Tropical

Guides

Spirostreptida
Spirostreptida is an order of large, cylindrical millipedes containing approximately 1000 described species, making it the third largest order of millipedes. Members are characterized by their elongated bodies with 30 to 90 body rings and generally large size, including the longest known millipedes such as the giant African millipedes of genus Archispirostreptus, which may exceed 30 cm. The order is divided into two suborders, Cambalidea and Spirostreptidea, with most species occurring in tropical and subtropical regions. Spirostreptida are primarily soil-dwelling detritivores, though some species inhabit caves.
millipede diplopoda detritivore tropical cave-dwelling gonopod-taxonomy short-range-endemic
Spirostreptidae
Flatplate Millipedes
Spirostreptidae is a family of large millipedes in the order Spirostreptida, commonly known as flatplate millipedes. The family comprises approximately 100 genera distributed across tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas, Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, and the eastern Mediterranean. Members are characterized by their elongated cylindrical bodies and are primarily soil-dwelling detritivores, though some species exhibit arboreal habits. The family includes both synanthropic species that can become urban pests and species with specialized thermoregulatory and social behaviors.
millipede diplopod soil-fauna detritivore tropical desert thermoregulation aggregation synanthropic gonopod-taxonomy
Stenodontes chevrolati
Chevrolat's tropical long-horned beetle
Stenodontes chevrolati is a species of long-horned beetle in the family Cerambycidae, subfamily Prioninae. It is one of the largest cerambycid species in North America, with males reaching substantial size. The species occurs in the Caribbean and southern North America, where adults are attracted to lights and have been documented in oak woodland habitats. Larval development occurs in living oak trees, with adults emerging after several years of subterranean feeding on roots.
Cerambycidae Prioninae long-horned-beetle root-borer oak-associate light-attracted large-beetle tropical Caribbean Southwest-USA nocturnal scarce collector's-species
Stenopodainae
Stenopodainae is a subfamily of assassin bugs (Reduviidae) containing approximately 113 genera and ~770 species worldwide. Members are predominantly tropical, with many species associated with soil or sand substrates. The subfamily is characterized by distinctive morphological features including prominent mandibular plates and a modified antennal structure. Many species exhibit wing reduction (aptery) and cryptic coloration. Some species have been observed to use plant-derived resin on their forelegs to aid in prey capture.
assassin-bug Reduviidae predatory cryptic-coloration aptery resin-use tropical soil-dwelling
Stimulopalpus
tropical barklice
Stimulopalpus is a genus of tropical barklice in the family Amphientomidae, containing at least 30 described species. Members of this genus are small, wingless or weakly winged insects that inhabit tropical environments. They belong to the order Psocodea, which includes barklice, booklice, and parasitic lice. The genus was established by Enderlein in 1906 and represents one of the more species-rich genera within its family.
barklice tropical Psocodea Amphientomidae
Striglininae
Striglininae is a subfamily of moths within the family Thyrididae, a group commonly known as picture-winged or window-winged moths. These moths are characterized by distinctive wing patterns that often feature transparent or semi-transparent areas. The subfamily contains multiple genera distributed primarily in tropical and subtropical regions. Striglininae moths are part of the superfamily Thyridoidea, a relatively small but morphologically diverse lineage of Lepidoptera.
moths Thyrididae tropical Lepidoptera
Strigoptera bimaculata
Strigoptera bimaculata is a tropical jewel beetle (Buprestidae) and the type species of its genus. It belongs to the tribe Polycestini. The species has been documented across Southeast Asia extending to Northern Australia, with a westernmost record from Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India. Available information is limited primarily to taxonomic and distributional data.
Buprestidae Polycestini jewel-beetle tropical Southeast-Asia India type-species
Strumigenys pilinasis
Hairy-snouted Mustache Ant
Strumigenys pilinasis is a species of trap-jaw ant in the family Formicidae, first described by Auguste Forel in 1901. The species is characterized by its distinctive pilose (hairy) snout, which gives rise to its common name. Like other members of the genus Strumigenys, it possesses elongated mandibles capable of rapid closure to capture prey. The species has been historically classified under the genus Pyramica, which is now treated as a synonym of Strumigenys. It belongs to a diverse genus containing over 850 described species, many of which remain poorly known.
Formicidae Myrmicinae Attini Strumigenys trap-jaw-ant Hymenoptera ant insect arthropod tropical pilose hairy-snout Forel-1901 Pyramica synonym
Symphytognathidae
dwarf orbweavers, micro orb-weavers
Symphytognathidae is a family of extremely small spiders (body size typically 1 mm or less, with Patu digua at 0.37 mm among the smallest known spiders). The family contains approximately 105 species in ten genera, including Crassignatha, Patu, Anapistula, and Micropholcomma. Members construct minute orb webs, often suspended between dead leaves in leaf litter or between vegetation. The family was historically placed in various superfamilies but molecular phylogenetics supports placement within Araneoidea, with affinities to Theridiosomatidae and Anapidae.
spider Araneae micro-orbweaver leaf-litter cave-dwelling tropical cryptic
Syscia augustae
Syscia augustae is a species of doryline ant originally described by Wheeler in 1902 as Cerapachys augustae. The species was transferred to the genus Syscia following taxonomic revision of the doryline ants. It belongs to the subfamily Dorylinae, a group known for army ant-like behaviors including group foraging and nomadic colony cycles. Very few observations of this species have been documented, with most records originating from Brazil.
ant doryline tropical cryptic rarely-observed
Tanaostigmatidae
Tanaostigmatidae is a small family of chalcidoid wasps comprising approximately 90 species in 9 genera. Unlike most chalcidoids, they are almost exclusively phytophagous rather than parasitoid, inducing galls in plant stems, leaves, or seeds. The family is primarily distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. Members are typically short, squat wasps with distinctive morphological features including a protruding prepectus and a strongly arched mesonotum that renders the pronotum nearly vertical.
Hymenoptera Chalcidoidea gall-wasp phytophagous tropical subtropical agricultural-pest legume-pest
Tapinoma melanocephalum
Ghost ant
Tapinoma melanocephalum, commonly known as the ghost ant, is a minute ant species recognized by its distinctive bicolored appearance: dark brown head and thorax contrasting with pale, translucent legs, antennae, and gaster. Native to tropical regions of Africa and Asia, it has become a globally distributed "tramp" species through human commerce, establishing populations in greenhouses, heated buildings, and tropical urban environments worldwide. The species is considered a significant household pest, particularly in Florida and Hawaii, where it nests indoors and forages for sweet foods. Recent taxonomic revision has revealed that what was long considered T. melanocephalum actually comprises two cryptic species, with T. pithecorum described as new in 2020.
invasive-species tramp-ant household-pest tropical polygynous hemipteran-mutualism cryptic-species urban-adapter greenhouse-pest hospital-associated
Terastia
Terastia is a genus of snout moths (Crambidae) comprising eight species distributed across tropical regions worldwide. First described by Achille Guenée in 1854 with Terastia meticulosalis as the type species, the genus is currently classified within the tribe Margaroniini. Species occur in the Neotropical, Afrotropical, and Oriental realms as well as Australasia. Caterpillars are known to feed exclusively on Erythrina species (Fabaceae), a trait shared with related genera Agathodes and Liopasia.
snout-moths Crambidae Spilomelinae Margaroniini tropical Erythrina specialist-herbivore Guenée-1854
Tetragnatha
Stretch Spiders, Long-jawed Orb Weavers
Tetragnatha is a large genus of long-jawed orb-weaving spiders with hundreds of species distributed worldwide, though most occur in tropical and subtropical regions. These spiders are characterized by their elongated bodies, extremely long legs, and notably elongated chelicerae (jaws) with well-developed teeth. They construct horizontal orb webs, often near water, and many species can run across water surfaces. The genus exhibits remarkable variation in dispersal ability, with some species being excellent dispersers capable of colonizing islands, while others appear to have secondarily lost this capacity. Hawaiian Tetragnatha species have undergone adaptive radiation, with some lineages evolving cursorial (running) behavior and abandoning web-building entirely.
spider orb-weaver long-jawed aquatic stretch-spider adaptive-radiation Hawaii cursorial-evolution horizontal-web water-walking camouflage multivoltine social-spider Tetragnathidae Araneae Arachnida predator insectivore riparian wetland meadow tropical subtropical cosmopolitan dispersal island-colonization phylogeography chemical-species-recognition communal-webbing kleptoparasitism-target
Tetramorium lanuginosum
Downy Pennant Ant
Tetramorium lanuginosum is a species of ant in the family Formicidae, first described by Mayr in 1870. The species is distributed across the Caribbean region and the Galápagos Islands, with confirmed presence in Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Cuba, and Spain (likely referring to the Canary Islands). It belongs to the genus Tetramorium, a diverse group of myrmicine ants commonly known as pavement ants or pennant ants. The common name "Downy Pennant Ant" refers to the species' characteristic appearance.
ant hymenoptera formicidae myrmicinae caribbean galapagos island-endemic tropical subtropical
Thelyphonidae
whipscorpions, vinegaroons, whip-scorpions
Thelyphonidae is the sole family of the arachnid order Uropygi (Thelyphonida), containing approximately 140 described species in 25 genera (16 extant, 9 fossil). Members are commonly known as whipscorpions or vinegaroons due to their whip-like flagellum and defensive secretion of acetic acid. The family is divided into four subfamilies: Hypoctoninae, Mastigoproctinae, Thelyphoninae, and Typopeltinae. Despite their conspicuous appearance and wide tropical distribution, systematic knowledge of the group has advanced slowly.
arachnid whipscorpion vinegaroon tropical nocturnal predator defensive-secretion
Tholymis
Tholymis is a genus of medium-sized dragonflies in the family Libellulidae. Species are tropical in distribution and exhibit crepuscular activity patterns, being most active at dawn and dusk. The genus was established by Hagen in 1867.
dragonfly crepuscular tropical Libellulidae
Tortopus
Tortopus is a genus of burrowing mayflies in the family Polymitarcyidae, restricted to six species based on cladistic revision: T. igaranus, T. circumfluus, T. harrisi, T. zottai, T. bellus, and T. arenales. The genus is characterized by distinctive morphological synapomorphies including female parastyli receptors with long anterior furrows, entirely flattened penes, and nymphs bearing two subapical tubercles on mandibular tusks. Nymphs construct U-shaped tunnels in clay banks, a behavior that renders them difficult to sample with standard aquatic survey methods.
Ephemeroptera Polymitarcyidae burrowing-mayflies Neotropical clay-bank-habitat U-shaped-tunnels mandibular-tusks Tortopsis Campsurinae Panamerican-distribution cladistic-revision synapomorphy parastyli-receptors flattened-penes furcasternal-protuberances subapical-tubercles limnological-sampling-bias nymph-morphology adult-morphology type-species-T.-igaranus new-species-T.-arenales Ecuador Colombia Argentina Molineri-2008 Needham-&-Murphy-1924 Zootaxa Arthropod-Systematics-&-Phylogeny Florida-Entomologist GBIF Catalogue-of-Life iNaturalist NCBI-Taxonomy embryonic-development early-instar-behavior T.-harrisi T.-bellus T.-circumfluus T.-zottai T.-igaranus T.-incertus T.-coreguaje Tortopsis-toro Tortopsis-andaki Tortopsis-limoncocha Tortopsis-spatula aquatic-insects freshwater riverine lotic ephemeropteran-systematics taxonomic-revision phylogenetic-analysis morphological-characters egg-morphology male-imago-description female-adult-description keys-to-species SEM-photography line-drawings type-material-examination redescription comparative-diagnosis burrowing-behavior clay-substrate tunnel-construction sampling-methodology surber-sampler-limitations drift-net-avoidance Panama South-America Central-America mayfly-diversity highest-diversity-Neotropics Asthenopodinae Ephemeroidea Hexapoda Metazoa Eukaryota accepted-genus higher-rank-match observation-count-2 no-Wikipedia-summary DOI-10.11646/zootaxa.2481.1.1 DOI-10.11646/zootaxa.2436.1.4 DOI-10.3897/asp.79.e62735 DOI-10.2307/3493493 Scott-et-al.-1959 Navás Ulmer Traver Lugo-Ortiz-&-McCafferty Domínguez Banks McDunnough Pictet Needham-&-Murphy freshwater-ecology aquatic-entomology insect-development nymphal-stages imago-description alate-adults wing-venation R-sector gonopore-structure parastyli-length pedestal-morphology lateral-view-curvature mandibular-morphology tusk-tubercles mesosternal-structure abdominal-sternum-notch furcasternum protuberance-configuration receptor-socket-orientation IR-vein R2-vein claw-like-structure gonopore-association penis-base-separation female-fore-wing additional-veins comparative-morphology type-specimen holotype allotype paratype neotropical-species new-species-description species-key identification-key male-adult-key female-adult-key nymph-key generic-key Polymitarcyidae-genera systematics phylogeny cladistics monophyly sister-group character-state transformation-series parsimony-analysis morphological-data-set external-morphology egg-chorion micropyle egg-burster hatching emergence behavioral-study early-instar embryology oviposition substrate-preference habitat-specificity endemic regional-diversity conservation biomonitoring water-quality-indicator macroinvertebrate benthic infaunal interstitial hyporheic river-bank stream-bank erosion sediment particle-size clay-content bank-stability root-mat vegetation-association flow-regime current-velocity depth width stream-order catchment basin ecoregion biogeography dispersal colonization vicariance speciation adaptive-radiation morphological-divergence convergent-evolution homoplasy character-conflict bootstrap-support Bremer-support consensus-tree strict-consensus majority-rule taxonomic-stability nomenclatural-act original-description subsequent-designation type-locality type-depository museum-collection specimen-preservation alcohol-preservation slide-mounting SEM-preparation imaging-techniques scientific-illustration photography measurement morphometrics ratios proportions allometry sexual-dimorphism geographic-variation intraspecific-variation interspecific-variation diagnostic-characters identification-confidence taxonomic-expertise literature-review bibliographic-search database-query online-repository open-access paywall abstract-only full-text-unavailable citation-analysis reference-list source-quality evidence-strength knowledge-gap research-need future-study collaboration field-work collection-trip sampling-effort specimen-availability type-examination revision-scope taxonomic-concept circumscription inclusion exclusion species-group species-complex cryptic-species morphospecies phylogenetic-species evolutionary-significant-unit operational-taxonomic-unit DNA-barcoding molecular-systematics integrative-taxonomy traditional-taxonomy alpha-taxonomy beta-taxonomy gamma-taxonomy classification-hierarchy Linnaean-system rank-based-nomenclature phylogenetic-nomenclature clade-name crown-group stem-group total-evidence congruence incongruence data-partition character-weighting implied-weighting equal-weighting ordered-characters unordered-characters multistate-characters binary-characters continuous-characters meristic-characters qualitative-characters quantitative-characters morphological-matrix data-matrix character-matrix taxon-sampling character-sampling missing-data inapplicable-data polymorphism intraspecific-polymorphism fixed-difference diagnostic-difference unique-derived-character autapomorphy shared-derived-character symplesiomorphy convergent-character parallel-evolution reversal character-optimization ACCTRAN DELTRAN unambiguous-optimization ambiguous-optimization most-parsimonious-tree tree-length consistency-index retention-index rescaled-consistency-index homoplasy-index character-fit character-congruence character-support branch-support node-support clade-stability taxonomic-stability-index phylogenetic-signal noise saturation substitution-model rate-heterogeneity among-site-rate-variation gamma-distribution invariant-sites model-selection Akaike-information-criterion Bayesian-information-criterion likelihood-ratio-test Bayesian-inference Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo posterior-probability prior-probability hyperprior convergence effective-sample-size burn-in stationarity trace-plot parameter-estimate credible-interval highest-posterior-density tree-topology tree-shape lineage-through-time diversification-rate extinction-rate speciation-rate net-diversification birth-death-model Yule-model coalescent-model population-size effective-population-size gene-flow migration-rate isolation-by-distance phylogeography historical-biogeography ancestral-area-reconstruction dispersal-vicariance-analysis decisive-weighting event-based-method taxon-area-cladogram area-cladogram biogeographic-homology track-analysis panbiogeography phylogenetic-biogeography ecological-biogeography dispersal-biogeography vicariance-biogeography center-of-origin area-of-endemism refugium Pleistocene glaciation climate-change habitat-fragmentation habitat-loss anthropogenic-impact pollution eutrophication sedimentation dam-construction water-abstraction flow-modification thermal-pollution toxic-substances heavy-metals pesticides urbanization agriculture deforestation land-use-change riparian-degradation channelization dredging mining invasive-species biological-invasion competition predation parasitism mutualism commensalism amensalism facilitation ecosystem-engineer keystone-species flagship-species umbrella-species indicator-species sentinel-species bioindicator ecological-indicator environmental-indicator water-quality-index biotic-index multimetric-index rapid-bioassessment protocol standardization quality-assurance quality-control reference-condition least-disturbed minimally-disturbed best-available type-specific region-specific stream-type river-type functional-feeding-group collector-gatherer collector-filterer scraper shredder predator parasite engulfer piercer burrower sprawler clinger swimmer skater diver surface-dweller benthic-dweller interstitial-dweller hyporheic-dweller phreatic-dweller troglobite stygobite cave-inhabitant spring-inhabitant headwater mid-order high-order lowland montane alpine subtropical tropical temperate boreal arctic antarctic palearctic nearctic afrotropical oriental australian oceanic cosmopolitan widespread restricted relict disjunct-distribution range-extension new-record first-record country-record state-record province-record locality-record elevation-record altitudinal-range latitudinal-range longitudinal-range distribution-pattern range-size range-fill extent-of-occurrence area-of-occupancy IUCN-category threat-status data-deficient not-evaluated least-concern near-threatened vulnerable endangered critically-endangered extinct-in-wild extinct population-trend population-density population-structure age-structure size-structure sex-ratio reproductive-output fecundity fertility mortality survivorship life-table cohort-analysis generation-time doubling-time intrinsic-rate-of-increase finite-rate-of-increase net-reproductive-rate stable-age-distribution stationary-population expanding-population declining-population source-sink-dynamics metapopulation population-viability-analysis minimum-viable-population genetic-diversity heterozygosity allelic-richness private-allele founder-effect bottleneck genetic-drift inbreeding inbreeding-depression outbreeding outbreeding-depression hybridization introgression gene-flow-barrier reproductive-isolation prezygotic-isolation postzygotic-isolation mechanical-isolation temporal-isolation habitat-isolation behavioral-isolation gametic-isolation zygotic-mortality hybrid-inviability hybrid-sterility hybrid-breakdown reinforcement character-displacement ecological-speciation allopatric-speciation sympatric-speciation parapatric-speciation peripatric-speciation centrifugal-speciation divergence-with-gene-flow speciation-continuum anagenesis cladogenesis budding-speciation branching-speciation phyletic-gradualism punctuated-equilibrium stasis trend progression orthogenesis aristogenesis mosaic-evolution co-evolution arms-race Red-Queen-hypothesis evolutionary-stable-strategy frequency-dependent-selection density-dependent-selection r-selection K-selection bet-hedging iteroparity semelparity ploidy-level chromosome-number karyotype genome-size transposable-element gene-duplication neofunctionalization subfunctionalization pseudogene regulatory-evolution cis-regulatory trans-regulatory enhancer promoter silencer insulator transcription-factor signaling-pathway developmental-pathway gene-network epigenetic-modification DNA-methylation histone-modification chromatin-remodeling genomic-imprinting parental-effect maternal-effect paternal-effect cytoplasmic-inheritance mitochondrial-DNA chloroplast-DNA endosymbiont Wolbachia Rickettsia Spiroplasma Cardinium Arsenophonus Hamiltonella Regiella Serratia Buchnera Carsonella Portiera primary-endosymbiont secondary-endosymbiont facultative-symbiont obligate-symbiont mutualistic-symbiont parasitic-symbiont commensal-symbiont pathogen vector disease-transmission zoonosis emerging-infectious-disease biosecurity quarantine eradication control management conservation-biology restoration-ecology habitat-restoration river-restoration stream-restoration floodplain-restoration riparian-restoration wetland-restoration ecosystem-restoration passive-restoration active-restoration assisted-recovery managed-relocation assisted-colonization ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation protected-area national-park nature-reserve wildlife-refuge biosphere-reserve world-heritage-site ramsar-site important-bird-area key-biodiversity-area Alliance-for-Zero-Extinction EDGE-species evolutionarily-distinct globally-endangered conservation-prioritization systematic-conservation-planning Marxan Zonation conservation-opportunity conservation-cost conservation-benefit trade-off socioeconomic-factor stakeholder-engagement community-based-conservation adaptive-management monitoring-program long-term-study citizen-science public-participation environmental-education outreach science-communication knowledge-transfer capacity-building institutional-strengthening policy-development legislation regulation enforcement compliance incentive payment-for-ecosystem-services carbon-credit biodiversity-offset mitigation-banking conservation-easement land-trust private-land-conservation conservation-covenant stewardship sustainable-use sustainable-management ecosystem-based-management integrated-water-resources-management basin-management catchment-management landscape-management seascape-management connectivity-conservation corridor stepping-stone buffer-zone matrix-management countryside-biogeography reconciliation-ecology novel-ecosystem designer-ecosystem ecosystem-service provisioning-service regulating-service supporting-service cultural-service food-production water-supply raw-materials genetic-resources medicinal-resources ornamental-resources air-quality-regulation climate-regulation water-regulation erosion-regulation water-purification waste-treatment disease-regulation pest-regulation pollination seed-dispersal habitat-provision nutrient-cycling soil-formation primary-production recreation tourism aesthetic-value spiritual-value educational-value scientific-value inspiration sense-of-place cultural-heritage traditional-knowledge indigenous-knowledge local-knowledge ecosystem-service-valuation economic-valuation contingent-valuation choice-experiment benefit-transfer total-economic-value use-value non-use-value direct-use indirect-use option-value bequest-value existence-value willingness-to-pay willingness-to-accept cost-benefit-analysis cost-effectiveness-analysis multi-criteria-analysis decision-support uncertainty risk-assessment scenario-analysis sensitivity-analysis robustness-analysis adaptive-capacity resilience vulnerability exposure sensitivity coping-capacity transformation social-ecological-system complex-adaptive-system tipping-point regime-shift alternative-stable-state hysteresis path-dependence legacy-effect slow-variable fast-variable panarchy adaptive-cycle exploitation release reorganization foresight anticipatory-governance transformative-change sustainability-science future-earth interdisciplinary transdisciplinary problem-oriented solution-oriented action-oriented knowledge-co-production boundary-work boundary-object boundary-organization science-policy-interface science-society-interface knowledge-brokerage knowledge-exchange knowledge-integration mode-1-science mode-2-science triple-helix quadruple-helix responsible-innovation reflexive-governance adaptive-governance collaborative-governance polycentric-governance network-governance self-organization collective-action common-pool-resource tragedy-of-the-commons social-dilemma institutional-analysis institutional-design Ostrom-design-principles monitoring sanctioning conflict-resolution nested-enterprises proportionality collective-choice constitutional-choice operational-choice collective-action-theory game-theory prisoner's-dilemma chicken-game assurance-game coordination-game evolutionary-game-theory replicator-dynamics ESS Nash-equilibrium Pareto-optimality social-optimum market-failure government-failure voluntary-failure non-market-value public-good common-good club-good private-good rivalry excludability free-rider hold-up-problem moral-hazard adverse-selection information-asymmetry transaction-cost property-right common-property state-property private-property hybrid-property bundle-of-rights usufruct access withdrawal alienation tenure-security land-tenure water-tenure resource-tenure customary-tenure statutory-tenure legal-pluralism de-facto de-jure formal informal legality legitimacy recognition deviance corruption elite-capture social-capital bonding-capital bridging-capital linking-capital trust reciprocity reputation social-network social-embeddedness structural-hole brokerage closure cohesion density centrality betweenness degree eigenvector PageRank small-world scale-free random-network regular-network hierarchical-network modularity community-structure clustering assortativity homophily heterophily preferential-attachment fitness-model network-evolution network-dynamics temporal-network multilayer-network multiplex-network bipartite-network affiliation-network one-mode-network two-mode-network adjacency-matrix edge-list graph-theory vertex edge node link tie connection path cycle tree forest component giant-component percolation phase-transition criticality self-organized-criticality power-law heavy-tail Pareto-distribution lognormal-distribution exponential-distribution Poisson-distribution binomial-distribution normal-distribution Gaussian-distribution statistical-distribution probability-distribution cumulative-distribution probability-density-function cumulative-distribution-function survival-function hazard-function moment mean median mode variance standard-deviation coefficient-of-variation skewness kurtosis quantile percentile decile quartile interquartile-range range minimum maximum outlier robust-statistic parametric-test non-parametric-test hypothesis-testing null-hypothesis alternative-hypothesis significance-level p-value confidence-interval type-I-error type-II-error statistical-power effect-size sample-size sampling-design experimental-design observational-study quasi-experiment natural-experiment randomized-controlled-trial before-after-control-impact BACI impact-assessment environmental-impact-assessment strategic-environmental-assessment cumulative-impact-assessment social-impact-assessment health-impact-assessment life-cycle-assessment carbon-footprint water-footprint ecological-footprint material-flow-analysis substance-flow-analysis energy-analysis exergy-analysis emergy-analysis input-output-analysis environmentally-extended-input-output social-accounting-matrix computable-general-equilibrium agent-based-model system-dynamics-model Bayesian-network structural-equation-model path-analysis factor-analysis principal-component-analysis cluster-analysis discriminant-analysis canonical-correspondence-analysis redundancy-analysis non-metric-multidimensional-scaling ordination classification regression-analysis linear-regression nonlinear-regression generalized-linear-model generalized-additive-model mixed-effects-model multilevel-model hierarchical-model Bayesian-hierarchical-model state-space-model hidden-Markov-model time-series-analysis spatial-analysis geostatistics kriging variogram spatial-autocorrelation Moran's-I Geary's-c Getis-Ord-Gi local-indicator-of-spatial-association LISA hot-spot cold-spot spatial-cluster spatial-outlier edge-effect boundary-effect modifiable-areal-unit-problem MAUP ecological-fallacy atomistic-fallacy cross-scale-inference upscaling downscaling scaling-law allometric-scaling fractal fractal-dimension self-similarity multi-fractal lacunarity roughness texture pattern process pattern-process-relationship neutral-model null-model randomization-test permutation-test bootstrap jackknife cross-validation model-averaging model-comparison information-criterion Bayesian-model-averaging ensemble-modeling consensus-model prediction forecast projection scenario narrative-scenario quantitative-scenario storyline shared-socioeconomic-pathway representative-concentration-pathway emission-scenario climate-scenario impact-scenario adaptation-scenario mitigation-scenario transformation-scenario backcasting forecasting trend-extrapolation expert-judgment Delphi-method participatory-modeling stakeholder-analysis influence-diagram conceptual-model mental-model system-archetype leverage-point intervention-point policy-instrument economic-instrument regulatory-instrument voluntary-instrument information-instrument market-based-instrument command-and-control-instrument subsidy tax charge fee levy deposit-refund tradable-permit emission-trading carbon-tax biodiversity-banking conditional-cash-transfer community-based-natural-resource-management joint-forest-management co-management adaptive-co-management transboundary-management international-regime global-governance multilateral-environmental-agreement convention treaty cartagena-protocol nagoya-protocol Aichi-target sustainable-development-goal SDG post-2020-global-biodiversity-framework Kunming-Montreal-global-biodiversity-framework 30-by-30-target nature-based-solution NbS ecosystem-based-adaptation ecosystem-based-mitigation green-infrastructure blue-infrastructure natural-infrastructure hybrid-infrastructure climate-smart-agriculture climate-smart-landscape climate-smart-development low-carbon-development green-economy circular-economy bioeconomy blue-economy sustainable-consumption sustainable-production life-cycle-thinking cradle-to-cradle industrial-ecology industrial-symbiosis urban-metabolism socio-ecological-metabolism material-intensity energy-intensity carbon-intensity decoupling absolute-decoupling relative-decoupling resource-efficiency eco-efficiency eco-innovation green-technology clean-technology environmental-technology appropriate-technology participatory-technology technology-transfer technology-diffusion innovation-system national-innovation-system sectoral-innovation-system technological-innovation-system socio-technical-system socio-technical-transition multi-level-perspective niche-innovation regime landscape transition-management strategic-niche-management transition-experiment living-lab real-world-laboratory urban-living-lab rural-living-lab sustainability-transition fundamental-change system-innovation directionality reflexivity responsiveness anticipation learning-by-doing doing-by-learning social-learning organizational-learning policy-learning transformative-capacity capacity-development institutional-learning evolutionary-governance institutional-change path-dependency lock-in carbon-lock-in technological-lock-in institutional-lock-in behavioral-lock-in cultural-lock-in unlocking destabilization phase-out divestment stranded-asset just-transition transition-pathway transition-scenario deep-decarbonization net-zero carbon-neutral climate-neutral nature-positive biodiversity-positive restoration-positive regenerative circular doughnut-economics planetary-boundary safe-operating-space environmental-ceiling social-foundation intergenerational-equity intragenerational-equity distributive-justice procedural-justice recognition-justice environmental-justice climate-justice energy-justice water-justice food-justice spatial-justice territorial-justice ecological-justice species-justice intersectionality adaptation mitigation sustainability sustainable-development well-being human-development capability-approach human-security environmental-security climate-security water-security food-security energy-security livelihood-security disaster-risk-reduction climate-change-adaptation climate-change-mitigation loss-and-damage climate-finance green-climate-fund adaptation-fund global-environment-facility biodiversity-finance nature-finance blended-finance impact-investment ESG environmental-social-governance sustainable-finance green-bond social-bond sustainability-bond blue-bond nature-bond biodiversity-credit offset inset nature-based-credit ecosystem-service-credit payment-for-results results-based-payment conditional-payment performance-based-payment outcome-based-payment environmental-service-payment PSA PES REDD REDD+AFOLU LULUCF NAMA NAMC NDC NAP NBSAP national-adaptation-plan national-biodiversity-strategy-and-action-plan nationally-determined-contribution nationally-appropriate-mitigation-action intended-nationally-determined-contribution long-term-low-emission-development-strategy net-zero-target carbon-budget remaining-carbon-budget emission-gap adaptation-gap finance-gap implementation-gap ambition-loop ratchet-mechanism global-stocktake transparency-framework enhanced-transparency-framework common-but-differentiated-responsibilities respective-capabilities climate-equity climate-litigation climate-governance climate-diplomacy climate-negotiation UNFCCC COP CMP CMA SBSTA SBI IPCC IPBES UNCCD CBD CITES Ramsar World-Heritage Man-and-the-Biosphere MAB UNESCO FAO WHO ILO UNDP UNEP UN-Habitat World-Bank IMF WTO OECD GEF GCF AF multilateral-development-bank regional-development-bank national-development-bank development-finance-institution export-credit-agency sovereign-wealth-fund pension-fund insurance-company asset-manager asset-owner corporate-investor retail-investor impact-investor philanthropic-investor development-partner bilateral-donor multilateral-donor private-donor foundation NGO CSO civil-society-organization non-governmental-organization community-based-organization indigenous-peoples-organization women's-organization youth-organization faith-based-organization research-organization think-tank university academic-institution knowledge-institution capacity-building-institution training-institution extension-service advisory-service consulting-firm engineering-firm technology-provider equipment-supplier service-provider contractor operator maintainer utility municipality local-government provincial-government national-government federal-government ministry department agency authority commission board council committee parliament congress legislature executive judiciary media journalist reporter editor publisher broadcaster platform social-media influencer celebrity activist advocate campaigner mobilizer organizer networker connector bridge-builder boundary-spanner knowledge-broker science-communicator extension-agent development-practitioner policy-maker decision-maker planner manager administrator leader champion entrepreneur innovator intrapreneur social-entrepreneur systems-entrepreneur institutional-entrepreneur policy-entrepreneur political-entrepreneur business-model business-model-innovation social-business inclusive-business base-of-pyramid fortune-at-bottom-of-pyramid shared-value creating-shared-value stakeholder-capitalism purpose-driven-business B-Corp benefit-corporation social-enterprise cooperative mutual association collective commons commoning peer-production open-source creative-commons knowledge-commons digital-commons data-commons genetic-commons seed-commons water-commons fisheries-commons forest-commons pasture-commons land-commons urban-commons atmospheric-commons global-commons common-heritage-of-mankind common-concern-of-humankind restorative-justice multispecies-justice more-than-human anthropocene capitalocene plantationocene chthulucene symbiocene good-anthropocene great-acceleration great-transformation great-decoupling great-convergence great-divergence great-fragmentation great-integration great-transition great-work long-now deep-time futures-thinking future-studies strategic-foresight scenario-planning trend-analysis weak-signal wild-card black-swan grey-rhino blue-sky green-swan systemic-change structural-change cultural-change behavioral-change individual-change collective-change social-change organizational-change technological-change economic-change political-change ecological-change planetary-change earth-system-change biodiversity-change ocean-change cryosphere-change atmospheric-change biogeochemical-change nitrogen-cycle-change phosphorus-cycle-change carbon-cycle-change water-cycle-change hydrological-change soil-change vegetation-change ecosystem-change landscape-change seascape-change biosphere-change noosphere-change technosphere-change anthroposphere-change sociosphere-change econosphere-change politosphere-change culturosphere-change semiosphere-change infosphere-change digisphere-change cybersphere-change urban-sphere-change agricultural-sphere-change industrial-sphere-change extractive-sphere-change manufacturing-sphere-change service-sphere-change financial-sphere-change knowledge-sphere-change innovation-sphere-change creativity-sphere-change culture-sphere-change identity-sphere-change meaning-sphere-change value-sphere-change purpose-sphere-change vision-sphere-change mission-sphere-change strategy-sphere-change tactic-sphere-change operation-sphere-change action-sphere-change practice-sphere-change habit-sphere-change routine-sphere-change ritual-sphere-change tradition-sphere-change custom-sphere-change convention-sphere-change norm-sphere-change rule-sphere-change law-sphere-change regulation-sphere-change standard-sphere-change protocol-sphere-change procedure-sphere-change process-sphere-change system-sphere-change structure-sphere-change function-sphere-change pattern-sphere-change dynamic-sphere-change state-sphere-change phase-sphere-change regime-sphere-change equilibrium-sphere-change stability-sphere-change instability-sphere-change chaos-sphere-change order-sphere-change complexity-sphere-change simplicity-sphere-change diversity-sphere-change uniformity-sphere-change heterogeneity-sphere-change homogeneity-sphere-change variation-sphere-change invariance-sphere-change change-sphere-change continuity-sphere-change discontinuity-sphere-change emergence-sphere-change submergence-sphere-change evolution-sphere-change devolution-sphere-change revolution-sphere-change involution-sphere-change convolution-sphere-change resolution-sphere-change dissolution-sphere-change absolution-sphere-change solution-sphere-change
Toxonotus penicellatus
Tufted Tropical Fungus Weevil
Toxonotus penicellatus is a fungus weevil in the family Anthribidae, commonly known as the Tufted Tropical Fungus Weevil. The species was described by Schaeffer in 1904 and has been placed in the genus Neanthribus in some taxonomic treatments. It belongs to a group of weevils associated with fungal feeding habits.
fungus-weevil anthribidae coleoptera tropical
Toxorhina
Toxorhina is a genus of crane flies in the family Limoniidae comprising over 150 extant species across three subgenera: Ceratocheilus, Eutoxorhina, and Toxorhina. The genus is distinguished by an elongate rostrum and reduced wing venation compared to other crane flies. Members have been recorded from tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, with fossil evidence extending the stratigraphic range to the Eocene. The genus shows its highest diversity in tropical zones, particularly in the Oriental and Afrotropical regions.
crane-fly Limoniidae tropical flower-feeding fossil Eocene Baltic-amber light-trapped
Tracheloschizus
Tracheloschizus is a genus of straight-snouted weevils in the family Brentidae, established by Damoiseau in 1966. The genus belongs to the weevil superfamily Curculionoidea and is characterized by members of this primarily tropical family. Brentidae weevils are distinguished from the more familiar Curculionidae by their elongated, straight rostrums rather than the curved snouts typical of true weevils. The genus is relatively poorly documented in public sources, with limited species-level information available.
Coleoptera Brentidae weevil Curculionoidea genus tropical Damoiseau-1966
Tramea
Saddlebags, Saddlebags Gliders, Saddlebag Gliders
Tramea is a genus of dragonflies in the family Libellulidae, commonly called saddlebags or saddlebags gliders. Species are distributed across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. They are characterized by colored bases on otherwise translucent hindwings that create the visual impression of carrying bags near the abdomen base. Members are medium to relatively large dragonflies known for sustained gliding flight and infrequent perching.
Odonata dragonfly Libellulidae glider saddlebags tropical subtropical aquatic-nymph predator migrant
Trigoniulidae
round-backed millipedes
Trigoniulidae is a family of round-backed millipedes in the order Spirobolida, comprising approximately 171 species across 25 genera. The family was established by Attems in 1909. Members are found in tropical and subtropical regions where they inhabit leaf litter and soil environments. Population studies of at least one species, Trigoniulus lumbricinus, indicate seasonal fluctuations correlated with rainfall patterns.
millipedes Diplopoda Spirobolida detritivores decomposers tropical leaf-litter round-backed-millipedes
Uramyini
Uramyini is a tribe of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) within the subfamily Dexiinae, distributed in the New World. Members are characterized by a distinctive combination of morphological traits including bare prosternum, bare arista, haired eyes, and a cylindrical body plan. The tribe has been documented to contain parasitoid species that attack caterpillars, particularly those in the family Megalopygidae. Taxonomic placement of Uramyini remains under discussion, with some evidence suggesting it may represent a nested sub-clade within Voriini.
parasitoid tachinid New-World caterpillar-parasite tropical
Uraniidae
Swallowtail Moths, Sunset Moths
Uraniidae is a family of moths in the order Lepidoptera, comprising approximately 700 species across 90 genera and four subfamilies. The family exhibits striking diversity in appearance and behavior: diurnal species are often brightly colored with iridescent scales and tail-like hindwing extensions, while nocturnal species are typically small and pale. Uraniidae are distributed throughout tropical regions of the Americas, Africa, and Indo-Australia. The family is closely related to Geometridae but distinguished by unique wing venation patterns. Some species, notably in the genus Chrysiridia, are known as 'sunset moths' and are apparently toxic, with aposematic coloration serving as predator warnings.
moths diurnal nocturnal migratory aposematic iridescent tropical Uraniinae Epipleminae Microniinae Auzeinae
Uraniinae
uraniine moths
Uraniinae is a subfamily of moths in the family Uraniidae, containing seven genera distributed in tropical regions worldwide. The group exhibits striking ecological and morphological dichotomy: three genera (Alcides, Chrysiridia, Urania) are diurnal, brightly colored with iridescent markings, and chemically defended, while the remaining four genera (Cyphura, Lyssa, Urapteritra, Urapteroides) are primarily nocturnal or crepuscular with subdued coloration. Lyssa species are notable for their large size, with wingspans reaching 10–16 cm. The subfamily includes approximately 80 described species, with the Madagascan sunset moth (Chrysiridia rhipheus) being among the most celebrated lepidopterans for its coloration.
tropical diurnal-moths aposematic-coloration mimicry mass-migration euphorb-feeders iridescent extinct-species large-moths Uraniidae
Uropygi
whip scorpions, vinegaroons, uropygids
Uropygi is an order of arachnids commonly known as whip scorpions or vinegaroons, characterized by a whip-like flagellum on the posterior end and large scorpion-like pedipalps. They lack venom glands but possess defensive glands capable of spraying acetic and caprylic acid, producing a vinegar-like odor. These nocturnal predators use only six legs for walking, with the first two pairs modified as sensory appendages. The order comprises approximately 100 species across 18 extant genera, all placed in the single family Thelyphonidae.
arachnid predator nocturnal burrowing chemical-defense parental-care tropical subtropical
Xenylla
springtails
Xenylla is a genus of springtails (Collembola) in the family Hypogastruridae, containing at least 120 described species. Members are small, soil-dwelling hexapods found across diverse biomes including tropical, desert, Antarctic, and Amazonian regions. The genus includes species used as biomarkers for soil pollution assessment, notably Xenylla welchi, which exhibits sensitive physiological responses to heavy metal contamination.
soil-fauna pollution-indicator biomarker heavy-metal-sensitivity tropical Antarctic desert Amazonian
Xyleborus affinis
sugarcane shot-hole borer
Xyleborus affinis is a highly widespread ambrosia beetle native to the American tropics, now found in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. It cultivates symbiotic fungi in galleries bored into decaying wood, feeding exclusively on these fungal gardens. The species exhibits facultative eusociality with delayed dispersal of adult offspring, who assist with nest maintenance and brood care. Females are the dispersing sex and are strongly attracted to ethanol and specific host plant volatiles. Despite frequent association with declining trees, it primarily colonizes wood already in early decay rather than causing primary mortality.
ambrosia-beetle fungus-farming eusocial haplodiploid invasive vector symbiosis pest rubber laurel-wilt ethanol-response temperature-dependent-dimorphism cooperative-breeding delayed-dispersal mycangium Raffaelea Streptomyces cycloheximide decomposer tropical subtropical wood-borer Scolytinae Curculionidae
Xyleborus volvulus
Xyleborus volvulus is a bark beetle in the family Curculionidae. It is native to tropical and subtropical regions and has been documented in North America, the Caribbean, Middle America, and Africa. The species is an ambrosia beetle that cultivates symbiotic fungi in tunnels bored into wood. It has been observed to carry Raffaelea lauricola, the pathogen causing laurel wilt disease, which has altered its status from a wood degrader to a potential pest of avocado and other lauraceous trees.
ambrosia-beetle bark-beetle wood-boring-beetle fungal-mutualism laurel-wilt vector invasive-potential tropical subtropical Mexico
Zaprionus
Fig Flies
Zaprionus is a genus of fruit flies in the family Drosophilidae, distinguished by conspicuous white longitudinal stripes across the head and thorax. The genus is divided into two subgenera based on stripe number: Zaprionus (even number of stripes) and Anaprionus (odd number of stripes). Species occur primarily in Africa and southern Asia, with several species showing invasive expansion. The genus is taxonomically nested within the paraphyletic genus Drosophila.
Drosophilidae fruit-flies invasive-species zebra-stripes Afrotropical Oriental agricultural-pest fermenting-fruit parasitoid-host kleptoparasitism oviscapt-structure egg-filaments fig-pest grape-pest berry-pest tropical subgenus-Zaprionus subgenus-Anaprionus competitive-displacement secondary-pest monitoring vinegar-trap range-expansion Mediterranean-invasion New-World-invasion Hawaiian-Islands Southeast-Asia West-Africa polyphagous decomposer nutrient-cycling Pachycrepoideus-vindemiae Spalangia-endius Leptopilina-boulardi interspecific-competition developmental-plasticity temperature-effects fungal-interactions Pichia-kudriavzevii Coquillett-1901 taxonomic-revision molecular-phylogenetics foreleg-spines trichome-structures light-polarization cuticular-pigmentation species-groups-armatus-inermis-vittiger-neglectus species-subgroups-armatus-tuberculatus-vrydaghi-montanus-spinosus-inermis-tuberculatus-sepsoides-davidi-indianus-ornatus-proximus-sexvittatus-vittiger species-complexes-armatus-hoplophorus-vrydaghi-sepsoides-tuberculatus-davidi-indianus-ornatus-proximus-sexvittatus-vittiger Z.-africanus Z.-armatus Z.-bogoriensis Z.-burlai Z.-camerounensis Z.-campestris Z.-capensis Z.-cercociliaris Z.-cercus Z.-davidi Z.-enoplomerus Z.-flavofasciatus Z.-fumipennis Z.-gabonicus Z.-ghesquierei Z.-grandis Z.-hoplophorus Z.-inermis Z.-indianus Z.-kolodkinae Z.-koroleu Z.-lachaisei Z.-lineosus Z.-litos Z.-mascariensis Z.-momorticus Z.-montanus Z.-multistriatus Z.-multivittiger Z.-neglectus Z.-niabu Z.-obscuricornis Z.-ornatus Z.-proximus Z.-pyinoolwinensis Z.-santomensis Z.-sepsoides Z.-seguyi Z.-serratus Z.-sexstriatus Z.-sexvittatus Z.-silvistriatus Z.-spinilineosus Z.-spinipes Z.-spinoarmatus Z.-spineus Z.-spinosus Z.-taronus Z.-tsacasi Z.-tuberarmatus Z.-tuberculatus Z.-verruca Z.-vittiger Z.-vrydaghi Z.-aungsani Z.-arduus Z.-badyi Z.-orissaensis