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Biosteres
Biosteres is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, first described by Förster in 1862. Species in this genus are solitary or gregarious endoparasitoids, primarily attacking larvae of tephritid fruit flies. Several species, including B. longicaudatus, B. arisanus, and B. tryoni, have been extensively studied for their use in biological control programs against economically important fruit pests. The genus has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, with species documented across Europe, Asia, North America, and other regions.
parasitoid biological-control tephritidae fruit-fly Hymenoptera Braconidae vibrational-cue endoparasite opiinae
Blastothrix
Blastothrix is a genus of encyrtid wasps in the family Encyrtidae. The genus includes species that function as parasitoids of scale insects, with Blastothrix sericea being a notable example used in classical biological control. This species was successfully introduced from England to British Columbia in 1928-1929 to manage the lecanium scale (Eulecanium coryli), achieving 90-100% parasitism rates and suppressing host populations within four years.
Encyrtidae parasitoid-wasp biological-control scale-insect-parasite Hymenoptera
Blastothrix longipennis
Blastothrix longipennis is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae, first described by Howard in 1881. It belongs to a genus of encyrtid wasps known primarily as parasitoids of scale insects (Coccoidea). The species has been documented in museum collections across multiple continents, including North America, Europe, and Asia.
parasitoid scale-insect-parasitoid biological-control Chalcidoidea museum-specimen
Blattisociidae
Blattisociidae is a family of predatory and fungivorous mites in the order Mesostigmata, historically grouped with Ascidae and Melicharidae due to morphological similarity. The family contains approximately 14 genera and occurs in diverse habitats including soil, stored products, insect nests, flowers, and fungi. Many species engage in phoresis, attaching to insects and other animals for dispersal. Several species have been investigated as potential biological control agents of pest mites and insects.
mites Mesostigmata predatory-mites fungivorous-mites phoresis biological-control stored-products soil-mites Neotropical-origin
Blepharidopterus angulatus
black-kneed capsid
Blepharidopterus angulatus is a predatory mirid bug native to the Palearctic region, with established populations in North America. It serves as a generalist predator of mites, aphids, and other soft-bodied arthropods on deciduous trees and shrubs. The species has been studied extensively for its potential as a biological control agent in orchards and its complex ecological relationships with parasitoids.
predatory-mirid biological-control orchard-pest-management univoltine Palearctic-native North-American-introduced
Blepyrus
Blepyrus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, subfamily Tetracneminae. Species within this genus are known biological control agents that parasitize mealybugs (Pseudococcidae). The genus includes at least five described species: B. clavicornis, B. insularis, B. kirkpatricki, B. saccharicola, and B. schwarzi. These wasps have been studied for their potential in managing agricultural pests, particularly species attacking economically important mealybugs.
parasitoid biological-control mealybug agricultural-pest-management Encyrtidae Tetracneminae
Blissus occiduus
Western Chinch Bug
Blissus occiduus, the western chinch bug, is a phloem-feeding true bug (Hemiptera: Blissidae) that is a significant pest of warm-season turfgrasses, particularly buffalograss and zoysiagrass. The species exhibits strong host preference hierarchies, with buffalograss being the most preferred host followed by zoysiagrass, though it can survive and reproduce on a broad range of grasses including agronomic crops. Field studies have documented inconsistent control with neonicotinoid insecticides, with thiamethoxam showing particularly rapid degradation in buffalograss tissues compared to imidacloprid and clothianidin.
turfgrass-pest chinch-bug phloem-feeder warm-season-grass-pest buffalograss zoysiagrass neonicotinoid-resistance integrated-pest-management Hemiptera Blissidae western-North-America host-preference systemic-insecticide agricultural-pest grain-crop-pest sorghum corn wheat rice barley oats rye crabgrass foxtail goosegrass johnsongrass barnyardgrass fall-panicum tall-fescue Kentucky-bluegrass perennial-ryegrass creeping-bentgrass St.-Augustinegrass centipedegrass bermudagrass phloem-sap-feeder turfgrass-management insecticide-degradation imidacloprid clothianidin thiamethoxam pesticide-efficacy host-suitability nymphal-mortality fecundity survival host-relocation stoloniferous-growth grass-architecture choice-behavior polyphagy specialist-feeding pest-of-lawns golf-course-pest sports-turf-pest residential-pest agricultural-entomology economic-entomology integrated-turf-management Barber-1918 Western-Nearctic Central-America North-America United-States Canada California Colorado Kansas 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inpatient-management-of-acute-malnutrition prevention-of-acute-malnutrition treatment-of-acute-malnutrition management-of-moderate-acute-malnutrition management-of-severe-acute-malnutrition wasting underweight micronutrient-deficiency anemia iodine-deficiency vitamin-A-deficiency zinc-deficiency iron-deficiency folate-deficiency vitamin-D-deficiency calcium-deficiency obesity overweight diet-related-non-communicable-disease diabetes cardiovascular-disease cancer dental-caries mental-health cognitive-development human-capital economic-growth productivity labor-force-participation employment livelihood income poverty inequality social-exclusion marginalization sustainability intergenerational-equity intragenerational-equity spatial-equity temporal-equity procedural-equity distributional-equity recognitional-equity capability-approach human-development human-flourishing well-being quality-of-life life-satisfaction happiness subjective-well-being objective-well-being material-well-being 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airscape-sphere-sphere-sphere biosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere noosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere technosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere sociosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere ecosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere hydrosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere atmosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere lithosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere pedosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere cryosphere-sphere-sphere-sphere anthroposphere-sphere-sphere-sphere
Blondelia
Blondelia is a genus of tachinid flies established by Robineau-Desvoidy in 1830, currently comprising approximately 20 described species. As members of the tribe Blondeliini, these flies are parasitoids, with larvae developing inside other insects. The genus has been recorded across the Holarctic region, with species distributed in Europe and North America.
tachinidae parasitoid biological-control lepidoptera-parasitoid holarctic
Blondeliini
Blondeliini is a tribe of parasitic flies within the family Tachinidae (Diptera). Members are parasitoids of other insects, with documented hosts including beetles and caterpillars. The tribe exhibits greatest diversity in the New World, particularly South America, though it occurs nearly worldwide. Several genera possess a piercing-type ovipositor, a morphological feature with phylogenetic significance within the tribe.
Tachinidae parasitoid biological-control piercing-ovipositor New-World-diversity
Bocchinae
Bocchinae is a subfamily of dryinid wasps within the family Dryinidae. Members are parasitoid wasps that target leafhopper and planthopper nymphs as hosts. The subfamily is characterized by specific morphological traits in the forewing venation and antennal structure. Bocchinae represents one of several lineages within the Dryinidae, a family known for the distinctive chelae (pincer-like forelegs) found in females of many species.
parasitoid biological-control leafhopper-parasite chelate-forelegs
Boethus
Boethus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae. Species in this genus are known to attack sawfly hosts, with Boethus thoracicus documented as a parasitoid of Arge rosae (rose sawfly). The genus belongs to the superfamily Ichneumonoidea, one of the largest groups of parasitoid wasps.
parasitoid biological-control sawfly-parasitoid rose-sawfly Ichneumonidae
Boettcheria bisetosa
Boettcheria bisetosa is a species of flesh fly in the family Sarcophagidae, first described by Parker in 1914. The genus Boettcheria comprises parasitoid flies whose larvae develop within other insects. B. bisetosa has been documented as a parasitoid of sawfly pupae, specifically reared from pupal cocoons of the Elm Sawfly (Cimbex americana). Like other sarcophagids, adults likely do not feed at the larval host but instead consume nectar or other liquid foods.
parasitoid sarcophagid flesh-fly sawfly-parasite biological-control
Boettcheria cimbicis
Boettcheria cimbicis is a species of flesh fly in the family Sarcophagidae. The species has been documented as a parasitoid of the Elm Sawfly (Cimbex americana), specifically reared from its pupal cocoons. It represents a specialized ecological relationship within the Sarcophagidae, a family better known for generalist carrion-feeding habits.
parasitoid sawfly-parasite flesh-fly biological-control
Bombyliidae
bee flies, bomber flies
Bombyliidae is a large family of true flies comprising over 4,500 described species across approximately 270 genera. Adults are commonly known as bee flies due to their frequent resemblance to bees, often achieved through dense body hair and Batesian mimicry. They are important pollinators, particularly in arid environments, with some species possessing proboscises longer than their bodies to access deep floral tubes. Larvae are parasitoids or predators of other insects, with hosts including solitary bees, wasps, beetles, and other arthropods. The family has a cosmopolitan distribution but reaches greatest diversity in tropical and subtropical arid regions.
pollinator parasitoid mimicry biological-control hypermetamorphosis
Boreioglycaspis
Boreioglycaspis is a genus of psyllids in the family Aphalaridae, containing species that specialize on Melaleuca and related Myrtaceae. The genus includes Boreioglycaspis melaleucae, introduced to Florida in 2002 as a classical biological control agent against the invasive tree Melaleuca quinquenervia. Species in this genus are characterized by their narrow host specificity and association with Australian native plants.
psyllid biological-control invasive-species-management Myrtaceae-specialist Australian-native Florida-introduced temperature-sensitive parasitoid-affected
Boreioglycaspis melaleucae
melaleuca psyllid
Boreioglycaspis melaleucae is a psyllid native to Australia, introduced to Florida in 2002 as a classical biological control agent against the invasive tree Melaleuca quinquenervia. It is a phloem-feeding specialist on Melaleuca quinquenervia and has established self-sustaining populations in South Florida. The species produces waxy secretions from specialized integumentary structures and excretes honeydew. Its population dynamics in Florida are influenced by temperature extremes, with development ceasing below 10°C and above 30°C, and it faces parasitism by the adventive encyrtid wasp Psyllaephagus migrator.
biological-control invasive-species-management phloem-feeder temperature-dependent-development Australia-native Florida-introduced
Bothriderini
Bothriderini is a tribe of beetles within the family Bothrideridae. Members of this tribe are small, often flattened beetles with compact bodies. The tribe is part of the broader Bothrideridae family, which consists primarily of ectoparasitoids of wood-boring beetles. Bothriderini species are associated with decaying wood habitats where their hosts occur.
ectoparasitoid saproxylic wood-associated biological-control cryptic
Bothriocera omani
Bothriocera omani is a species of planthopper in the family Cixiidae, first described by Kramer in 1983. The species has been identified as a predator of the Dubas bug (Ommatissus lybicus), a serious pest of date palms in the Middle East and North Africa, based on molecular gut content analysis. It was collected from date palm plantations in Oman as part of a study identifying natural enemies of O. lybicus.
planthopper predator biological-control date-palm Oman Cixiidae
Bothriothorax
Bothriothorax is a genus of parasitic wasps in the family Encyrtidae, first described by Ratzeburg in 1844. The genus belongs to the subfamily Encyrtinae, a diverse group of chalcidoid wasps known primarily as parasitoids of scale insects and other Hemiptera. Species of Bothriothorax have been documented in the United States and India, with multiple species recorded in entomological collections. The genus is represented in major Encyrtidae collections including the University of California, Riverside holdings.
parasitoid scale-insect-parasitoid Encyrtidae biological-control Hymenoptera Chalcidoidea
Brachistinae
Brachistinae is a subfamily of parasitoid wasps within Braconidae. Members are koinobiont endoparasitoids, primarily attacking coleopteran hosts including weevils (Curculionidae). The subfamily has undergone significant taxonomic revision: historically treated as tribes within Helconinae, then split with Blacinae, before Blacinae was synonymized under Brachistinae based on 2011 phylogenetic evidence. The genus Nealiolus has demonstrated potential as a biological control agent against pest weevils. Fossil representatives are known from late Eocene Baltic amber.
parasitoid biological-control weevil-parasitoid agricultural-pest-control koinobiont
Brachistini
Brachistini is a tribe of parasitoid wasps within the subfamily Brachistinae (Braconidae). The tribe comprises five genera: Eubazus, Chelostes, Foersteria, Polydegmon, and Schizoprymnus. At least 70 species have been recorded from Turkey alone, with the Black Sea region showing highest diversity. Members of this tribe are recognized for their potential in biological control of agricultural pests.
parasitoid biological-control agricultural-pest-management Turkey Eastern-Anatolia
Brachycaudus
Short-tailed Aphids
Brachycaudus is a genus of aphids in the family Aphididae, commonly known as short-tailed aphids. The genus contains approximately 43 species distributed worldwide, including significant agricultural pests such as B. helichrysi (peach leaf curl aphid) and B. rumexicolens. Species in this genus exhibit remarkable evolutionary lability in life cycle strategies, with transitions occurring between monoecy on woody hosts, heteroecy (host alternation), and monoecy on herbaceous plants. This flexibility contradicts the traditional assumption that aphids cannot regain primary woody hosts once lost.
aphid pest host-alternation cryptic-species life-cycle-evolution agriculture Prunus sunflower chrysanthemum biological-control
Brachygastra
Honey Wasps, Mexican Honey Wasps
Brachygastra is a genus of 17 species of social paper wasps in the family Vespidae, commonly known as honey wasps. The genus is notable for being one of the few non-bee insects that produce and store honey in substantial quantities. Species are distributed throughout Central and South America, with one species (B. mellifica) extending into the southwestern United States. The genus exhibits pronounced morphological caste differentiation, with queens typically larger than workers. Nests are arboreal, constructed from chewed plant fibers, and can persist for multiple years in tropical climates.
social-wasps paper-wasps honey-production neotropical biological-control pollinators arboreal-nests caste-differentiation
Brachygastra mellifica
Mexican Honey Wasp
Brachygastra mellifica is a neotropical social wasp and one of the few wasp species known to produce and store honey. Adults are small, measuring 7–9 mm in length, with workers and males displaying alternating yellow and black abdominal bands while queens are dark reddish-brown. The species constructs large paper nests in tree canopies that may persist for years in favorable climates. Colonies are exceptionally large, housing 3,500–18,700 individuals with multiple queens. The species has significant economic value as a pollinator of avocados and as a biological control agent for the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri), a major citrus pest.
social-wasp honey-producer pollinator biological-control citrus-pest-predator Mexican-cuisine neotropical
Brachymeria
chalcid wasps
Brachymeria is a large genus of chalcidid wasps containing over 300 species worldwide. These small parasitoids are primarily solitary endoparasitoids of insect pupae, with most species attacking Lepidoptera. They are characterized by enlarged hind femora typical of the family Chalcididae. Some species function as hyperparasitoids, attacking parasitic Hymenoptera and Diptera. Several species have been employed in biological control programs against pest insects.
parasitoid biological-control forensic-entomology Chalcididae pupal-parasitoid hyperparasitoid
Brachymeria flavipes
Brachymeria flavipes is a species of parasitic wasp in the family Chalcididae, first described by Fabricius in 1793. Like other members of the genus Brachymeria, it is a small wasp (3–6 mm) with characteristically enlarged hind femora adapted for jumping. The species is a primary or secondary parasite of Lepidoptera and muscoid fly larvae, with adults emerging from host pupae. Specific biological details for B. flavipes are sparse in the literature, though genus-level traits suggest it likely shares the typical Brachymeria life history of attacking host larvae and completing development in approximately 20–27 days under favorable conditions.
parasitoid Chalcididae biological-control honeydew-feeder jumping-wasp
Brachymeria ovata
Brachymeria ovata is a small parasitic wasp in the family Chalcididae, first described by Thomas Say in 1824. The genus Brachymeria contains 26 known species in North America, all characterized by heavily armored bodies and enlarged hind femora adapted for jumping. These 3-6 mm wasps are primary or secondary parasites of Lepidoptera and muscoid fly larvae, emerging from host pupae. The species has been recorded from Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Canada.
parasitoid Chalcididae biological-control hyperparasitoid small-wasp jumping-wasp
Brachymeria podagrica
Brachymeria podagrica is a cosmopolitan parasitoid wasp in the family Chalcididae, known from Brazil, Saudi Arabia, Colombia, and multiple other regions worldwide. The species is a solitary idiobiont parasitoid of dipteran pupae, particularly flesh flies (Sarcophagidae) and blow flies (Calliphoridae). It has been documented attacking Sarcodexia lambens, Peckia collusor, Hemilucilia flavifacies, Chrysomya albiceps, and Sarcophaga dux, among other hosts. Development from egg to adult emergence takes approximately 20–27 days under favorable conditions, with overwintering generations requiring 155–180 days. Adults are commonly observed near aphid colonies feeding on honeydew, and occasionally visit flowers such as wild carrot. The species has forensic significance due to its predictable emergence from fly pupae on decomposing corpses.
parasitoid forensic-entomology biological-control Chalcididae Diptera-parasitoid cosmopolitan carrion-flies flesh-flies blow-flies honeydew-feeding
Brachymeriinae
Brachymeriinae is a subfamily of chalcidid wasps (Chalcididae) established by Mani in 1938. Members are primarily pupal parasitoids of various insects. Some species are characterized by females having an elongate syntergum, referred to as 'long tailed' species. The subfamily includes economically important species used in biological control of agricultural pests.
pupal-parasitoid biological-control agricultural-pest-management rice-ecosystem
Brachypterolus
short-winged flower beetles
Brachypterolus is a genus of short-winged flower beetles in the family Kateretidae, containing approximately six described species. Members of this genus are associated with toadflax plants (Linaria spp.) and have been introduced to North America as inadvertent biological control agents for invasive toadflax species. The genus is characterized by reduced wing development, consistent with its name meaning "short-winged."
Kateretidae brachyptery seed-predator biological-control Linaria toadflax invasive-species-management aggregation-behavior
Bracon
Bracon is a large genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, with several hundred described species and thousands remaining undescribed. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution, with the greatest diversity of described species occurring in the Palearctic region. Members of this genus are koinobiont endoparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, developing inside living hosts while allowing them to continue feeding and growing until the wasp larvae are mature. The genus has been extensively studied for its potential in biological control of agricultural pests.
parasitoid biological-control koinobiont endoparasitoid Lepidoptera
Bracon mellitor
Bracon mellitor is a braconid parasitoid wasp specialized on weevils in the genus Anthonomus, particularly the boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis), a major cotton pest. It is native to North America, occurring from South Dakota and Texas eastward. The species has been extensively studied for its potential in biological control programs, with research spanning its developmental biology, host relationships, oviposition behavior, and responses to insecticides. Females are ectoparasitoids that attack host larvae and pupae, and the species exhibits associative learning in response to chemical cues.
parasitoid biological-control cotton-pest ectoparasitoid associative-learning thermal-biology Anthonomus integrated-pest-management artificial-diet-rearing
Braconidae
braconid wasps, braconids
Braconidae is a family of parasitoid wasps, the second-largest family in Hymenoptera with approximately 17,000 described species and estimates of 30,000–50,000 total species. Members are primarily internal or external parasitoids of other insects, with larvae developing in or on hosts including caterpillars, beetle larvae, aphids, and other insects. Many species possess polydnaviruses—virus-like particles derived from ancient viral integration—that suppress host immune defenses. The family is divided into about 47 subfamilies, informally grouped into cyclostomes and noncyclostomes based on mouthpart morphology. Braconids are economically significant as biological control agents against agricultural and forestry pests.
parasitoid biological-control Hymenoptera Ichneumonoidea polydnavirus insect-parasitoid agricultural-pest-management host-manipulation coevolution
Brassicogethes
pollen beetles
Brassicogethes is a genus of pollen beetles in the family Nitidulidae, subfamily Meligethinae. Species in this genus are primarily associated with Brassicaceae plants, with several species recognized as significant agricultural pests of oilseed rape (canola). The most economically important species is Brassicogethes aeneus, which causes substantial yield losses in oilseed rape crops across Europe. The genus was established in 2009, with species previously classified under Meligethes.
agricultural-pest oilseed-rape Brassicaceae biological-control parasitoid insecticide-resistance landscape-ecology
Brassicogethes aeneus
common pollen beetle, rape pollen beetle, rape blossom beetle
Brassicogethes aeneus is a small pollen beetle in the family Nitidulidae and a major pest of oilseed rape (canola) and other Brassica crops across Europe, Northern Asia, and North America. Adults are 2–3 mm long, metallic black with greenish reflections, while larvae reach 3 mm and are white with brown sclerotized plates. The species causes significant economic damage through adult feeding and oviposition in flower buds, which can lead to bud abortion and yield losses up to 80% in spring oilseed rape. It was previously classified under the genus Meligethes. Populations show low genetic structure across Europe, indicating substantial gene flow, and are subject to biological control by hymenopteran parasitoids.
pest pollen-beetle oilseed-rape canola Brassica biological-control parasitoid insecticide-resistance agricultural-pest Europe Nitidulidae
Brevicoryne
Brevicoryne is a genus of aphids (family Aphididae) comprising approximately 10 described species, several of which are significant agricultural pests. The most economically important species, Brevicoryne brassicae (cabbage aphid), infests crops in the Brassicaceae family worldwide. Members of this genus are characterized by their association with cruciferous host plants and are known vectors of plant viruses including Turnip mosaic virus and Cauliflower mosaic virus.
aphid agricultural-pest Brassicaceae virus-vector parthenogenesis biological-control integrated-pest-management
Brevicoryne brassicae
cabbage aphid, cabbage aphis, mealy cabbage aphid
Brevicoryne brassicae, commonly known as the cabbage aphid, is a destructive agricultural pest native to Europe that has spread worldwide. The species feeds exclusively on plants in the family Brassicaceae, including cabbage, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and other cultivated brassicas. Large colonies form on the undersides of young leaves and flower heads, causing significant yield losses through direct feeding damage and virus transmission. The aphid possesses a unique chemical defense mechanism, producing myrosinase enzyme and sequestering glucosinolates from host plants to release toxic mustard oil compounds when attacked.
agricultural-pest aphid Brassicaceae-specialist chemical-defense myrosinase glucosinolates virus-vector biological-control parthenogenesis cosmopolitan-distribution
Bruchidius villosus
broom seed beetle, Scotch broom bruchid
Bruchidius villosus is a small seed-feeding beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, native to Europe and introduced to North America and New Zealand as a biological control agent for Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius). It has been deliberately released in the United States since the 1990s to reduce seed production in this invasive weed. In New Zealand, it has exhibited problematic host range expansion to non-target leguminous plants. The species is approximately 2 mm in length with dark gray coloration.
biological-control invasive-species-management seed-predator Chrysomelidae Bruchinae Cytisus-scoparius host-range-expansion non-target-effects
Bruchophagus
seed chalcid, gall wasp
Bruchophagus is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Eurytomidae. Species within this genus are primarily seed-feeders, developing in the seeds of plants in the Fabaceae family, though some species form galls on citrus or other hosts. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution and includes economically significant pests such as the alfalfa seed chalcid (B. roddi) and citrus gall wasp (B. fellis). Recent phylogenomic studies indicate the genus is paraphyletic.
seed-predator gall-wasp agricultural-pest biological-control parasitoid Fabaceae citrus-pest olfactory-cues chemically-mediated-behavior
Bruchus affinis
seed beetle
Bruchus affinis is a univoltine seed beetle native to the western Palaearctic Region, first recorded in North America in Canada (British Columbia, Ontario, Québec) before 2007. It was likely introduced via imported Lathyrus seeds for planting. The species develops inside seeds of Lathyrus species, with adults feeding on pollen and nectar. Development from egg to adult requires approximately 60 days. The parasitoid Dinarmus basalis has been recorded causing about 10% mortality in Canadian populations.
seed-beetle bruchine invasive Palaearctic Lathyrus Fabaceae univoltine parasitoid Dinarmus-basalis Canada biological-control
Brumus quadripustulatus
Cream-spot ladybird, Cream-spot lady beetle
Brumus quadripustulatus is a small ladybird beetle native to Europe and northern Asia, now established in North America. It is recognized by its distinctive cream-colored spots on a dark, nearly black background. The species inhabits various wooded and shrubby environments and has been observed preying on aphids and scale insects.
ladybird ladybug predator biological-control woodland aphid-predator introduced-species North-America Europe Coccinellidae
Bryocorinae
Bryocorinae is a subfamily of plant bugs (Miridae) characterized by extraordinary morphological heterogeneity despite relatively modest species diversity compared to other mirid subfamilies. Five tribes are currently recognized: Bryocorini, Dicyphini, Eccritotarsini, Felisacini, and Monaloniini. The subfamily exhibits diverse feeding strategies, with members ranging from predominantly phytophagous to predacious. Several species, particularly in the genus Macrolophus, are economically important as biological control agents. The subfamily has a global distribution with particular diversity in the Neotropics.
plant-bugs Miridae phytophagous predacious biological-control cacao-pests Araceae-associates gregarious-behavior
Bucculatricidae
Ribbed Cocoon-Making Moths
Bucculatricidae is a small family of moths in the superfamily Gracillarioidea, with representatives distributed worldwide. Adults are minute with narrow wings held tightly around the body at rest, making them easily overlooked. Larvae exhibit hypermetamorphosis with distinct changes in feeding habits between instars: early instars are typically leaf miners forming characteristic blotches or linear mines, while later instars usually feed externally on leaves or bore into stems. The family is notable for pupal cases with distinctive longitudinal ridges, giving rise to the common name 'ribbed cocoon makers.' Some authors recognize only the single genus Bucculatrix, though Australian genera Cryphioxena and Ogmograptis (scribbly gum moths) are now frequently included.
leaf-miner hypermetamorphosis ribbed-cocoon scribbly-gum-moth biological-control Eucalyptus Gracillarioidea
Burksiella
Burksiella is a genus of minute egg parasitoids in the family Trichogrammatidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea), established by De Santis in 1957. The genus belongs to the tribe Chaetostrichini within the subfamily Oligositinae. Species of Burksiella are known to parasitize eggs of leafhoppers, particularly sharpshooters in the tribe Proconiini (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae). The genus has been recorded from North and South America, including the western United States, Florida, and Bolivia.
egg-parasitoid leafhopper-parasite sharpshooter-parasite biological-control Trichogrammatidae Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera North-America South-America Cicadellidae-host
Cactoblastis
Cactoblastis is a genus of snout moths (Pyralidae) described by Émile Louis Ragonot in 1901. The genus contains five described species native to South America, with C. cactorum being the most extensively studied due to its historical role as a biological control agent. Larvae are specialized internal feeders on cactus cladodes, and the genus is notable for complex collective behaviors in neonate caterpillars. C. cactorum was famously introduced to Australia in 1925 to control invasive prickly pear cacti, achieving significant success, though later spreading to threaten native Opuntia species in other regions.
Lepidoptera Pyralidae biological-control Opuntia cactus-moth herbivory social-behavior invasive-species classical-biological-control South-America Australia Florida neonate-aggregation egg-stick internal-feeder meristem-feeder mandibular-gland-marking trail-following contagious-distribution population-regulation host-specificity ecosystem-impact historical-ecology pest conservation-concern
Caenocholax
Caenocholax is a genus of twisted-winged insects (Strepsiptera) in the family Myrmecolacidae, comprising approximately nine described species. Members are endoparasitoids of ants, with documented associations including Solenopsis invicta and Camponotus planatus. The genus exhibits the extreme sexual dimorphism characteristic of Strepsiptera: males are free-living with reduced forewings and large fan-shaped hindwings, while females remain endoparasitic and neotenic within the host.
Strepsiptera parasitoid Myrmecolacidae ant-parasite biological-control endoparasite neoteny sexual-dimorphism
Caenocholax fenyesi
Caenocholax fenyesi is a strepsipteran parasitoid in the family Myrmecolacidae, notable for extreme sexual dimorphism and heterotrophic heteronomy—males and females occupy different hosts throughout their life cycles. Females are endoparasites of Orthoptera, while males parasitize ant larvae and pupae, primarily Solenopsis invicta (red imported fire ant) in the United States and related native fire ants in Mexico, Central America, and parts of South America. The species has a sporadic distribution across the southern United States, Central America, and South America, with three recognized cryptic subspecies that are morphologically similar but genetically distinct. Adult males are free-living with a lifespan of only hours to a few days, severely constraining dispersal and contributing to genetic bottlenecking effects.
parasitoid sexual-dimorphism heteronomy biological-control fire-ant Strepsiptera endoparasite koinobiont cryptic-species
Caliroa cerasi
pear slug, cherry slug, cherry slimy sawfly
Caliroa cerasi, commonly known as the pear slug or cherry slug, is a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) whose larvae are significant pests of stone and pome fruit trees. The species exhibits a complex life cycle with bivoltine and univoltine generations, and populations can shift between deuterotokous (producing both sexes) and thelytokous (female-only) parthenogenesis during outbreak cycles. Native to Europe, it has spread to multiple continents including North America, Asia, and Australasia. While capable of causing serious defoliation, it is generally considered a secondary pest in intensive orchards due to susceptibility to insecticides.
pest sawfly parthenogenesis diapause fruit-tree-pest biological-control Rosaceae-feeder
Calleida
Calleida is a large genus of ground beetles in the family Carabidae, tribe Lebiini, comprising more than 300 species. The genus is distributed across multiple continents with significant diversity in the Oriental Region. Oriental species have been organized into nine species groups based on external morphology and genitalia characters. At least one North American species, C. viridipennis, has been documented as a predator of lepidopteran pests.
Carabidae Lebiini ground-beetle predator biological-control Oriental-Region spring-breeder
Calleida viridipennis
Calleida viridipennis is a ground beetle in the family Carabidae, characterized by a metallic green-black exoskeleton, large eyes, and functional wings enabling flight. It is a spring breeder that overwinters as an adult under tree bark, emerging in late February or early March. The species is a documented predator of specific insect larvae, including the tortoise beetle Hemisphaerota cyanea and the fruittree leafroller Archips argyrospila.
ground-beetle predator spring-breeder diurnal forest-wetland biological-control overwintering bioindicator