Scale-insect

Guides

Metaphycus
Metaphycus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, established by Mercet in 1917. The genus has cosmopolitan distribution and comprises numerous species that are important biological control agents, particularly of scale insects (Coccoidea). Species such as Metaphycus helvolus and M. luteolus have been widely used in classical biological control programs against soft scale pests in agriculture.
parasitoid biological-control scale-insect Coccoidea Hymenoptera Encyrtidae agricultural-pest-management
Microterys
Microterys is a large genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae (Chalcidoidea), with its center of distribution in the northern parts of the Northern Hemisphere. Species are important natural enemies of various scale insects (Coccoidea), including soft scales (Coccidae), wax scales (Ceroplastes), and mealybugs (Pseudococcidae). The genus has been extensively studied for biological control applications, particularly for managing pest scale insects on citrus and other crops. Several species have been introduced to new regions as biocontrol agents, including Microterys flavus in California.
parasitoid biological-control scale-insect Coccoidea Encyrtidae Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera ovipositor integrated-pest-management citrus-pest soft-scale mealybug hyperparasitoid host-specificity biotype classical-biological-control synchrotron-microtomography oviposition-behavior natural-enemy agricultural-entomology taxonomy Girault Australia China California Syria India Czech-Republic Europe Asia North-America Southern-Hemisphere Ceroplastes Coccus Phenacoccus Kermes Parthenolecanium Metaceronema Chaetococcus Kerria Laccifer Gascardia Sphaerolecanium Cerococcus Chloropulvinaria pest-management host-selection host-penetration envenomation egg-deposition host-feeding valvifer valvula musculoskeletal-system 3D-morphology SEM SR-µCT invasive-species biocontrol-introduction hyperparasitism efficiency-reduction natural-enemy-conservation citrus Camellia Magnolia fruit-crops ornamental-plants forestry lac-insect wax-scale plum-scale cottony-maple-scale European-fruit-lecanium brown-soft-scale citricola-scale citrus-snow-scale Japanese-wax-scale type-material species-description redescription identification-key intraspecific-variation diagnostic-characters Northern-Hemisphere center-of-distribution cosmopolitan new-species new-record faunistics museum-collection UCR Timberlake Compere Gordh Triapitsyn Noyes Xu Sugonjaev Prinsloo Rosen Ishii Mercet Dalman Howard Ashmead Walker Ferrière Kerrich Annecke Mynhardt Hayat Subba-Rao Trjapitzin Viggiani De-Santis Mayr Thomson Westwood Gahan Crawford Blanchard Perkins Risbec Brues Bennett Erdös Silvestri Domenichini Dozier Cockerell Coquillet Fonscolombe Ratzeburg Matsumura Vassiljev Yoshimoto Ghesquière Tachikawa Logvinovskaya Siscaro Agarwal Ahmad Ghani Burks Girault-species Australian-fauna Chinese-fauna Indian-fauna Syrian-fauna European-fauna Californian-fauna global-distribution economic-entomology applied-entomology systematics morphology behavioral-ecology functional-morphology evolutionary-success diverse-group understudied minute-wasps micro-Hymenoptera slide-collection voucher-specimens host-records undetermined-specimens valid-genera synonymy manuscript-names nomina-nuda unpublished-names re-organization curator historical-notes collection-growth collecting-activities identification sorting drawers points slides paratypes backbone biological-control-projects California-entomologists Citrus-Experiment-Station Hawaiian-collection bee-taxonomy systematists students staff world largest important value mere-number taxa-represented reported scientific-literature conducted augmented contributions countries rapidly growing complete list presented italicized miscellaneous undetermined full-drawers unsorted specimens-per-slide more-than-500-slides at-least-700-slides sometimes-more-than-one-specimen-per-slide synchrotron-X-ray-phase-contrast-microtomography scanning-electron-microscopy in-vivo-documentation 3D-model microstructures cuticular-elements motion-patterns phases parasitization working-mechanism key-trait adaptive-evolution reproductive-success mechanical-aspects functional-aspects fully-understood enormously-diverse specialized parasitising plant-pests ecological-role economic-role improve-understanding mechanics mode-of-function detailed analysis identified consisting recently-discovered described elucidated penetration assessment internal-organs developed underlying observed contributing highly-diverse-group chalcidoid-wasps Frontiers-in-Zoology Acta-Musei-Silesiae Arab-Journal-for-Plant-Protection Australian-Journal-of-Entomology Insect-Science Oriental-Insects Journal-of-Natural-History Phytoparasitica Annals-of-the-Entomological-Society-of-America Environmental-Entomology GBIF Catalogue-of-Life NCBI-Taxonomy iNaturalist Wikipedia DOI 10.1186/s12983-025-00575-1 10.2478/cszma-2021-0007 10.22268/AJPP-41.3.292305 10.1111/j.1440-6055.1975.tb02058.x 10.1111/j.1744-7917.2000.tb00345.x 10.1080/00305316.2011.646827 10.1111/j.1440-6055.1973.tb01670.x 10.1080/00222933.2020.1786608 10.1007/s12600-019-00727-0 10.1007/s12600-018-0691-5 10.1093/aesa/54.2.222 10.1093/ee/7.6.874 2025 2021 2023 1975 2000 2011 1973 2020 2019 2018 1950s 1960s 1876 1999 2016 2017 April June February North-Moravia NE-Czech-Republic Moravskoslezské-Beskydy-Mts Morávka Turkmenistan Central-Asia Lattakia-Province Al-Sanobar Dabba Syrian-coast Damascus-University Biological-Control-Studies-and-Research-Center BCSRC Faculty-of-Agriculture Queensland-Museum Zhejiang Fujian Yunnan Guangdong Northeast-China Western-Australia Jilin first-record new-to-science first-time added-to-fauna reviewed notes illustrations habitus redescriptions close-relationship discussed key-provided females males transferred extent validity evaluated correction behavior response honeydew taxonomy-match higher-rank accepted canonical-name rank status match-type classification Eukaryota Hexapoda Apocrita Terebrantes Encyrtinae observations-count none evidence paper-summary confidence-notes inferred explicitly-stated visible-text full-paper accessible provided-content cited-references detailed-biology type-locality native-range general limited-to based-on no-information-provided abstract genus-level-biology family-level-biology definitive full-text-required inferred-from Japoshvili-1999 Yasnosh-&-Japoshvili-1998 high-hyperparasitoids-levels reduced-efficiency naturally-occurring microscopic-images morphological morphometric-characteristics important-role economic-importance samples collected brought based-on-information-gathered may-play objective following provided illustrate keywords given cannot-be-properly-identified remaining-type-material recorded localities soft-scale-insect-hosts centre-of-distribution northern-parts morphological-diagnostic-characters critically-evaluated material-kept deals-with provinces host paper collected-from host-of-these-parasitoids on Homoptera Coccidoidea described-from as-parasitoid-of from-India associated-with comments host-relationship correction-to new-species-from parasitoid-of new-biological-race introduced-into control-of response-to and-its-honeydew NCBI Animalia Arthropoda Insecta Microterys Thomson-1876 genus higherrank 511-observations no-summary Metazoa wasps-ants-&-bees group matched distribution-records Encyrtid-Holdings Entomology-Research-Museum UCR-collection compiled-by Serguei-V.-Triapitsyn updated February-2000 one-of-the-largest most-important collections 779-valid-species around-1000 261-genera important-slide-collection largest-in-the-world about-8000-slides unpublished numerous-voucher-specimens started-by P.H.-Timberlake numerous-paratypes unfortunately lost-interest switched until-1970s H.-Compere notable-contributions P.-Timberlake J.-Maple P.-DeBach C.-Clausen 1970s-1980s G.-Gordh J.-LaSalle J.-Woolley J.-Pinto J.-Beardsley Mexico US other-countries presently growing-rapidly J.-Heraty majority V.-Trjapitzin J.-Noyes complete-re-organization S.-Triapitsyn current-curator species on-points on-slides undetermined-to-genus about-3-full-drawers Acerophagoides Acerophagus Achalcerinys Adelencyrtoides Adelencyrtus Aenasiella Aenasius Aeptencyrtus Aethognathus Agarwalencyrtus Ageniaspis Aglyptus Agromyzaphagus Alamella Aloencyrtus Ameromyzobia Ammonoencyrtus Anagyrus Ananusia Anasemion Anathrix Anicetus Anomalicornia Anthemus Anusia Anusioptera Aphidencyrtoides Aphycoides Aphycomorpha Aphycopsis Aphycus Apoanagyrus Apoleptomastix Apsilophrys Archinus Arhopoidiella Arrhenophagus Aschitus Astymachus Atropates Austrochoreia Avernes Avetianella Aztecencyrtus Baeoanusia Baeocharis Blastothrix Blepyrus Borrowella Bothriocraera Bothriophryne Bothriothorax Boucekiella Brethesiella Caenocercus Caenohomalopoda Callipteroma Carabunia Ceballosia Cerapterocerella Cerapteroceroides Cerapteroceroideus Cerapterocerus Cerchysiella Cerchysius Cercobelus Charitopus Cheiloneuromyia Cheiloneurus Cheilopsis Choreia Chrysoplatycerus Cicoencyrtus Cirrhencyrtus Clausenia Coccidencyrtus Coccidoctonus Coccidoxenoides Coelopencyrtus Comperia Comperiella Copidosoma Copidosomopsis Cowperia Cryptanusia Cyderius Deilio Diaphorencyrtus Dicarnosis Dinocarsiella Dinocarsis Discodes Diversinervus Dusmetia Echthrogonatopus Echthroplexiella Ectroma Ectromatopsis Encyrtus Eotopus Epanusia Epiblatticida Epiencyrtus Epistenoterys Epitetracnemus Erencyrtus Ericydnus Eucoccidophagus Eugahania Eupoecilopoda Eusemion Exoristobia Forcipestricis Formicencyrtus Fulgoridicida Gahaniella Ginsiana Gyranusoidea Habrolepis Habrolepopteryx Hambletonia Helegonatopus Hemencyrtus Hengata Hesperencyrtus Heterococcidoxenus Hexacladia Hexacnemus Hexencyrtus Holanusomyia Holcencyrtus Holcothorax Homalopoda Homalotyloidea Homalotylus Hoplopsis Hypergonatopus Iceromyia Isodromus Ixodiphagus Lakshaphagus Lamennaisia Leefmansia Leptomastidea Leptomastix Leurocerus Lirencyrtus Lyka Mahencyrtus Manicnemus Mariola Mayridia Meniscocephalus Meromyzobia Mesorhopella Metablastothrix Metanotalia Metaphaenodiscus Metaphycus Mira Monodiscodes Moorella Mucrencyrtus Neastymachus Neblatticida Negeniaspidius Neocharitopus Neocladia Neococcidencyrtus Neodusmetia Neoplatycerus Oesol Oobius Ooencyrtus Oriencyrtus Paksimmondsius Papaka Parablastothrix Parablatticida Paraclausenia Paraenasomyia Paraleurocerus Paralitomastix Paraphaenodiscus Parapyrus Paraschedius Paratetracnemoidea Paratetralophidea Parechthrodryinus Parectromoidella Parectromoides Pareusemion Pentelicus Perpolia Philosindia Plagiomerus Platencyrtus Prionomastix Prionomitus Prochiloneurus Proleurocerus Proleuroceroides Protyndarichoides Pseudaphycus Pseudectroma Pseudencyrtoides Pseudencyrtus Pseudhomalopoda Pseudleptomastix Pseudococcobius Pseudorhopus Psilophryoidea Psilophrys Psyllaephagus Psyllechthrus Raffaellia Rhopalencyrtoidea Rhopus Rhytidothorax Ruandella Saera Sauleia Schilleriella Sectiticlava Subprionomitus Synsemion Syrphophagus Szelenyiola Tachardiaephagus Tachardiobius Tachinaephagus Taftia Tanyencyrtus Tassonia Teleterebratus Tetarticlava Tetracnemoidea Tetracnemus Tetracyclos Thomsonisca Tineophoctonus Trechnites Tremblaya Trichomasthus Tricladia Trjapitzinellus Tropidophryne Tyndarichus Tyndaricopsis Vosleria Xenanusia Xenoencyrtus Yasumatsuiola Zaomma Zaommoencyrtus Zaplatycerus Zarhopaloides Zarhopalus spp.sp.sp(p).?nr.ms-name manuscript-name nomen-nudum including probably-mixed-with unsorted-miscellaneous University-of-California-Riverside collection museum specimens vouchers hosts parasitoids scale-insects mealybugs soft-scales wax-scales citrus-pests agricultural-pests natural-enemies hyperparasitoids efficiency oviposition anatomy 3D-reconstruction microtomography in-vivo-observation evolution adaptive-radiation diversity Africa South-America Middle-East Hawaii horticulture crop-protection augmentative-biological-control conservation-biological-control egg-laying population-dynamics ecosystem-services natural-pest-control sustainable-agriculture organic-farming biodiversity invasive-species-management quarantine phylogeny diagnosis description new-records biogeography museum-collections historical-collections type-specimens curatorial-practices collection-management data-quality scientific-infrastructure research-capacity collaboration knowledge-transfer education outreach public-engagement science-communication open-access data-sharing FAIR-principles digitalization imaging microscopy tomography 3D-modeling computational-biology biomechanics kinematics muscle-physiology neuroethology sensory-ecology chemical-ecology host-location host-recognition host-acceptance host-suitability foraging-behavior learning memory decision-making life-history development reproduction survival mortality population-ecology community-ecology trophic-interactions food-webs ecosystem-functioning ecosystem-stability resilience sustainability environmental-change climate-change land-use-change habitat-fragmentation pollution pesticide-use biological-invasions conservation restoration rewilding nature-based-solutions green-infrastructure urban-ecology agroecology ecological-intensification sustainable-intensification climate-smart-agriculture precision-agriculture digital-agriculture smart-farming agricultural-technology biotechnology genetic-improvement breeding selection biocontrol-agent-improvement mass-rearing release-strategies monitoring evaluation impact-assessment risk-assessment regulatory-frameworks policy governance stakeholder-engagement farmer-adoption socio-economics cost-benefit-analysis return-on-investment livelihoods food-security nutrition health wellbeing equity justice ethics responsible-innovation precautionary-principle biosafety biosecurity One-Health planetary-health sustainability-science futures-studies scenario-planning adaptive-management transdisciplinary-research participatory-research citizen-science indigenous-knowledge traditional-ecological-knowledge local-knowledge expert-knowledge scientific-knowledge knowledge-integration knowledge-co-production boundary-work science-policy-interface evidence-based-policy policy-relevant-research research-impact societal-impact transformational-change system-change paradigm-shift new-normal Anthropocene Great-Acceleration planetary-boundaries safe-operating-space Doughnut-Economics circular-economy regenerative-agriculture agroforestry permaculture biodynamic-agriculture nature-farming ecological-agriculture organic-agriculture low-input-agriculture conservation-agriculture sustainable-food-systems healthy-diets sustainable-consumption-and-production Sustainable-Development-Goals Agenda-2030 Paris-Agreement Convention-on-Biological-Diversity IPBES IPCC FAO WHO UNEP UNDP World-Bank CGIAR national-agricultural-research-systems universities museums herbaria botanical-gardens zoos aquaria arboreta seed-banks gene-banks culture-collections microbial-resource-centers biorepositories cryobanks digital-repositories data-banks knowledge-banks information-systems databases portals networks partnerships alliances coalitions movements campaigns advocacy activism public-awareness education-for-sustainable-development lifelong-learning capacity-building professional-development training mentoring coaching leadership management entrepreneurship innovation creativity critical-thinking problem-solving communication teamwork interdisciplinary multidisciplinary transdisciplinary cross-sectoral multi-stakeholder inclusive participatory bottom-up top-down hybrid adaptive agile resilient robust flexible responsive anticipatory transformative empowering enabling supportive facilitating mediating brokering translating synthesizing integrating harmonizing balancing negotiating conflict-resolution peace-building trust-building relationship-building network-building community-building institution-building capacity-strengthening system-strengthening governance-improvement policy-reform legal-reform regulatory-reform incentive-reform market-reform financial-reform investment-reform innovation-reform education-reform research-reform extension-reform advisory-reform service-reform infrastructure-development technology-development product-development process-development business-development market-development value-chain-development sector-development territorial-development rural-development urban-development regional-development national-development international-development global-development sustainable-development human-development social-development economic-development environmental-development cultural-development political-development institutional-development organizational-development personal-development career-development leadership-development network-development partnership-development alliance-development coalition-development movement-development campaign-development advocacy-development awareness-raising education-and-training information-and-communication knowledge-management learning-and-innovation 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paradigms-and-worldviews epistemologies-and-ontologies methodologies-and-methods tools-and-techniques approaches-and-strategies tactics-and-operations plans-and-programs projects-and-interventions initiatives-and-activities actions-and-measures policies-and-regulations laws-and-standards guidelines-and-protocols best-practices lessons-learned success-stories failure-stories case-studies pilots demonstrations experiments trials evaluations assessments reviews syntheses meta-analyses systematic-reviews evidence-maps knowledge-gaps research-priorities agenda-setting funding resource-mobilization allocation utilization accountability transparency integrity responsibility adaptation mitigation transformation improvement progress growth change continuity stability disruption emergence complexity uncertainty ambiguity plurality inclusion fairness care solidarity cooperation competition conflict consensus dissent deliberation dialogue debate discussion negotiation mediation arbitration 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sustainable innovative creative critical reflective responsible accountable transparent ethical integral holistic systemic dynamic complex uncertain ambiguous diverse plural collaborative cooperative competitive conflicting consensual deliberative dialogical democratic autocratic hierarchical networked decentralized distributed localized globalized standardized harmonized integrated coordinated aligned balanced optimized satisficing sufficient efficient effective efficacious performant productive profitable viable feasible desirable acceptable legitimate credible reliable valid high-quality excellent distinctive recognized reputable prestigious influential impactful enduring meaningful significant valuable worthy meritorious virtuous beautiful true moral legal authorized approved sanctioned endorsed supported funded resourced staffed equipped enabled empowered capacitated skilled trained educated informed aware conscious mindful attentive focused intentional purposeful
Milviscutulus
mango shield scale
Milviscutulus is a genus of soft scale insects (family Coccidae) established by Williams & Watson in 1990. The genus contains at least one economically significant species, M. mangiferae, commonly known as the mango shield scale. Species in this genus are phloem-feeding herbivores associated with mango (Mangifera indica). The genus has been documented in Egypt, Australia (north Queensland), and Papua New Guinea.
scale-insect agricultural-pest mango phloem-feeder Coccidae Hemiptera
Milviscutulus mangiferae
Mango Shield Scale
Milviscutulus mangiferae is a soft scale insect (family Coccidae) commonly known as the mango shield scale. It is a significant pest of mango (Mangifera indica) throughout tropical and subtropical regions. The species exhibits kin-biased dispersal behavior and shows variable population dynamics across different mango varieties. First recorded in Australia in 2007, it has a broad global distribution across mango-growing regions.
scale-insect agricultural-pest mango phloem-feeder Sternorrhyncha
Neolecanium cornuparvum
Magnolia scale
Neolecanium cornuparvum, commonly known as the magnolia scale, is a soft scale insect in the family Coccidae. It is a significant pest of magnolia trees in North America, where heavy infestations can cause branch dieback and tree decline. The species is included in the USA National Phenology Network's Pheno Forecast system, which uses heat accumulation models to predict its life cycle stages for optimized pest management. N. cornuparvum has been documented in the United States, including in Vermont.
pest scale-insect ornamental-pest USA-NPN
Neosteingelia texana
Giant Pecan Scale
Neosteingelia texana, commonly known as the Giant Pecan Scale, is a species of scale insect in the family Margarodidae. It is a member of the order Hemiptera, placing it among the true bugs with piercing-sucking mouthparts. The species was described by Morrison in 1927 and is native to North America, with records from the United States and Middle America. Scale insects in this family are typically sessile as adults, with reduced mobility and specialized adaptations for feeding on plant vascular tissues.
scale-insect pecan-pest phloem-feeder Sternorrhyncha North-America
New-genus-on-chrysobalanus
New-genus-on-chrysobalanus is a genus of soft scale insects (family Coccidae) associated with host plants in the genus Chrysobalanus. The genus name indicates its documented occurrence on Chrysobalanus species, which are tropical and subtropical woody plants. As a member of the Coccomorpha, it possesses the reduced morphological features characteristic of scale insects, including sessile adult females. The genus represents a specialized lineage within the Coccidae, though detailed biological studies remain limited.
scale-insect Coccidae Chrysobalanus phloem-feeder tropical subtropical
Nipaecoccus
Nipaecoccus is a genus of mealybugs in the family Pseudococcidae. The genus includes several economically important pest species, most notably Nipaecoccus viridis (hibiscus mealybug or lebbeck mealybug) and Nipaecoccus nipae (coconut mealybug). Species in this genus are characterized by their white, powdery wax covering and polyphagous feeding habits on a wide range of host plants including citrus, palms, ornamentals, and various fruit and row crops. Nipaecoccus viridis has emerged as a significant invasive pest in Florida since 2009, with documented impacts on citrus, blueberries, hemp, and ornamental plants.
mealybug invasive-pest citrus-pest agricultural-pest Florida polyphagous phloem-feeder scale-insect biological-control-target diagnostic-testing
Nipponaclerda
roseau cane scale, Phragmites scale insect
Nipponaclerda is a genus of flat grass scales in the family Aclerdidae, containing species that are specialist sap-feeders on grasses in the genus Phragmites. The genus is native to East Asia and has become invasive in North America. The best-known species, N. biwakoensis, has caused extensive dieback of Phragmites australis in Louisiana's Mississippi River Delta since 2016, threatening critical wetland ecosystem services.
scale-insect invasive-species wetland-pest Phragmites-specialist biological-control-target Aclerdidae Hemiptera
Nipponaclerda biwakoensis
Roseau Cane Mealybug, Phragmites Scale Insect
Nipponaclerda biwakoensis is a scale insect in the family Aclerdidae, native to East Asia (Japan, China, Korea) and first described from Japan in 1907. It is a specialist herbivore on Phragmites australis (common reed), feeding on phloem sap. The species was detected as an invasive pest in Louisiana's Mississippi River Delta in 2016, where it has caused extensive dieback of roseau cane—the dominant coastal wetland plant critical for shoreline stabilization. In its invasive range, densities can exceed 150 individuals per meter of stem and damage over 80% of reeds in affected areas. The species has since spread to Texas, Mississippi, and Alabama. In its native range, population dynamics are influenced by five species of hymenopteran parasitoids and predation by wintering birds.
invasive-species scale-insect wetland-pest Phragmites-specialist biological-control-target coastal-erosion Mississippi-River-Delta
Nipponorthezia obscura
Nipponorthezia obscura is a scale insect in the family Ortheziidae, first described by Morrison in 1952. It belongs to a genus endemic to eastern Asia, despite its specific epithet suggesting otherwise. The species has been recorded from Central and North America based on distribution data, though detailed biological information remains sparse. As a member of Ortheziidae, it shares family characteristics of being ground-dwelling or bark-inhabiting scale insects with a protective waxy covering.
Ortheziidae Hemiptera scale-insect Coccoidea Sternorrhyncha
Olliffiella
Olliffiella is a genus of gall-like scale insects in the family Kermesidae. The genus contains at least two described species: O. cristicola (the gall kermes) and O. secunda. These insects are part of the diverse group of scale insects within the order Hemiptera.
gall-like scale-insect Kermesidae Hemiptera
Olliffiella cristicola
Gall Kermes
Olliffiella cristicola, commonly known as the gall kermes, is a species of scale insect in the family Kermesidae. The species forms gall-like structures on host plants, a distinctive trait among kermes scales. It was described by Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell in 1896 and is known from the United States.
scale-insect gall-former Kermesidae Hemiptera
Parthenolecanium
soft scales, lecanium scales
Parthenolecanium is a genus of soft scale insects in the family Coccidae. These hemipterans are dome-shaped, sap-feeding pests of woody plants including oaks, fruit trees, and grapevines. Several species are significant urban tree pests, notably P. quercifex (oak lecanium scale) and P. corni (European fruit lecanium scale). The genus exhibits variation in reproductive mode: some species reproduce by parthenogenesis, while P. corni reproduces sexually (gamogenesis). Many species have been documented as vectors of grapevine viruses.
scale-insect pest urban-entomology agricultural-pest vector vineyard-pest tree-pest soft-scale Hemiptera Coccidae
Parthenolecanium quercifex
oak lecanium scale
Parthenolecanium quercifex, commonly known as the oak lecanium scale, is a native soft scale insect in the family Coccidae. Adult females are hemispherical, 4–7 mm long, and light to dark brown or gray with lateral humps. The species is prevalent in the eastern United States, primarily infesting oak trees but occasionally found on hickory and birch. It has one annual generation, with eggs laid in late May to June and crawlers hatching in June to early July. Heavy infestations can cause stunted foliage, chlorosis, twig death, and dieback, while moderate populations may support beneficial natural enemies.
scale-insect urban-pest oak-pest soft-scale phloem-feeder honeydew-producer North-America Hemiptera Coccidae
Phalacrococcus
Phalacrococcus is a genus of soft scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccidae) established in 2010. The genus contains at least one exotic species, Phalacrococcus howertoni, which has been documented in Florida. As a member of the Coccidae family, these insects are sessile, sap-feeding pests that produce protective waxy coverings.
Coccidae soft-scale exotic Florida Hemiptera scale-insect
Phenacoccus
mealybug
Phenacoccus is a genus of mealybugs (family Pseudococcidae) containing at least 180 described species. Species in this genus are economically significant agricultural pests, with several species causing major damage to crops including cassava, cotton, and various ornamentals. The genus includes notable invasive species such as Phenacoccus manihoti (cassava mealybug), P. solenopsis (cotton mealybug), and P. madeirensis (Madeira mealybug). These insects are characterized by their soft bodies covered with white, powdery wax secretions. Several species have been targets of successful biological control programs, most famously the cassava mealybug control program in Africa that averted a major food crisis.
mealybug agricultural-pest biological-control invasive-species phloem-feeder cassava-pest cotton-pest scale-insect Sternorrhyncha
Phoenicococcidae
palm scales, phoenicococcids
Phoenicococcidae is a monotypic family of scale insects containing a single genus and species, Phoenicococcus marlatti. Commonly known as palm scales or red date scales, these insects are specialized pests of palms in the genus Phoenix. They are sessile as adults, embedded in white waxy nests at the base of palm fronds.
scale-insect pest monotypic date-palm agricultural-pest sessile
Phoenicococcus
red date scale
Phoenicococcus is a genus of scale insects in the family Phoenicococcidae. The genus contains P. marlatti, commonly known as the red date scale, which is a significant pest of cultivated date palms (Phoenix dactylifera). Species in this genus are phloem-feeding insects that infest palm hosts. The genus is distinguished by its specialized association with palms and its morphological features typical of the family Phoenicococcidae.
scale-insect pest date-palm phloem-feeding agricultural-pest palms Hemiptera Sternorrhyncha Coccidomorpha Phoenicococcidae
Phoenicococcus marlatti
red date scale
Phoenicococcus marlatti, commonly known as the red date scale, is a scale insect in the family Phoenicoccidae. It is recognized as the most important pest of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), causing significant agricultural damage requiring management intervention. The species has a broad distribution across date palm-growing regions worldwide, including North Africa, the Middle East, Mediterranean Europe, and parts of the Americas.
scale-insect agricultural-pest date-palm phloem-feeder invasive-potential Crete-first-record-2013
Polistes dominula
European Paper Wasp
Polistes dominula is a highly successful invasive social wasp native to Eurasia that has established populations across North America, South America, New Zealand, South Africa, and other regions. First detected in North America near Boston in 1978, it has become one of the most abundant wasps on the continent. The species builds small, exposed paper nests in protected locations and preys primarily on live insects, particularly caterpillars. Unlike yellowjackets, it does not scavenge for meat or sugar. Its rapid spread has been attributed to ecological flexibility, superior competitive ability, and tolerance of human-altered environments.
invasive-species social-wasp paper-wasp predator pollinator urban-ecology eusocial nest-construction biological-control thermal-biology spatial-learning vibrational-communication aposematism honest-signal overwintering diapause Polistes Vespidae Hymenoptera North-America Europe New-Zealand South-Africa South-America monarch-butterfly caterpillar-predation nest-architecture gyne foundress dominance-hierarchy climate-change-impact energetics metabolic-rate microclimate suburban-habitat anthropogenic ornamental-pest vineyard-pest fruit-damage stinging-insect venom poison-gland warning-coloration Zahavian-signal Strepsiptera parasitoid Xenos behavioral-plasticity foraging learning memory thermoregulation ectothermy endothermy solar-radiation nest-temperature brood-development colony-survival multiple-founding single-founding season-length latitude temperate Mediterranean hibernacle overwintering-costs climate-warming range-expansion competition native-species-displacement biodiversity-impact conservation management control integrated-pest-management IPM identification antennae-color facial-markings caste reproduction male female sexual-dimorphism antennae abdomen wing mandible saliva paper comb cell pedicel trophallaxis larva pupa adult worker queen subordinate dominant aggression defense threat-display sting toxicity brightness coloration predator-avoidance prey caterpillar Lepidoptera butterfly moth garden agriculture vineyard orchard urban suburban rural forest habitat-preference temperature metabolism quiescence torpor survival fitness colony nest population abundance distribution range expansion invasion establishment introduction biotic-interaction trophic-cascade herbivory-suppression plant-fitness milkweed Danaus-plexippus monarch Nelson Tasman ecosystem-impact conservation-management biological-invasion ecology behavior physiology morphology taxonomy systematics nomenclature gender-agreement Latin Christ 1791 Vespa-dominula basionym catalogue-of-life GBIF iNaturalist observation citizen-science photography illustration field-guide orange black yellow red color-pattern size wing-length body compact legs short face square triangular dark curled straight elbowed blunt pointed tip Zahavian costly-signal hunt forage nectar honeydew aphid scale-insect flower grape umbellifer fennel lovage insect meatball feed emerge chew cap hexagonal wood-fiber bark exposed open umbrella stalk ant repellent substance coat protect location eave attic tree branch vine shrub cavity bird-box bee-hive shed grave-lantern overwinter shelter protected thermal climate cold winter spring summer autumn fall season month day activity defend threat display raise tiptoe social dominance hierarchy reproductive egg lay found cooperate compete selfish passive-aggressive individual recognition facial-marking cognition mushroom-body brain intelligent artist architect navigation plasticity spatial relocating food resource dish bait training experience 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ReplyDelete RepliesReplyOut prairieSeptember 8:02 keeping cabbage worm seen RepliesReplyAnonymousSeptember 13 2:06 PM becoming here Upper Peninsula Michigan pendulum seems swung ago everywhere vanishingly rare haven't again house right RepliesReplyL.R ShimerSeptember 4:35 head gal work everybody else kinda egalitarian RepliesReplyLarryMay 9:34 directed Bev Wigney BTW lived NE Missouri detailed presented Thanks cogent scientifically accurate summary insect's life-cycle RepliesBug EricMay 3:47 kind compliments Delete RepliesReplyReplyAdd commentLoad Blog currently reply reader himself Working resolve Newer Older Subscribe Atom Demonized hosting 4 p.m.Saturday Jan 20 Room 1124 Academic Surge 455 Crocker Lane campus Attendees chat check 50,000 vespid eight-million free friendly Parking estimate 2000 described inhabit 500 undescribed headline-grabbing giant Vespa mandarinia formerly Asian news media dubbed murder hornet confuse identify sheet example hidden rodent burrow wall huge 100,00 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Protopulvinaria pyriformis
Pyriform Scale
Protopulvinaria pyriformis, commonly known as the pyriform scale, is a soft scale insect in the family Coccidae. It is a significant agricultural pest primarily associated with avocado, though it has been recorded on citrus and other hosts. The species exhibits parthenogenetic reproduction in most populations and possesses the unusual ability for a soft scale to move around as an adult female. It is known from multiple continents including Australia, Africa, Europe, and the Americas.
scale-insect agricultural-pest avocado-pest parthenogenesis honeydew-producer biological-control-target
Pseudaonidia paeoniae
Peony Scale
Pseudaonidia paeoniae, commonly known as the Peony Scale, is a species of armored scale insect in the family Diaspididae. It is a specialized herbivore that feeds on peonies (Paeonia spp.), extracting plant fluids through piercing-sucking mouthparts. The species has been documented across multiple continents including Asia, Europe, and North America, likely distributed through the horticultural trade of its host plants. Like other armored scales, it produces a protective waxy covering (test) that shields the body from predators and environmental conditions.
scale-insect armored-scale pest ornamental-pest peony horticulture invasive-potential
Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli
false oleander scale, fullaway oleander scale, magnolia white scale, mango scale, oleander scale, oyster scale
Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli is an armored scale insect (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) commonly known as false oleander scale. It is a polyphagous pest with a broad global distribution spanning Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, Central America, the Caribbean, and Oceania. The species infests numerous ornamental and agricultural plants, with documented hosts including oleander (Nerium oleander), mango (Mangifera indica), magnolia, and various palms. As a member of the armored scales, it produces a protective waxy covering over its body while feeding on plant sap.
scale-insect armored-scale Diaspididae pest polyphagous ornamental-pest agricultural-pest
Pseudococcus
mealybugs
Pseudococcus is a genus of unarmoured scale insects in the family Pseudococcidae, commonly known as mealybugs. The genus contains more than 150 species distributed worldwide. Species in this genus are polyphagous pests of agricultural and horticultural crops, feeding on plant phloem and causing direct damage through sap extraction and indirect damage through honeydew production and sooty mold development. Several species have been introduced to new regions through international plant trade, with some becoming significant invasive pests.
mealybug scale-insect agricultural-pest phloem-feeder horticultural-pest invasive-species biological-control-target
Pseudococcus maritimus
grape mealybug, vine mealybug
Pseudococcus maritimus, commonly known as the grape mealybug or vine mealybug, is a scale insect in the family Pseudococcidae that primarily infests grapevines (Vitis vinifera). It has been documented as a vector of Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3 and, more recently, was confirmed to transmit Little cherry virus 2 to sweet cherry, making it an economically significant pest in tree fruit and vineyard systems. The species is part of a species complex that includes morphologically similar taxa such as Pseudococcus meridionalis. Research indicates limited natural dispersal capacity, with first instars rarely walking between plants and wind dispersal declining sharply with distance from source plants.
mealybug scale-insect vineyard-pest virus-vector grape-pest cherry-pest phloem-feeder integrated-pest-management biological-control-target
Pseudokermes
Pseudokermes is a genus of scale insects in the family Coccidae, first described by Cockerell in 1895. These insects are soft scales that feed on plant sap. The genus is part of the diverse Coccidae family, which contains many economically significant agricultural pests. Species within Pseudokermes are relatively poorly documented compared to other coccid genera.
scale-insect Coccidae soft-scale Sternorrhyncha sap-feeder
Pulvinaria acericola
Cottony Maple Leaf Scale
Pulvinaria acericola, commonly known as the Cottony Maple Leaf Scale, is a soft scale insect (family Coccidae) native to North America. Like other Pulvinaria species, the adult female produces a conspicuous white, cottony ovisac that houses eggs. The species is associated with maple and other woody plants, where nymphs and adults feed on phloem sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts. Heavy infestations can lead to honeydew accumulation and subsequent sooty mold growth.
scale-insect Coccidae soft-scale maple-pest ornamental-pest North-America
Pulvinaria floccifera
Cottony Camellia Scale, Cottony Yew Scale, Cottony Taxus Scale
Pulvinaria floccifera is a soft scale insect (Coccidae) known for producing conspicuous white, cottony ovisacs that cover eggs. It is a significant pest of woody ornamentals including camellia, holly, yew, and tea plants. The species has a broad global distribution spanning temperate and subtropical regions. Females are sessile and wingless, while males develop wings for mating. Heavy infestations produce honeydew that supports sooty mold growth, reducing plant vigor and aesthetic value.
scale-insect soft-scale pest ornamental tea-pest Coccidae Sternorrhyncha honeydew sooty-mold biological-control-host
Pulvinaria vitis
Cottony Grape Scale, Cottony Scale
Pulvinaria vitis is a thelytokous cottony scale insect native to Europe, now established across much of the Northern Hemisphere and beyond. It is a univoltine pest of grape and peach, with adult females overwintering on host bark and producing large ovisacs containing thousands of eggs in spring. The species exhibits distinctive discontinuous growth and feeding patterns, with three nymphal instars and limited mobility after the first moult.
scale-insect pest vineyard-pest orchard-pest thelytoky univoltine invasive-species
Pulvinariella
Pulvinariella is a genus of soft scale insects (Coccidae) established by Borchsenius in 1953. The genus includes species that are specialist phloem-feeders on succulent plants, particularly ice-plants in the genera Carpobrotus and Mesembryanthemum. Pulvinariella mesembryanthemi has been extensively studied as a potential biocontrol agent for invasive Carpobrotus species in coastal ecosystems. These scales exhibit density-dependent population dynamics and are influenced by host plant nitrogen and water conditions.
scale-insect biocontrol Coccidae ice-plant invasive-species-management phloem-feeder ant-mutualism coastal-ecology
Puto
giant mealybugs, Puto scale insects
Puto is a genus of scale insects in the family Putoidae, commonly known as giant mealybugs. The genus was established by Signoret in 1875 and is distinguished by its large body size relative to other mealybugs, dense white wax coating, and distinctive morphological features including cerarii and multilocular disc-pores. Putoidae is recognized as a distinct family separate from Pseudococcidae, representing a transitional evolutionary group between archaeococcoids and neococcoids. Species in this genus are primarily associated with woody host plants in temperate and montane regions.
mealybug scale-insect Putoidae Hemiptera montane Tibet phytophagous wax-secretion sexual-dimorphism Cerarii circulus multilocular-disc-pores oak Quercus high-altitude invasive-potential-unknown taxonomy-revised archaeococcoid-neococcoid-transition
Quernaspis
Quernaspis is a genus of armored scale insects in the family Diaspididae, established by G.F. Ferris in 1937. The genus belongs to the economically important group of scale insects that feed on plant sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts. Species in this genus are characterized by their protective waxy coverings, which form a shield over the soft body. As with other diaspidids, they are likely associated with woody host plants, though specific host associations for the genus remain incompletely documented.
scale-insect armored-scale Diaspididae plant-pest Sternorrhyncha
Quernaspis quercus
Oak Scale
Quernaspis quercus is a scale insect in the family Diaspididae, commonly known as the Oak Scale. It is a member of the armored scales, characterized by a protective waxy covering. The species is associated with oaks (Quercus spp.) as its host plants. It occurs in North America, with records from the United States and Mexico. As with other diaspidid scales, it is a plant-feeding insect that lives attached to host plant tissues.
Hemiptera Diaspididae scale-insect armored-scale oak-associated North-America
Russellaspis
oleander pit scale, fig pit scale
Russellaspis is a genus of armored scale insects (Asterolecaniidae) known primarily from the species R. pustulans, commonly called the oleander pit scale or fig pit scale. These insects are parthenogenetic, with no known males, and are significant agricultural pests on fruit trees and ornamental plants in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. The genus is characterized by its pit-inducing feeding damage on host plants and its ability to complete multiple generations annually under favorable conditions.
scale-insect armored-scale agricultural-pest parthenogenetic polyphagous biological-control-target phytosanitary-concern tropical-pest subtropical-pest fig-pest oleander-pest
Russellaspis pustulans
oleander pit scale, fig pit scale, Akee Fringed Scale
Russellaspis pustulans, commonly known as the oleander pit scale or fig pit scale, is a parthenogenetic scale insect in the family Asterolecaniidae. It is highly polyphagous, feeding on plants across 69 families with documented preference for fig (Ficus carica) and oleander (Nerium oleander). The species is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, completing 2-3 generations annually depending on environmental conditions. It is recognized as a pest of economic importance on fruit trees and ornamental plants, with feeding activity inducing characteristic pitting and galling on host tissues.
scale-insect pest parthenogenetic polyphagous quarantine-pest indoor-pest tropical subtropical fruit-pest ornamental-pest
Saissetia
soft scales, black scales
Saissetia is a genus of soft scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccidae) containing at least four described species. The genus includes economically important pests, notably Saissetia oleae (black scale) and Saissetia coffeae (hemispherical scale), which attack citrus, olive, coffee, and numerous ornamental plants. Saissetia species are phloem-feeding insects that produce honeydew, facilitating ant associations and sooty mold growth. Several species have been introduced globally through trade in infested nursery plants.
agricultural-pest biological-control scale-insect honeydew-producer ant-tended invasive-species citrus-pest olive-pest polyphagous
Saissetia coffeae
hemispherical scale, helmet scale, coffee brown scale
Saissetia coffeae is a polyphagous soft scale insect (Coccidae) with a cosmopolitan tropical and subtropical distribution. Adults are sessile, hemispherical, and helmet-shaped, ranging 2–4.5 mm in diameter depending on host plant. The species reproduces parthenogenetically; all individuals are female. It is a significant agricultural pest of coffee, citrus, avocado, fig, guava, and numerous ornamental plants, causing damage through phloem sap feeding and honeydew secretion that promotes sooty mold growth. Multiple parasitoid wasps and predatory insects are associated with natural population regulation.
scale-insect soft-scale agricultural-pest polyphagous parthenogenetic biological-control honeydew-producer sooty-mold ant-mutualism coffee-pest citrus-pest tropical-pest
Scutellista
Scutellista is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Eunotidae. Members are parasitoids of scale insects (Coccoidea), with several species used as biological control agents. The genus is characterized by a distinctive scutellum that projects as a roof over much of the gaster. Species occur across multiple continents including Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia.
parasitoid biological-control scale-insect chalcid-wasp agricultural-pest-management
Scutellista caerulea
Scutellista caerulea is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Pteromalidae, widely used as a biological control agent against soft scale insects (Coccoidea). The species is an ectoparasitoid, with larvae feeding externally on host eggs concealed beneath the adult scale insect's body. Laboratory studies have established optimal rearing conditions at 30–33°C with 12–14 hours of daylight and supplementary carbohydrate nutrition for adults. The species demonstrates particular effectiveness in tropical environments where other parasitoids may fail.
parasitoid biological-control scale-insect rubber-plantation ectoparasite Hymenoptera tropical-agriculture
Stemmatomerinx
Stemmatomerinx is a genus of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) established by Ferris in 1950. The genus includes Stemmatomerinx adenticulata, which was first discovered in Florida in 2010 and represents one of 13 mealybug species introduced to the state since 1998. As a member of the Pseudococcidae family, species in this genus are soft-bodied scale insects covered with white, powdery wax.
mealybug invasive-species scale-insect Florida Pseudococcidae
Stomacoccus
Stomacoccus is a genus of scale insects in the family Steingeliidae, within the order Hemiptera. These insects belong to the suborder Sternorrhyncha, a group characterized by piercing-sucking mouthparts. The genus is part of the diverse Coccidomorpha infraorder, which encompasses numerous scale insect lineages. Records of this genus in citizen science platforms indicate it has been documented in field observations, though detailed biological studies remain limited.
scale-insect Sternorrhyncha Coccidomorpha Steingeliidae Margarodidae
Stomacoccus platani
Sycamore Scale
Stomacoccus platani is a scale insect in the family Margarodidae, commonly known as the sycamore scale. It is a specialist herbivore found on sycamore trees (Platanus species), particularly the American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis). The species was described by Ferris in 1917 and is native to North America. As a member of the Sternorrhyncha, it feeds on plant phloem sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts.
scale-insect Sternorrhyncha phloem-feeder Platanus sycamore North-America United-States
Toumeyella liriodendri
tuliptree scale
Toumeyella liriodendri, the tuliptree scale, is a soft scale insect (Coccidae) native to North America and specialized on Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree or yellow-poplar). This univoltine species overwinters as second-instar nymphs on twigs, matures to adults in spring, and produces eggs that hatch into crawlers in early summer. First-instar nymphs feed on leaf undersides before migrating back to twigs in autumn. Males are unknown; reproduction is presumed parthenogenetic. Heavy infestations cause branch dieback, reduced growth, and honeydew production that supports sooty mold growth. The species has been the subject of recent genomic research, with a 536Mb genome assembly revealing it as an early-diverging soft scale with 17 chromosomes.
scale-insect soft-scale Coccidae Liriodendron tuliptree yellow-poplar univoltine parthenogenesis honeydew sooty-mold forest-pest ornamental-pest genome chromosome-evolution phloem-feeder ant-tended North-America Maryland Hemiptera Sternorrhyncha
Toumeyella mirabilis
Toumeyella mirabilis is a soft scale insect in the family Coccidae, described by Cockerell in 1895. As a member of the genus Toumeyella, it shares characteristics with other soft scales that feed on plant vascular fluids and produce honeydew. The species occurs in North and Middle America, with records from the United States and Mexico. Like related species in the genus, it likely exhibits typical soft scale biology with sedentary adult females and mobile crawler nymphs.
Coccidae Hemiptera Sternorrhyncha scale-insect soft-scale North-America Mexico Cockerell-1895
Toumeyella parvicornis
pine tortoise scale
Toumeyella parvicornis is a soft scale insect in the family Coccidae, commonly known as the pine tortoise scale. Native to North America, it has become a serious invasive pest in Mediterranean Europe, particularly damaging stone pine (Pinus pinea) forests in Italy and France since its detection in 2015. Mature females are distinctive for their glossy reddish-brown, dome-shaped bodies resembling tiny tortoises, measuring 4–5 mm long. The species has a wide host range among pine species and reproduces parthenogenetically—males have never been recorded. Heavy infestations cause tree weakening, defoliation, and potential death through phloem feeding, with secondary impacts including sooty mold growth on honeydew excretions and altered fire behavior in affected forests.
invasive-species forest-pest scale-insect parthenogenesis phloem-feeder biological-control Mediterranean Pinus-pinea
Toumeyella pini
Striped Pine Scale
Toumeyella pini, commonly known as the Striped Pine Scale, is a soft scale insect native to North America. It is a significant pest of pine trees, particularly two- and three-needle pine species. The species exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism in both morphology and feeding location: females are larger, highly convex, and develop on terminal twigs, while males are smaller, more elongate, and develop on needles. The species secretes copious honeydew, which attracts ants, wasps, bees, and flies, and can lead to sooty mold growth that inhibits photosynthesis. In southern Georgia, it completes three generations per year, with crawler activity peaking in May, mid-July to early August, and late October to early November.
scale-insect soft-scale pine-pest honeydew-producer Sternorrhyncha Coccidae North-America forest-pest ornamental-pest
Unaspis euonymi
Euonymus Scale
Unaspis euonymi is a diaspidid scale insect native to East Asia and now widespread as an invasive pest. It infests Euonymus species and several other ornamental plants, causing significant damage in urban and suburban landscapes. The species exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism in both morphology and feeding behavior. It has been extensively studied as a target for classical biological control using introduced and native natural enemies.
scale-insect pest ornamental biological-control sexual-dimorphism invasive-species Diaspididae Euonymus urban-entomology phloem-feeder
Yingabruxia brisleyi
Yingabruxia brisleyi is a species of felt scale insect in the family Eriococcidae, described from Australia. The species is named in honor of entomologist John Brisley. Like other eriococcids, it is likely associated with host plants and produces waxy secretions. It belongs to a genus established relatively recently, reflecting ongoing taxonomic work on Australian scale insects.
Eriococcidae scale-insect Australian-endemic Eucalyptus-associate