Invasive-species-management

Guides

Pseudacteon curvatus
fire ant decapitating fly, little decapitating fly
Pseudacteon curvatus is a small phorid fly parasitoid known as the 'little decapitating fly' due to its life cycle in which mature larvae cause decapitation of host fire ants upon emergence. Native to South America, it has been introduced to the United States as a classical biological control agent against invasive imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta and S. richteri). The species exhibits host specificity toward Solenopsis fire ants and has been the subject of extensive research on laboratory rearing methods, host preference behavior, and field establishment following releases.
parasitoid biological-control invasive-species-management fire-ant decapitating-fly classical-biocontrol Phoridae Diptera
Pseudacteon tricuspis
fire ant decapitating fly, phorid fly
Pseudacteon tricuspis is a parasitoid phorid fly that specifically targets the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta). Adult females deposit eggs directly into worker ants, and the developing larvae eventually decapitate the host. The species was introduced to the United States in the late 1990s as a biological control agent against this invasive ant. Native to South America, it has now established populations across the southeastern United States.
parasitoid biological-control invasive-species-management fire-ant Solenopsis-invicta sexual-dimorphism environmental-sex-determination decapitating-fly
Pseudolampsis guttata
Waterfern Flea Beetle
A flea beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, evaluated as a potential biological control agent for the invasive aquatic fern Azolla filiculoides (red water fern) in South Africa. Laboratory host range testing has been conducted to assess its feeding specificity and suitability for introduction as a natural enemy.
flea-beetle Chrysomelidae biological-control aquatic-fern Azolla invasive-species-management South-Africa
Psyllaephagus
Psyllaephagus is a large genus of chalcid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, containing approximately 245–246 described species as of 2019, with greatest diversity in Australia (~100 described species, possibly ~1,000 total). The genus was established by William Harris Ashmead in 1900. Most species are primary parasitoids of psylloids (Hemiptera: Psylloidea), with some secondary parasitoids. Three Australian species—P. pilosus, P. bliteus, and P. yaseeni—have been successfully deployed as biological control agents against invasive psylloids in California, Europe, Hawaii, and southeast Asia.
parasitoid biological-control psyllid Encyrtidae Chalcidoidea metallic-wasp diapause invasive-species-management pistachio-pest-control eucalyptus-pest-control
Psylliodes chalcomera
flea beetle
Psylliodes chalcomera is a flea beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, native to Europe and investigated as a biological control agent for invasive musk thistle (Carduus nutans). Field trials in Italy demonstrated high host specificity, with no feeding or oviposition on Cirsium species or economic crops under free-choice conditions. The species has been evaluated for introduction to North America to manage musk thistle infestations.
biological-control weed-biocontrol musk-thistle flea-beetle Chrysomelidae host-specificity invasive-species-management
Pulvinariella
Pulvinariella is a genus of soft scale insects (Coccidae) established by Borchsenius in 1953. The genus includes species that are specialist phloem-feeders on succulent plants, particularly ice-plants in the genera Carpobrotus and Mesembryanthemum. Pulvinariella mesembryanthemi has been extensively studied as a potential biocontrol agent for invasive Carpobrotus species in coastal ecosystems. These scales exhibit density-dependent population dynamics and are influenced by host plant nitrogen and water conditions.
scale-insect biocontrol Coccidae ice-plant invasive-species-management phloem-feeder ant-mutualism coastal-ecology
Rhinacloa callicrates
Rhinacloa callicrates is a plant bug (Miridae) native to the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. It was introduced to Australia as a biological control agent for the invasive woody weed Parkinsonia aculeata. The species has been observed to feed and oviposit almost exclusively on P. aculeata, and established populations are present in Queensland, Australia.
biological-control invasive-species-management Miridae Hemiptera
Rhinoncomimus
Rhinoncomimus is a genus of minute seed weevils in the family Curculionidae, established by Wagner in 1940. The genus comprises approximately eight described species distributed in Eastern Asia, with China representing a center of diversity. One species, R. latipes (the mile-a-minute weevil), has been extensively studied and deployed as a biological control agent for the invasive vine Persicaria perfoliata in North America. The genus is characterized by host associations with Polygonaceae, particularly Persicaria and Polygonum species.
Curculionidae Ceutorhynchinae biological-control invasive-species-management Polygonaceae Persicaria minute-seed-weevil Asia North-America phototaxis host-specificity
Rhinoncomimus latipes
mile-a-minute weevil
Rhinoncomimus latipes is a specialist weevil in the family Curculionidae, native to Asia and introduced to North America in 2004 as a biological control agent for the invasive vine Persicaria perfoliata (mile-a-minute weed). The species exhibits strict host specificity, having been found to successfully reproduce only on this plant. Adults overwinter in leaf litter and emerge in spring to feed and mate. The weevil has proven effective at reducing mile-a-minute populations where established, though its dispersal rate is relatively slow at approximately 4.3 km per year.
biological-control invasive-species-management monophagous Curculionidae Persicaria-perfoliata
Rhinusa antirrhini
toadflax seedhead weevil, toadflax capsule weevil, seed-gall weevil, Toadflax Seed Weevil
Rhinusa antirrhini is a seed-parasitic true weevil (Curculionidae) native to Europe that has been introduced to North America. It specializes on toadflax species (Linaria spp.), particularly Dalmatian toadflax (L. dalmatica) and yellow toadflax (L. vulgaris). Despite intentional redistribution as a biological control agent in the 1990s, it has not proven effective at suppressing invasive toadflax populations. Population genetic studies reveal host-associated genetic differentiation driven by associations with different Linaria species.
seed-parasite biological-control invasive-species-management host-associated-differentiation Linaria Curculionidae
Rhinusa neta
Rhinusa neta is a seed-feeding weevil in the family Curculionidae, native to Europe and introduced to North America as a biological control agent for invasive toadflax species. Adults are active from May to August. Larvae develop inside seed capsules of host plants, feeding on immature seeds. The complete development cycle from egg to adult averages approximately 60 days under standard laboratory conditions.
seed-predator biological-control weevil invasive-species-management Linaria toadflax Curculionidae Mecinini parasitoid-host Chalcidoidea
Rhinusa tetra
Mullein Weevil, European Curculionid Weevil
Rhinusa tetra is a true weevil in the family Curculionidae, tribe Mecinini, commonly known as the mullein weevil. It is a European species that has been proposed as a potential biological control agent for invasive Common Mullein (Verbascum thapsus) in North America. The species was first described by Fabricius in 1792 and belongs to the taxonomically revised R. tetra species complex, which includes three closely related species: R. comosa, R. moroderi, and R. verbasci.
weevil Curculionidae biological-control Verbascum invasive-species-management taxonomy
Samea
Samea is a genus of moths in the family Crambidae, subfamily Spilomelinae, established by Achille Guenée in 1854. The genus comprises approximately 25 described species distributed across tropical and subtropical regions. Samea multiplicalis, commonly known as the Salvinia moth, has been extensively studied for its potential use as a biological control agent against the invasive aquatic fern Salvinia. Most species in this genus appear to be associated with aquatic or semi-aquatic habitats.
Crambidae Spilomelinae aquatic-moths biological-control Salvinia-moth invasive-species-management Guenée-1854 tropical-moths subtropical-moths floating-fern-associates
Samea multiplicalis
salvinia stem-borer moth
Samea multiplicalis is an aquatic moth native to the Americas, ranging from the southern United States to Argentina, and introduced to Australia in 1981 as a biological control agent for invasive water ferns. Adults are small, tan moths with darker wing markings and a wingspan of approximately 20 mm. The species completes its entire life cycle on or near aquatic host plants, with larvae feeding internally on stems and externally on leaves, often causing plant death. High rates of parasitism by native wasps and flies limit its effectiveness as a weed control agent in introduced ranges.
aquatic-moth biological-control herbivore invasive-species-management parasitism compensatory-feeding nocturnal-oviposition silk-canopy-construction nitrogen-limited-herbivore Crambidae Pyraloidea floating-aquatic-vegetation integrated-weed-management Queensland New-South-Wales Louisiana Brazil Argentina
Sasajiscymnus tsugae
hemlock woolly adelgid lady beetle
Sasajiscymnus tsugae is a small black lady beetle native to Japan that was introduced to eastern North America as a biological control agent against the invasive hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). First described in 1997 and released in the United States beginning in 1995, this predator has established populations in forest and urban environments. The species exhibits high host specificity, feeding primarily on three adelgid species. Field studies demonstrated 47–88% reduction in adelgid densities within five months of beetle introduction.
biological-control forest-entomology invasive-species-management Coccinellidae adelgid-predator Tsuga-conservation
Scymnus coniferarum
conifer lady beetle
Scymnus coniferarum is a small predatory lady beetle native to western North America. It has been studied as a potential biological control agent for the hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae), an invasive pest of eastern hemlock in eastern North America. Field studies in Washington State indicate it feeds on multiple adelgid species across different conifer hosts, with higher abundance observed on pine adelgids than on hemlock woolly adelgid.
Coccinellidae biological-control adelgid-predator conifer-forest western-North-America forest-entomology invasive-species-management
Spathius
Spathius is a genus of doryctine wasps in the family Braconidae. Species within this genus are larval parasitoids of wood-boring beetles, with several species introduced to North America as biological control agents for the invasive emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis). The genus includes both native and introduced species that exhibit host-specific relationships with their beetle hosts.
parasitoid biological-control emerald-ash-borer forest-pest Braconidae Doryctinae wood-borer ectoparasitoid invasive-species-management classical-biological-control
Sphecophaga vesparum
Sphecophaga vesparum is an ichneumonid ectoparasitoid of vespid wasps, primarily targeting Vespula vulgaris and Vespula germanica. The species exhibits remarkable developmental plasticity with two adult female morphs: large winged females and small brachypterous females, each emerging from distinct cocoon types. It has been introduced to New Zealand and Australia as a biological control agent for invasive social wasps. The species is facultatively deuterotokous, producing mostly parthenogenetic females with occasional males.
ectoparasitoid biological-control parthenogenesis polyphenism chemical-mimicry invasive-species-management
Sphenoptera jugoslavica
bronze knapweed root borer
Sphenoptera jugoslavica is a metallic wood-boring beetle in the family Buprestidae. It is monophagous on Centaurea diffusa (diffuse knapweed), forming spindle-shaped root galls in rosettes. The species is univoltine and was introduced to North America as a biological control agent for this invasive weed. Its effectiveness is limited by phenological requirements for arrested plant growth during oviposition.
biological-control invasive-species-management gall-former root-borer steppe-habitat monophagous univoltine Centaurea-diffusa diffuse-knapweed Buprestidae Chilostetha
Stenopelmus
marsh weevils
Stenopelmus is a genus of marsh weevils comprising at least two described species. The genus is best known for Stenopelmus rufinasus, a North American weevil introduced to Europe in the late 19th century alongside its host plant Azolla filiculoides. Members of this genus are specialized herbivores associated with aquatic ferns and have been employed as biological control agents for invasive water fern management.
Coleoptera Brachyceridae marsh-weevil biological-control aquatic-insect invasive-species-management Azolla water-fern-weevil
Teleonemia scrupulosa
lantana lace bug
Teleonemia scrupulosa is a sap-sucking lace bug (Hemiptera: Tingidae) widely distributed across tropical and subtropical regions. It is a specialist herbivore of Lantana camara (Verbenaceae) and has been deployed as a biological control agent against this invasive shrub in multiple countries since 1961. The species exhibits strong microhabitat preferences, thriving in high-light environments but failing to establish in shaded conditions. Its feeding causes characteristic chlorotic damage and can severely impair host plant photosynthesis.
biocontrol invasive-species-management Tingidae sap-feeder host-specific light-dependent Lantana-camara South-Africa Western-Ghats India
Teretrius
clown beetles
Teretrius is a genus of clown beetles (family Histeridae) comprising at least 70 described species. The genus has gained significant attention due to the use of Teretrius nigrescens as a classical biological control agent against the invasive larger grain borer Prostephanus truncatus in Africa. Members of this genus are small predatory beetles associated with stored products and woodland habitats. The genus was established by Erichson in 1834 and is classified within the subfamily Abraeinae.
biological-control stored-product-pest predator Histeridae maize-pest Africa invasive-species-management
Tetramesa
Tetramesa is a genus of minute phytophagous wasps in the family Eurytomidae comprising over 200 described species. Members are exclusively associated with grasses (Poaceae), where they typically induce stem or inflorescence galls. The genus exhibits pronounced host specificity, with most species restricted to a single grass species or closely related congeners. Several species have been deployed as biological control agents against invasive grasses, including T. romana for giant reed (Arundo donax) and candidate agents for medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) and African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). Adults feed on nectar. Recent phylogenomic studies have synonymized the genera Aiolomorphus and Cathilaria within Tetramesa.
biological-control gall-wasp grassland invasive-species-management host-specificity cryptic-species phylogenomics Eurytomidae Chalcidoidea Hymenoptera phytophagy Poaceae stem-gall inflorescence-gall integrated-pest-management riparian-restoration molecular-systematics species-delimitation GMYC COI 28S biocontrol-agent Arundo-donax giant-reed medusahead African-lovegrass Eragrostis Sporobolus barley-jointworm integrated-taxonomy Southern-Hemisphere-diversity grassland-expansion Miocene-diversification monophagy host-range-testing non-target-effects tick-habitat cattle-fever-tick Rio-Grande Big-Bend-National-Park greenhouse-rearing oviposition-behavior water-deficit-stress generation-time parasitoid Eurytoma-amicophaga Eurytominae Walker-1848 Terebrantes Apocrita microhymenoptera minute-wasp reduced-wing-venation antennal-segmentation mesosoma-sculpture ovipositor molecular-operational-taxonomic-units MOTU species-boundaries cryptic-diversity sampling-effects SPEDE-sampler host-genetic-proxies field-host-range no-choice-testing native-Australian-species non-target-risk host-phylogeny target-weed suppression topping mechanical-control integrated-weed-management native-vegetation-recovery light-penetration canopy-structure dispersal establishment post-release-evaluation adventive-population Austin-Texas Idaho England Wales Orissa Canary-Islands Canary-Is.Mediterranean South-Africa southern-Africa Northern-Hemisphere Australia North-America Texas California Greece central-Asia Iran Ukraine Moldova Russia Israel Tajikistan Japan Eragrostis-curvula Sporobolus-pyramidalis Sporobolus-natalensis Sporobolus-africanus Hyparrhenia-hirta Andropogon-gayanus Eragrostis-plana Eragrostis-planiculmis Eragrostis-biflora Eragrostis-capensis Eragrostis-trichophora Deschampsia-caespitosa Deschampsia-setacea Taeniatherum-caput-medusae Hordeum barley Phragmites common-reed Dactylis-glomerata orchardgrass Poales grass graminoid cereal-crop pasture rangeland invasive-weed noxious-weed habitat-structure ecosystem-functioning naturalised-species alien-grass donor-country receiver-country biocontrol-practitioner host-plant-resistance internode-infestation oviposition-preference behavioral-categories antennae-attitude laboratory-artifact polyphagy specialist generalist climate-fluctuation molecular-clock dated-analysis phylogenetic-clade intrapopulation-variation geographic-sub-structuring singleton-effect overestimation consensus-delimitation operational-taxonomic-unit integrative-taxonomy evidence-line caveat putative-species novel-taxon undescribed-species biodiversity-assessment faunal-survey field-collection genetic-sequence mitochondrial-DNA nuclear-DNA cytochrome-c-oxidase-I ribosomal-DNA internal-transcribed-spacer chloroplast-DNA rps16 rpl32 trnK trnL ITS plant-insect-interaction herbivore phytophage primary-consumer trophic-level food-web community-ecology restoration-ecology conservation-biological-control classical-biological-control augmentative-biological-control inundative-release establishment-rate population-increase downstream-dispersal river-mile biomass-reduction plant-community tick-feeding-ant tick-feeding-beetle habitat-modification law-enforcement international-border flood-control irrigation-channel stream-clogging river-bank-weakening native-vegetation-stifling wildlife-habitat-reduction cattle-inspection deer-inspection Rhipicephalus Boophilus tick-population vegetation-transition shading-effect long-term-suppression high-suppression cane-thinning mechanical-cutting growth-suppression susceptibility-to-attack combination-treatment synergistic-effect research-demonstration USDA Agricultural-Research-Service entomologist field-measurement post-release-monitoring impact-assessment agent-efficacy non-target-damage crop-safety agricultural-importance host-specific-herbivore sustainable-method cost-effective-method weed-control invasive-plant-management habitat-restoration ecosystem-service provisioning-service regulating-service supporting-service cultural-service biodiversity-conservation threatened-species endangered-species habitat-loss climate-change land-use-change anthropogenic-disturbance urbanization agricultural-intensification grazing-pressure fire-regime nitrogen-deposition carbon-sequestration soil-stabilization water-quality air-quality pollinator nectar-feeding adult-diet larval-diet tissue-feeding gall-induction plant-manipulation phytohormone cytokinin auxin cell-proliferation tissue-differentiation nutrient-sink sink-strength source-sink-dynamics plant-physiology reproductive-output seed-production seed-weight flowering-head inflorescence stem-elongation tiller-production biomass-allocation growth-rate relative-growth-rate net-primary-productivity ecosystem-productivity carbon-cycling nitrogen-cycling phosphorus-cycling decomposition litter-quality herbivory-impact top-down-control bottom-up-control trophic-cascade indirect-effect direct-effect density-dependence density-independence population-regulation population-dynamics life-table survivorship fecundity reproductive-rate intrinsic-rate-of-increase doubling-time carrying-capacity population-growth exponential-growth logistic-growth Allee-effect stochasticity environmental-variation demographic-variation genetic-variation phenotypic-plasticity local-adaptation evolutionary-response coevolution arms-race escape-and-radiate diversification-rate speciation extinction phylogenetic-diversity functional-diversity taxonomic-diversity alpha-diversity beta-diversity gamma-diversity species-richness species-evenness species-abundance-distribution rank-abundance-curve diversity-index Shannon-index Simpson-index evenness-index dominance-index similarity-index dissimilarity-index cluster-analysis ordination principal-component-analysis principal-coordinate-analysis non-metric-multidimensional-scaling canonical-correspondence-analysis redundancy-analysis variation-partitioning structural-equation-modeling path-analysis meta-analysis systematic-review evidence-synthesis research-priority knowledge-gap data-deficiency IUCN-Red-List conservation-status protected-area management-plan monitoring-protocol adaptive-management stakeholder-engagement policy-recommendation legislation regulation incentive market-based-instrument payment-for-ecosystem-services carbon-credit biodiversity-offset habitat-banking conservation-easement land-trust stewardship sustainable-agriculture organic-farming agroecology precision-agriculture conservation-tillage cover-cropping crop-rotation intercropping agroforestry silvopasture riparian-buffer filter-strip grassed-waterway wetland-restoration prairie-restoration savanna-restoration forest-restoration degraded-land abandoned-land marginal-land set-aside wildlife-corridor habitat-connectivity landscape-matrix patch-dynamics edge-effect interior-habitat core-area buffer-zone permeability resistance least-cost-path circuit-theory isolation-by-distance isolation-by-resistance gene-flow genetic-drift inbreeding outbreeding hybridization introgression admixture population-structure genetic-differentiation FST GST D allele-frequency haplotype genotype phenotype quantitative-trait morphological-trait behavioral-trait life-history-trait reproductive-trait survival-trait developmental-trait physiological-trait metabolic-trait stress-response immune-response defense-trait resistance-trait tolerance-trait avoidance-trait antipredator-defense chemical-defense mechanical-defense crypsis mimicry aposematism startle-display thanatosis autotomy regeneration compensatory-growth induced-defense constitutive-defense direct-defense indirect-defense volatile-organic-compound extrafloral-nectar domatia mutualism ant-plant-mutualism pollination-mutualism seed-dispersal-mutualism protection-mutualism nutrition-mutualism transport-mutualism cleaning-mutualism agricultural-mutualism domestication crop-wild-relative landrace cultivar variety breeding selection genetic-improvement yield quality stress-tolerance nutrient-use-efficiency water-use-efficiency photosynthetic-efficiency harvest-index grain-filling source-limitation sink-limitation assimilate-transport phloem-loading phloem-unloading remobilization senescence stay-green antioxidant reactive-oxygen-species oxidative-stress heat-stress cold-stress drought-stress salinity-stress metal-stress nutrient-deficiency nutrient-toxicity soil-pH soil-texture soil-structure soil-organic-matter soil-microbial-community rhizosphere mycorrhiza nitrogen-fixation phosphorus-solubilization potassium-mobilization micronutrient-uptake allelopathy competition facilitation niche-differentiation resource-partitioning temporal-partitioning spatial-partitioning morphological-partitioning physiological-partitioning phenological-partitioning competitive-exclusion competitive-displacement priority-effect founder-effect mass-effect species-sorting neutral-theory ecological-drift dispersal-limitation environmental-filtering biotic-filtering abiotic-filtering trait-based-approach functional-trait response-trait effect-trait community-assembly community-disassembly community-reassembly succession primary-succession secondary-succession pioneer-species climax-species keystone-species ecosystem-engineer foundation-species dominant-species subordinate-species transient-species resident-species migrant-species nomadic-species irruptive-species invasive-species naturalized-species casual-species established-species spreading-species widespread-species restricted-species endemic-species cosmopolitan-species disjunct-distribution relict-distribution refugium glacial-refugium interglacial-refugium postglacial-colonization range-shift range-expansion range-contraction range-fragmentation source-population sink-population metapopulation population-viability minimum-viable-population effective-population-size genetic-rescue demographic-rescue assisted-migration managed-relocation ex-situ-conservation in-situ-conservation cryopreservation seed-bank gene-bank botanic-garden arboretum zoo aquarium microbial-culture-collection DNA-bank tissue-bank sperm-bank oocyte-bank embryo-bank reintroduction translocation reinforcement supplementation headstarting captive-breeding propagation nucleus-population release-program soft-release hard-release acclimatization habitat-preparation predator-control competitor-control disease-control parasite-control health-screening quarantine veterinary-care nutrition-management environmental-enrichment behavioral-training imprinting fostering cross-fostering hand-rearing parent-rearing semi-natural-enclosure pre-release-conditioning survival-rate reproduction-rate dispersal-rate site-fidelity homeward-orientation migration navigation orientation magnetic-sense olfactory-sense visual-sense auditory-sense mechanosensory-sense thermosensory-sense hygrosensory-sense electrosensory-sense polarized-light celestial-cues landmark-cues odor-plume wind-direction sun-compass star-compass moon-compass magnetic-compass inertial-navigation path-integration cognitive-map spatial-memory temporal-memory episodic-memory procedural-memory associative-learning operant-conditioning classical-conditioning habituation sensitization song-learning tool-use problem-solving innovation social-learning cultural-transmission teaching cooperation altruism kin-selection reciprocal-altruism group-selection multilevel-selection selfish-gene inclusive-fitness reproductive-skew dominance-hierarchy territoriality home-range activity-center den-site nest-site roost-site singing-post display-site lek arena scrape burrow cavity crevice hole tunnel gallery chamber cell comb paper-nest mud-nest silk-nest spun-cocoon pupal-case ootheca egg-mass clutch brood litter covey pack herd flock colony society superorganism eusociality cooperative-breeding communal-breeding polygyny polyandry promiscuity monogamy serial-monogamy genetic-monogamy social-monogamy extra-pair-copulation sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice sexual-selection intersexual-selection intrasexual-selection mate-choice mate-guarding mate-switching divorce widowhood mate-replacement breeding-season breeding-cycle breeding-attempt breeding-success fledging-success recruitment juvenile-survival adult-survival longevity life-expectancy maximum-lifespan aging telomere oxidative-damage mitochondrial-dysfunction cellular-senescence apoptosis necrosis autophagy proteostasis DNA-repair epigenetic-modification transgenerational-effect maternal-effect paternal-effect parental-care maternal-care paternal-care biparental-care alloparental-care brood-care egg-care larval-care pupal-care food-provisioning nest-defense territory-defense predator-defense disease-defense parasite-defense hygiene-behavior grooming nest-cleaning cannibalism siblicide infanticide filial-cannibalism sexual-cannibalism cannibalistic-oophagy trophic-egg regurgitation trophallaxis food-sharing information-sharing alarm-call mobbing distraction-display broken-wing-display tailing persecution attack escape flight fight freeze faint death-feigning tonic-immobility startle-response withdrawal avoidance dishabituation latent-inhibition blocking overshadowing relative-validity conditioned-inhibition spontaneous-recovery renewal reinstatement rapid-reacquisition latent-learning insight-learning observational-learning vicarious-learning emulation imitation social-facilitation social-inhibition audience-effect bystander-effect conformity obedience compliance commitment consistency foot-in-the-door door-in-the-face low-ball that's-not-all sunk-cost endowment-effect loss-aversion risk-aversion risk-seeking probability-weighting hyperbolic-discounting temporal-discounting intertemporal-choice optimal-foraging marginal-value-theorem prey-choice patch-choice diet-breadth central-place-foraging load-size travel-time handling-time search-time encounter-rate prey-density prey-profitability prey-handling prey-detection prey-pursuit prey-capture prey-consumption prey-rejection ingestion-rate digestion-rate assimilation-efficiency production-efficiency ecological-efficiency trophic-transfer-efficiency Lindeman-efficiency ten-percent-rule pyramid-of-numbers pyramid-of-biomass pyramid-of-energy food-chain trophic-network energy-flow material-cycling biogeochemical-cycle carbon-cycle nitrogen-cycle phosphorus-cycle sulfur-cycle water-cycle hydrological-cycle atmospheric-circulation ocean-circulation thermohaline-circulation El-Niño La-Niña ENSO NAO AO PDO AMO climate-oscillation climate-anomaly weather-extreme drought flood heat-wave cold-snap storm hurricane typhoon cyclone tornado thunderstorm lightning wildfire volcanic-eruption earthquake tsunami landslide avalanche meteor-impact mass-extinction background-extinction speciation-rate extinction-rate net-diversification turnover standing-diversity fossil-record taphonomy preservation-bias sampling-bias collection-bias publication-bias citation-bias language-bias geographic-bias temporal-bias taxonomic-bias size-bias abundance-bias habitat-bias facies-bias Lagerstätte Konservat-Lagerstätte Konzentrat-Lagerstätte trace-fossil body-fossil chemical-fossil molecular-fossil biomarker isotope-signature paleoclimate-proxy paleoecology paleobiogeography paleoecosystem paleocommunity paleoenvironment paleogeography paleolatitude paleolongitude continental-drift plate-tectonics seafloor-spreading subduction orogeny mountain-building basin-formation sedimentation erosion weathering soil-formation pedogenesis horizon-development profile-development chronosequence toposequence biosequence climosequence landform geomorphology topography relief elevation slope aspect curvature roughness drainage watershed catchment basin subbasin reach segment zone riffle pool run glide cascade waterfall wetland marsh swamp bog fen mire peatland tundra taiga boreal-forest temperate-forest temperate-rainforest temperate-grassland tropical-forest tropical-rainforest tropical-dry-forest tropical-savanna tropical-grassland desert hot-desert cold-desert semiarid steppe prairie pampas veld savanna woodland shrubland chaparral maquis garigue fynbos kwongan mallee mulga mogote karst cave sinkhole doline polje uvala ponor spring seep oasis wadi arroyo gully ravine canyon gorge valley dale glen strath rift graben horst fault fold anticline syncline monocline dome plateau mesa butte escarpment bluff cliff crag tor inselberg bornhardt kopje hill knoll mound ridge spur saddle pass col gap notch cleft fissure joint bedding-plane foliation lineation cleavage schistosity gneissic-banding magma lava igneous-rock sedimentary-rock metamorphic-rock mineral crystal grain texture structure fabric composition chemistry mineralogy petrology geochemistry geophysics geochronology radiometric-dating isotopic-dating dendrochronology varve-chronology lichenometry archaeomagnetism paleomagnetism thermoluminescence optically-stimulated-luminescence electron-spin-resonance cosmogenic-nuclide exposure-dating burial-dating terrestrial-cosmogenic-nuclide in-situ-cosmogenic-nuclide meteoric-cosmogenic-nuclide fallout-radionuclide lead-210 cesium-137 plutonium americium radiocarbon carbon-14 calibration-curve intcal marine-reservoir-effect terrestrial-reservoir-effect hard-water-effect contamination pretreatment combustion graphitization accelerator-mass-spectrometry liquid-scintillation-counting gas-proportional-counting beta-counting gamma-spectrometry alpha-spectrometry mass-spectrometry inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry thermal-ionization-mass-spectrometry secondary-ion-mass-spectrometry laser-ablation-inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry electron-microprobe scanning-electron-microscopy transmission-electron-microscopy light-microscopy confocal-microscopy fluorescence-microscopy polarizing-microscopy phase-contrast-microscopy differential-interference-contrast-microscopy dark-field-microscopy bright-field-microscopy stereomicroscopy dissecting-microscopy microtomy sectioning staining mounting embedding fixation preservation collection curation vouchering repository herbarium museum archive database registry catalogue checklist inventory survey monitoring assessment evaluation appraisal audit review synthesis rapid-review scoping-review narrative-review critical-review state-of-the-art-review literature-review bibliometric-analysis citation-analysis co-citation-analysis bibliographic-coupling co-authorship-analysis collaboration-network knowledge-map concept-map ontology taxonomy classification nomenclature typification designation description diagnosis illustration measurement morphometry meristics count ratio index score rank grade scale level category class group set subset cluster clade lineage branch stem crown root node tip terminal internal basal derived ancestral plesiomorphic apomorphic synapomorphic autapomorphic homologous homoplastic convergent parallel reversal gain loss duplication deletion insertion inversion fusion fission polyploidy aneuploidy chromosome-number genome-size gene-number transcriptome proteome metabolome lipidome glycome interactome phenome connectome epigenome microbiome virome mycobiome bacteriome phytobiome rhizobiome endobiome ectobiome parasitome pathobiome diseasome toxome exposome foodome nutriome pharmacome toxicome adverse-outcome-pathway mode-of-action mechanism-of-action target-site receptor-binding enzyme-inhibition ion-channel-blockade membrane-disruption DNA-intercalation inflammation cell-differentiation cell-migration cell-adhesion cell-signaling signal-transduction gene-expression transcription translation post-translational-modification protein-folding protein-degradation protein-trafficking vesicle-transport exocytosis endocytosis phagocytosis pinocytosis mitophagy pexophagy ribophagy ER-phagy lysophagy lipophagy glycophagy ferritinophagy aggrephagy xenophagy entosis cytosis syncytium plasmodesmata gap-junction tight-junction adherens-junction desmosome hemidesmosome focal-adhesion cell-polarity cell-asymmetry cell-division mitosis meiosis cytokinesis karyokinesis chromosome-segregation spindle-assembly checkpoint DNA-replication DNA-recombination transposition retrotransposition horizontal-gene-transfer vertical-gene-transfer endosymbiosis symbiogenesis holobiont hologenome extended-phenotype niche-construction ecosystem-engineering keystone-process ecological-function ecosystem-function ecosystem-good natural-capital natural-resource renewable-resource non-renewable-resource common-pool-resource public-good private-good club-good externality market-failure government-failure policy-failure institutional-failure tragedy-of-the-commons free-rider collective-action social-dilemma prisoner's-dilemma chicken-game assurance-game coordination-game zero-sum-game positive-sum-game negative-sum-game win-win lose-lose win-lose Pareto-optimal Pareto-improvement Kaldor-Hicks-improvement cost-benefit-analysis cost-effectiveness-analysis multi-criteria-decision-analysis decision-support-system expert-system knowledge-based-system rule-based-system case-based-reasoning machine-learning deep-learning neural-network random-forest support-vector-machine decision-tree regression-tree classification-tree clustering-algorithm dimensionality-reduction feature-selection feature-extraction pattern-recognition image-analysis signal-processing time-series-analysis spatial-analysis geographic-information-system remote-sensing satellite-imagery aerial-photography drone-imagery LiDAR radar sonar seismic geophysical geochemical biogeochemical ecoinformatics bioinformatics computational-biology systems-biology synthetic-biology biotechnology nanotechnology genetic-engineering genome-editing CRISPR TALEN zinc-finger-nuclease transgenic cisgenic intragenic subgenic agrobacterium-mediated-transformation biolistics electroporation microinjection protoplast-fusion somatic-hybridization cybrid asymmetric-hybrid synthetic-polyploid doubled-haploid haploid-induction anther-culture microspore-culture ovule-culture embryo-culture endosperm-culture protoplast-culture cell-culture tissue-culture organ-culture shoot-culture root-culture callus-culture suspension-culture bioreactor hairy-root-culture transformation hardening micropropagation clonal-propagation meristem-culture shoot-tip-culture axillary-bud-culture nodal-culture leaf-culture petiole-culture stem-culture internode-culture rhizome-culture bulb-culture corm-culture tuber-culture seed-culture zygotic-embryo-culture somatic-embryo-culture somatic-embryogenesis organogenesis caulogenesis rhizogenesis adventitious-shoot-formation direct-regeneration indirect-regeneration primary-metabolism secondary-metabolism biosynthesis biotransformation bioconversion biodegradation bioremediation phytoremediation mycoremediation zooremediation bioaugmentation biostimulation natural-attenuation monitored-natural-attenuation engineered-natural-attenuation permeable-reactive-barrier pump-and-treat soil-vapor-extraction air-sparging thermal-desorption incineration landfilling containment capping slurry-wall grout-curtain sheet-piling clay-liner geomembrane geotextile geogrid geocomposite geosynthetic geofabric geonet geocell geopipe geostrip geofoam geobag geotube geocontainer geomat geoblanket geospacer geodrain geoinjection geogrout geopier geocolumn geopile geowall geoberm geotrench geocut geofill geolift geoslab geopanel geoblock geobrick geotile geopaver geoweb geomattress geocushion
Tetrastichus
Tetrastichus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species in this genus are known biological control agents that parasitize various insect hosts, including beetles and moths. Several species have been introduced to North America to manage invasive pests, including T. planipennisi for emerald ash borer control. The genus exhibits endoparasitoid development, with females using elongated ovipositors to deposit eggs inside host larvae concealed under bark or within plant tissue.
parasitoid biological-control Eulophidae emerald-ash-borer invasive-species-management
Trichapion
Trichapion is a genus of weevils in the family Brentidae (formerly placed in Apionidae). The genus was established by Wagner in 1912. Several species have been studied as biological control agents, particularly for invasive Sesbania weeds. Species were transferred from the genus Apion during taxonomic revisions.
weevil Brentidae Apioninae biological-control Fabaceae Sesbania invasive-species-management
Trichomalopsis
Trichomalopsis is a genus of pupal parasitoid wasps in the family Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Species in this genus develop as ectoparasitoids on the pupae of Diptera, including economically important fruit flies such as Bactrocera dorsalis. Members exhibit robust environmental tolerance, with some species showing greater resistance to temperature extremes, starvation, and desiccation than related parasitoids. The genus has been documented from Asia, Europe, North America, and the Azores, with particular research interest in their potential as biological control agents against invasive tephritid pests.
parasitoid pupal-parasitoid biological-control Diptera Tephritidae fruit-fly orchard invasive-species-management
Trichopoda pennipes
feather-legged fly
Trichopoda pennipes is a tachinid fly native to North and South America that has been introduced to Europe and other regions as a biological control agent. Adults feed on nectar and are active from late spring through autumn. Females deposit eggs on true bugs, particularly stink bugs and squash bugs, and the developing larvae act as internal parasitoids that eventually kill their hosts. The species is notable for its feather-like hind leg fringes and is considered a valuable natural enemy of agricultural pests, though its effectiveness varies by region and host species.
parasitoid biological-control tachinid true-bugs stink-bugs squash-bugs invasive-species-management integrated-pest-management nectar-feeding aggregation-pheromone-exploitation
Trichosirocalus
rosette weevils, crown weevils
A genus of small true weevils native to the Palearctic region. Several species have been widely introduced to North America, Australia, and New Zealand as biological control agents for invasive thistles. The genus was historically treated as containing a single species, T. horridus, but integrative taxonomic studies using molecular and morphological data have revealed multiple distinct species with different host associations.
weevil biological-control thistle invasive-species-management Ceutorhynchinae rosette-feeder Ceutorhynchini Baridinae taxonomic-revision classical-biological-control Carduus Cirsium Onopordum Palearctic-native introduced-species molecular-systematics integrative-taxonomy univoltine leaf-miner agricultural-pest-control pasture-weed-management species-complex host-specificity musk-thistle plumeless-thistle Scotch-thistle Illyrian-thistle welted-thistle Italian-thistle crown-weevil rosette-weevil oviposition-behavior overwintering egg-stage larval-stage adult-stage decaying-organic-matter soil-surface non-photosynthetic-leaves green-leaves leaf-midribs petioles leaf-mining notching-damage rosette-survival flowering-stem-reduction seed-production-reduction rosette-mortality population-density-effects mark-recapture dispersal-patterns artificial-diet-rearing laboratory-culture vitamin-supplementation lyophilized-thistle-roots ergosterol casein-hydrolysate 7-dehydrocholesterol sucrose larval-survival adult-longevity oviposition female-fecundity field-cage-experiments individual-cage-experiments growth-parameter-reduction pre-release-host-specificity-testing post-release-monitoring establishment-success range-expansion forested-areas agricultural-land pasture small-farms crops disturbed-habitats meadows dense-patches rosette-size-preference spatial-distribution selective-oviposition autumn-egg-laying winter-larval-development spring-pupation late-summer-adult-emergence soil-overwintering plant-debris-overwintering rachis leaf-dissection destructive-sampling non-destructive-sampling sampling-bias life-stage-detection established-populations mitochondrial-COI nuclear-EF-1α morphological-characters host-plant-associations synonymy species-validity introduction-history release-records establishment-records Old-World-native New-World-introduction Southern-Hemisphere-introduction Australia New-Zealand North-America Virginia Southwest-Virginia Europe Spain France Germany Italy Switzerland Austria Scandinavia Denmark Norway Sweden Colonnelli-1979 Panzer-1801 Alonso-Zarazaga-&-Sánchez-Ruiz-2002 Ceutorhynchinae-vs-Baridinae subfamily-placement tribe-placement true-weevils Curculionidae Coleoptera Insecta Arthropoda Animalia 882-iNaturalist-observations GBIF-records Catalogue-of-Life-accepted NCBI-Taxonomy Bulletin-of-Entomological-Research Journal-of-Applied-Ecology Journal-of-Entomological-Science Annals-of-the-Entomological-Society-of-America Environmental-Entomology DOI-10.1017/s000748531500084x DOI-10.1046/j.1365-2664.2002.00747.x DOI-10.18474/0749-8004-22.4.324 DOI-10.18474/0749-8004-22.4.330 DOI-10.18474/0749-8004-24.4.465 DOI-10.1093/aesa/73.6.694 DOI-10.1093/ee/10.5.691
Trichosirocalus horridus
Thistle Crown Weevil, Musk Thistle Crown Weevil
Trichosirocalus horridus is a Palearctic weevil introduced to North America in 1974 as a biological control agent for exotic thistles in the genera Cirsium and Carduus. Native to Europe, it has established populations across the United States, particularly in Virginia where it spread from 609 km² in 1981 to 4,345 km² by 1985. Adults feed on thistle rosettes while larvae develop internally in stems and crowns, causing significant damage to host plants. The species has shown nontarget impacts, feeding on native Cirsium species in Nebraska and Tennessee at rates comparable to target weeds.
biological-control invasive-species-management weevil thistle nontarget-effects classical-biocontrol Ceutorhynchinae Curculionidae Palearctic-native North-America-introduced
Trissolcus
samurai wasps
Trissolcus is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Scelionidae, comprising at least 180 described species. Members are obligate egg parasitoids of true bugs in the infraorder Pentatomomorpha, including stink bugs (Pentatomidae). The genus has gained significant attention due to the biological control potential of several species, particularly Trissolcus japonicus (the "samurai wasp"), against the invasive brown marmorated stink bug (Halyomorpha halys). Taxonomic challenges have historically complicated identification, with recent revisionary work resolving numerous synonymies and clarifying species boundaries.
biological-control parasitoid stink-bug Pentatomomorpha invasive-species-management agricultural-pest-control egg-parasitoid Scelionidae integrated-pest-management
Urophora affinis
Knapweed Gall Fly
Urophora affinis is a tephritid fruit fly native to Eurasia that was introduced to North America as a biological control agent for spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa) and diffuse knapweed (C. diffusa). The species forms galls in knapweed seed heads, where larvae develop and reduce seed production by up to 95%. First released in Montana in 1973, it has established populations but remains concentrated near release sites with limited dispersal ability. The fly is multivoltine, with adults emerging in June and larvae overwintering in seed heads.
biocontrol invasive-species-management gall-former knapweed Tephritidae multivoltine interspecific-competition
Urophora quadrifasciata
Four-barred Knapweed Gall Fly
Urophora quadrifasciata is a tephritid fly native to Europe and parts of Asia, introduced to North America and Australia as a biological control agent for invasive knapweed species (Centaurea spp.). Larvae develop in flower heads of knapweeds, forming galls that reduce seed production. The species has become established in western North America following intentional releases in the early 1970s, though populations at some sites declined due to competition with the related Urophora affinis.
biological-control gall-former invasive-species-management interspecific-competition parasitoid
Zygogramma
Zygogramma is a large genus of leaf beetles in the subfamily Chrysomelinae, comprising approximately 100 species with 13 species occurring north of Mexico. The genus is characterized by its association with plants in the family Asteraceae, particularly ragweeds (Ambrosia) and related genera. Several species, especially Z. bicolorata, have been extensively studied and deployed as biological control agents against invasive weeds. The genus is distinguished from related genera such as Calligrapha by fused tarsal claws.
leaf-beetle Chrysomelidae biological-control Parthenium sexual-conflict mate-guarding invasive-species-management Asteraceae-herbivore
Zygogramma suturalis
ragweed leaf beetle
Zygogramma suturalis is a leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, commonly known as the ragweed leaf beetle. Native to North America, it has been introduced to Russia (1978) and other parts of Europe and Asia as a biological control agent for common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia). The beetle exhibits strong host specificity, feeding almost exclusively on this plant. Despite establishment in introduced ranges, it has achieved only moderate biological success due to low population densities and limited impact on host plant populations.
Chrysomelidae Chrysomelinae biological-control Ambrosia invasive-species-management phytophagous-beetle host-specificity North-America-native introduced-species Russia Ukraine