spotted coloration, has been studied for its chemical defensive system.
Erotylidae fungivore chemical-defense paraphyletic-genus reflex-bleeding Old-World-distribution
Troidini
Birdwings, Cattlehearts, Pipevine Swallowtails
Troidini is a tribe of swallowtail butterflies (Papilionidae: Papilioninae) comprising approximately 135 species across 12 genera. The tribe is notable for its strict specialization on host plants in the family Aristolochiaceae (pipevines), from which larvae sequester aristolochic acids for chemical defense. This sequestration renders adults distasteful to vertebrate predators and has driven the evolution of aposematic coloration, primarily black wings with contrasting spots or bands in white, orange, or blue. The tribe includes well-known species such as the pipevine swallowtail (Battus philenor) and Polydamas swallowtail (Battus polydamas), as well as the birdwings (genus Ornithoptera). Troidini butterflies serve as models for Batesian mimicry complexes, with numerous palatable butterfly species converging on similar color patterns to gain protection from predators.
swallowtail-butterflies aposematic-coloration Batesian-mimicry chemical-defense host-plant-specialization aristolochic-acids
Tyria jacobaeae
Cinnabar moth
The cinnabar moth is a specialist herbivore native to Europe and western Asia, introduced to North America, Australia, and New Zealand for biological control of ragwort. Adults display aposematic black and red coloration advertising their chemical defense. Larvae sequester toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids from host plants, rendering them unpalatable to predators. The species has been extensively studied for its population ecology, dispersal behavior, and multitrophic chemical ecology.
biological-control aposematic-coloration chemical-defense pyrrolizidine-alkaloid-sequestration day-flying-moth specialist-herbivore
Uresiphita reversalis
Genista Broom Moth, Sophora Worm
Uresiphita reversalis is a multivoltine crambid moth native to Mexico and the southwestern United States that has expanded its range north and east across North America. The caterpillars feed diurnally in groups on leguminous host plants, particularly members of the tribe Genisteae, and sequester quinolizidine alkaloids for chemical defense. The species has gained notoriety as both a pest of ornamental plants and a potential biocontrol agent for invasive broom species. Adults are small moths with distinctive white bodies and bright yellow or orange hindwings.
multivoltine aposematic alkaloid-sequestration diurnal-larvae group-feeding legume-feeder biocontrol-potential range-expansion pest-of-ornamentals chemical-defense quinolizidine-alkaloids carrier-mediated-uptake
Uropygi
whip scorpions, vinegaroons, uropygids
Uropygi is an order of arachnids commonly known as whip scorpions or vinegaroons, characterized by a whip-like flagellum on the posterior end and large scorpion-like pedipalps. They lack venom glands but possess defensive glands capable of spraying acetic and caprylic acid, producing a vinegar-like odor. These nocturnal predators use only six legs for walking, with the first two pairs modified as sensory appendages. The order comprises approximately 100 species across 18 extant genera, all placed in the single family Thelyphonidae.
arachnid predator nocturnal burrowing chemical-defense parental-care tropical subtropical
Utetheisa ornatrix
Ornate Bella Moth, Bella Moth, Rattlebox Moth, Ornate Moth
Utetheisa ornatrix is a diurnal moth distinguished by its aposematic coloration ranging from pink, red, orange, and yellow to white with black markings. The species has a wingspan of 33–46 mm and is found from the southeastern United States through Central America to South America. Larvae specialize on Crotalaria species (Fabaceae), sequestering toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids that render them unpalatable to predators. The species exhibits complex mating behavior including female polyandry, nuptial gift transfer, and pheromone-mediated mate choice.
aposematic-coloration diurnal-moth pyrrolizidine-alkaloid-sequestration polyandry sexual-selection-model Crotalaria-specialist chemical-defense nuptial-gifts pheromonal-chorusing cannibalism kin-recognition biological-control-potential
Xystocheir dissecta
Xystocheir dissecta is a flat-backed millipede in the family Xystodesmidae. It is found along the coast of Northern California, particularly in and around the San Francisco Bay Area. The species is notable for its chemical defense system, producing hydrogen cyanide gas when threatened. Three subspecies are recognized: X. d. dissecta, X. d. microrama, and X. d. taibona.
millipede cyanide-defense chemical-defense California-endemic flat-backed-millipede Xystodesmidae Promecognathus-prey
Xystocheir dissecta taibona
Xystocheir dissecta taibona is a subspecies of flat-backed millipede in the family Xystodesmidae. It is a synonym of Xystocheir taibona and is known from California. Like other members of its genus, it produces cyanide as a chemical defense against predators. The subspecies is documented as prey for the specialized carabid beetle Promecognathus.
millipede cyanide chemical-defense Polydesmida Xystodesmidae California-endemic Promecognathus-prey oak-woodland detritivore synonym
Xystodesmidae
Cherry Millipedes, flat-backed millipedes
Xystodesmidae is a family of flat-backed millipedes in the order Polydesmida, established by O. F. Cook in 1895. The family comprises over 390 described species across 62 genera, with many additional species remaining undescribed. Members are characterized by broad, compact bodies with prominent paranota (lateral keels), chemical defenses based on hydrogen cyanide and benzaldehyde, and frequent participation in Müllerian mimicry rings. Peak diversity occurs in the Appalachian Mountains, where approximately one-third of species are found.
millipedes myriapods decomposers chemical-defense Müllerian-mimicry bioluminescence Appalachian-biodiversity cave-adapted
Zygaenidae
burnet moths, forester moths, smoky moths, leaf skeletonizer moths
Zygaenidae is a family of approximately 1,000 species of diurnal moths in the superfamily Zygaenoidea. Adults are characterized by metallic coloration, often with red or yellow spots, and clubbed antennae. Members of this family are notable for their ability to produce and sequester hydrogen cyanide as a chemical defense throughout all life stages, making them among the few insects capable of synthesizing this toxin independently of dietary sources. The family includes seven subfamilies, with Zygaeninae (burnet moths) and Procridinae (forester moths) being the most frequently encountered in temperate regions, while Chalcosiinae dominates tropical faunas.
diurnal-moths chemical-defense hydrogen-cyanide aposematism mimicry leaf-skeletonizer metallic-coloration