Biological-control
Guides
Choreutis
Choreutis is a genus of metalmark moths in the family Choreutidae, established by Jacob Hübner in 1825. It serves as the type genus for both the family Choreutidae and subfamily Choreutinae. Several species within this genus, particularly Choreutis nemorana (fig-tree skeletonizer) and Choreutis sexfasciella (Banyan Leaf Skeletonizer), have become notable as invasive pests of Ficus species, with documented range expansions into Central and Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean region.
Choristoneura
spruce budworms
Choristoneura is a genus of tortricid moths comprising nearly forty species distributed across North America and Eurasia. Most species are serious pests of conifers, with several causing major forest defoliation events. The genus includes notable forest pests such as the eastern spruce budworm (C. fumiferana) and western spruce budworm (C. occidentalis), which undergo periodic population outbreaks that can devastate spruce-fir forests. The genus exhibits complex population dynamics and is extensively studied for its economic and ecological impacts.
Chrysocharis
Chrysocharis is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae. Species are primarily larval parasitoids of leafmining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) and casebearing moths (Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae). The genus has been studied for biological control applications, particularly against agricultural pests such as Liriomyza leafminers and the larch casebearer. At least 18 species occur in North America north of Mexico, with additional diversity in Europe and the Oriental region.
Chrysocharis assis
Chrysocharis assis is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae, first described by Walker in 1839. It belongs to a genus of minute wasps known for their role as biological control agents of leaf-mining insects. The species has been documented in multiple Canadian provinces, suggesting a distribution across northern North America. Like other members of its genus, it likely parasitizes larvae of agromyzid leaf-mining flies, though specific host associations for this species require further documentation.
Chrysocharis laomedon
Chrysocharis laomedon is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae. It develops as an endoparasitoid within the larvae of leaf-mining moths, specifically Phyllonorycter issikii. The species has been documented in multiple Canadian provinces. Its immature stages—egg, larval instars, and pupa—have been described morphologically.
Chrysocharis occidentalis
Chrysocharis occidentalis is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae, first described by Girault in 1916. The genus Chrysocharis comprises small chalcidoid wasps known for their role as biological control agents of leaf-mining insects. Like other members of Eulophidae, this species likely develops as an internal parasitoid of larval insects, though specific host associations for C. occidentalis remain poorly documented. The species has been recorded from western North America including California and Canadian provinces.
Chrysocharis oscinidis
Chrysocharis oscinidis is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae. It has been documented as a biological control agent of the leaf-mining fly Liriomyza trifolii on bean plants. The species occurs across western North America from Alaska to California.
Chrysochus auratus
Dogbane Leaf Beetle, Dogbane Beetle
Chrysochus auratus is a leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae, notable for its striking iridescent blue-green coloration with coppery or golden metallic highlights. This beetle is strictly associated with dogbane plants (Apocynum spp.), feeding on leaves as adults and roots as larvae. It has evolved specialized physiological and behavioral adaptations to overcome the toxic cardenolide defenses of its host plants, including a modified Na+/K+-ATPase enzyme that allows it to process and even sequester these compounds for its own chemical defense against predators.
Chrysolina
leaf beetles
Chrysolina is a large genus of leaf beetles in the subfamily Chrysomelinae, containing numerous species distributed primarily across Europe, Asia, and Africa. The genus is notable for its phytophagous species, many of which exhibit strong host plant specificity. Several species have been employed as classical biological control agents against invasive weeds, most notably Chrysolina quadrigemina and C. hyperici for control of Hypericum perforatum (St. John's wort). Some species are of conservation concern, including C. cerealis and C. graminis, which are protected in the United Kingdom. The genus includes both native and introduced populations, with some species established in North America and Australia.
Chrysolina fastuosa
Chrysolina fastuosa is a small (5.0–6.0 mm), univoltine leaf beetle native to the Palearctic Region, ranging from eastern Siberia to western Europe. First North American records document established populations in Nova Scotia, Canada and Vermont, USA, separated by over 900 km. The species is distinguished by bright metallic green coloration with blue at the elytral suture and often orange median longitudinal areas on the elytra. It feeds on Lamiaceae, particularly Galeopsis species, and has the potential to spread across the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada.
Chrysolina hyperici
Saint John's Wort Beetle, St. Johnswort Beetle, Klamathweed Beetle
Chrysolina hyperici is a leaf-feeding chrysomelid beetle native to Europe and Asia, widely introduced as a biological control agent for invasive St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum). The species has been established in North America, Australia, and other regions where its host plant has become problematic. Populations are often transient and alone do not provide sustained weed suppression, though the beetle can mechanically vector a host-specific fungal pathogen that enhances control effectiveness.
Chrysolina quadrigemina
greater St. John's wort beetle, St. John's wort beetle
Chrysolina quadrigemina is a leaf beetle introduced to North America as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Hypericum perforatum (St. John's wort). Native to Europe and North Africa, this beetle has established populations across western North America and has been introduced to Australia. Adults and larvae feed exclusively on Hypericum species, with documented spillover onto native congeners such as H. punctatum in the eastern United States. The beetle exhibits a univoltine life cycle with adults active in summer, and shows evidence of post-colonization adaptation to colder climates in northern populations.
Chrysomela scripta
cottonwood leaf beetle
Chrysomela scripta, the cottonwood leaf beetle, is a leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae that feeds on Populus species, particularly cottonwoods and hybrid poplars. It is native to North and Central America and has been documented as a significant pest of poplar plantations. The species completes multiple generations per year in temperate regions, with development strongly influenced by temperature. It is subject to biological control by predators and parasitoids, and serves as host to the microsporidian parasite Nosema scripta.
Chrysomelobia
Chrysomelobia is a genus of sexually transmitted parasitic mites in the family Podapolipidae that infest chrysomelid beetles. The genus was originally described from the Americas, Europe and Africa, and was later expanded to include Australian species following the synonymization of Parobia. These mites complete their entire life cycle on adult beetles and do not infest immature host stages.
Chrysomphalus
Chrysomphalus is a genus of armored scale insects in the family Diaspididae, containing approximately 17 described species. The genus includes several economically significant agricultural pests, notably Chrysomphalus aonidum (Florida red scale or Egyptian black scale) and Chrysomphalus dictyospermi (Spanish red scale), which infest citrus and other fruit crops worldwide. These sedentary insects possess protective waxy coverings and are targeted in integrated pest management programs using biological control agents including lady beetles and parasitoid wasps.
Chrysomphalus aonidum
Florida red scale, Egyptian black scale, circular black scale, citrus black scale
Chrysomphalus aonidum is an armored scale insect (Diaspididae) and a significant pest of citrus and other fruit trees. It is native to tropical and subtropical regions but has established populations across six continents. The species forms a hard, protective scale cover over its body while feeding on plant phloem. Population densities can reach economically damaging levels in citrus orchards, with infestations recorded on leaves and fruit. The species is subject to biological control by parasitoid wasps and predatory beetles.
Chrysopa chi
X-marked Green Lacewing
Chrysopa chi is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae, first described by Fitch in 1855. It is found in North America, with observations recorded from Vermont and other regions of the United States. As a member of the green lacewings, it belongs to a group of predatory insects valued for their role in biological control.
Chrysopa coloradensis
Colorado green lacewing
Chrysopa coloradensis is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae, described by Nathan Banks in 1895. It occurs in North America. As with other members of the genus Chrysopa, adults are predatory and feed on soft-bodied insects and other small arthropods. The larvae are known as "aphid lions" for their voracious consumption of aphids and other pests.
Chrysopa excepta
Chrysopa excepta is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae, described by Banks in 1911. It belongs to a genus whose larvae are predatory and commonly known as 'aphid lions' due to their voracious consumption of soft-bodied insects. Adults are recognized for their delicate appearance with long antennae and translucent, veined wings. The species is recorded from North America.
Chrysopa nigricornis
Black-horned Green Lacewing
Chrysopa nigricornis, commonly known as the Black-horned Green Lacewing, is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae. It is distributed across Central America and North America. The species exhibits a facultative larval diapause during the third instar within its cocoon, induced by short-day photoperiods acting on the first three free-living larval stages. As both larvae and adults, it is predatory, feeding on soft-bodied insects such as aphids.
Chrysopa quadripunctata
Four-spotted Green Lacewing
Chrysopa quadripunctata, commonly known as the Four-spotted Green Lacewing, is a species of predatory lacewing native to North America. Adults are recognized by their delicate green bodies, long filamentous antennae, and transparent, finely veined wings. Larvae are aggressive generalist predators, often called "aphid lions" for their voracious consumption of soft-bodied prey. The species has been studied for its behavioral plasticity, with documented individual repeatability and geographic variation in larval behavior.
Chrysopa slossonae
Slosson's Green Lacewing
Chrysopa slossonae is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae, described by Nathan Banks in 1924. The species is named in honor of entomologist Annie Trumbull Slosson. Like other Chrysopa species, it is a predatory insect with adults that feed on pollen, nectar, and honeydew, while larvae are voracious predators of soft-bodied insects. It is native to North America.
Chrysoperla
Common Green Lacewings
Chrysoperla is a genus of green lacewings in the family Chrysopidae, tribe Chrysopini, containing approximately 67 described species with a cosmopolitan distribution. Adults are characterized by a pale yellowish stripe down the middle of the body and delicate, transparent wings. The genus is notable for its use in biological pest control, as larvae are predatory and feed on aphids, mites, and other soft-bodied insects. Species identification is complicated by morphological similarity; many species are distinguished primarily by male genitalia features and species-specific vibrational courtship songs rather than external appearance.
Chrysoperla comanche
Comanche Green Lacewing
Chrysoperla comanche is a green lacewing species native to northern Mexico and the southern United States, with records extending to Canada, Chile, and Hawaii. It has been evaluated for commercial insectary production due to its non-diapausing behavior in California's San Joaquin Valley, where adults remain green and continue egg deposition through winter months. The species is a generalist predator of soft-bodied arthropods, with documented prey including aphids, leafhoppers, psyllids, whiteflies, thrips, and cochineal insects. It has shown particular promise for biological control in vineyard ecosystems, where it was the most commonly encountered lacewing species in post-release surveys. Development occurs optimally around 29.7°C, with lower temperature threshold near 10°C.
Chrysoperla downesi
Chrysoperla downesi is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae, first described by Smith in 1932. Like other members of the genus Chrysoperla, it is a predatory insect whose larvae feed on soft-bodied arthropod pests. The species is part of the taxonomically complex Chrysoperla carnea-group, in which species are often difficult to distinguish by morphology alone and may require acoustic or molecular methods for identification. It is native to North America and has been documented in museum collections.
Chrysoperla externa
green lacewing
Chrysoperla externa is a species of green lacewing in the family Chrysopidae, native to the Americas. Like other members of the genus Chrysoperla, its larvae are predatory on soft-bodied insects, particularly aphids, making it valuable for biological pest control. The species is part of the taxonomically challenging Chrysoperla carnea-group, in which species are often difficult to distinguish morphologically and are instead identified by their species-specific vibrational songs. It has been documented across much of South America and in parts of North America including Hawaii.
Chrysoperla harrisii
Harris's Green Lacewing
Chrysoperla harrisii is a green lacewing species in the family Chrysopidae, native to North America. Adults are predatory and feed on soft-bodied insects and honeydew. The species belongs to the Chrysoperla carnea-group, a complex of morphologically similar species that are difficult to distinguish without specialized techniques such as vibrational song analysis. Larvae are aggressive predators of aphids, mites, and other small arthropods, making this species valuable for biological pest control.
Chrysoperla rufilabris
Red-lipped Green Lacewing
Chrysoperla rufilabris, the red-lipped green lacewing, is a predatory insect in the family Chrysopidae native to eastern North America. Larvae are voracious predators of soft-bodied insects, particularly aphids, and are widely used as biological control agents in agricultural and ornamental systems. Adults are primarily nocturnal and are commonly attracted to artificial lights. The species has been extensively studied for its potential in integrated pest management, with research demonstrating its effectiveness against diverse prey including aphids, scale insects, and lepidopteran eggs.
Chrysopidae
Green lacewings, lacewings, stinkflies, aphid lions, aphid wolves, junk bugs, trash bugs
Chrysopidae, commonly known as green lacewings, is a large family of neuropteran insects comprising approximately 85 genera and 1,300–2,000 species worldwide. Adults are delicate, often bright green insects with conspicuous golden compound eyes and translucent, iridescent wings with characteristic wide costal fields in the venation. Larvae are voracious predators nicknamed "aphid lions" or "trash bugs," known for carrying debris on their backs for camouflage while hunting soft-bodied prey. The family is economically significant as biological control agents, with millions reared annually for agricultural pest management.
Chrysopinae
Typical Green Lacewings
Chrysopinae is the nominate and largest subfamily of green lacewings (Chrysopidae), comprising approximately 60 genera. The subfamily includes well-known genera such as Chrysoperla and Chrysopa, which are common in Europe and North America. Members are distinguished by their delicate, green bodies and golden eyes. Larvae are predatory and several species have been employed in biological pest control programs.
Chrysopini
green lacewings
Chrysopini is a tribe of green lacewings within the family Chrysopidae, comprising approximately 17-32 genera and 300-926 described species. Members are recognized by their delicate, net-veined wings and often green or yellow-green bodies. The tribe represents one of the most species-rich and commonly encountered groups of lacewings in temperate and tropical regions worldwide.
Chrysopophthorus americanus
Chrysopophthorus americanus is a minute parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae, described by Mason in 1964 from the United States. It belongs to a genus distributed across four continents, with species specialized as parasitoids of chrysopid larvae (green lacewings). The wasp has been observed at blacklight traps, where it likely seeks its lacewing hosts that are also attracted to ultraviolet light. Adults exhibit distinctive pale, almost ghostly coloration with striking emerald eyes.
Cicadellinae
sharpshooters, leafhoppers
Cicadellinae is a subfamily of leafhoppers (family Cicadellidae) within the order Hemiptera. Members of the tribe Proconiini within this subfamily are commonly known as 'sharpshooters.' The subfamily currently contains five tribes: Cicadellini, Makilingiini, Phereurhinini, Proconiini, and Tungurahualini. Cicadellinae leafhoppers are globally distributed and are significant agricultural pests due to their role as vectors of plant pathogens, particularly the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa, which causes diseases including Pierce's disease of grape, phony peach disease, and citrus variegated chlorosis.
Cirrhencyrtus
Cirrhencyrtus is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, described by Timberlake in 1918. Species in this genus are known to parasitize mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), with documented associations with Ferrisia virgata and Dysmicoccus brevipes in southern Chiapas, Mexico. The genus is represented in major entomological collections, including the UCR Encyrtidae collection, which holds specimens of C. ehrhorni and C. diversicolor.
Cirrospilini
Cirrospilini is a tribe within the subfamily Eulophinae (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) comprising approximately 17 genera and nearly 300 species. Members are ectoparasitoids that attack immature stages of Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Coleoptera in semi-concealed habitats. Some species function as obligate or facultative hyperparasitoids, and a few are gall-formers. Phylogenetically, the tribe is considered monophyletic and the sister-group to Eulophini plus Elasmini.
Cirrospilus
Cirrospilus is a genus of small parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Species within this genus are primarily ectoparasitoids of leaf-mining insects, particularly gracillariid moths such as the citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella). Several species have been investigated and employed as biological control agents against agricultural pests, with notable examples including C. ingenuus, C. diallus, C. pictus, and C. coachellae. The genus exhibits variation in host specificity, fecundity, and developmental rates influenced by temperature and host stage.
Clastoptera undulata
Casuarina Spittlebug
Clastoptera undulata is a spittlebug species in the family Clastopteridae, first described by Uhler in 1864. It is commonly known as the Casuarina Spittlebug. The species gained attention as an invasive pest in Bermuda, where it was discovered in 1959. Biological control efforts were undertaken using the parasitoid wasp Carabunia myersi. Most individuals in the Bermuda population overwinter as eggs. The species belongs to a group of xylem-feeding insects known for producing protective 'spittle' masses during their nymphal stages.
Cleridae
checkered beetles
Cleridae, commonly known as checkered beetles, is a family of predatory beetles in the superfamily Cleroidea. The family contains approximately 3,500 species worldwide, with about 500 species in North America. Most species are predatory, feeding primarily on other beetles and their larvae, particularly bark beetles and wood-boring beetles. Some genera exhibit scavenging or pollen-feeding habits. The family has significant economic importance as biological control agents against forest pests.
Cleroidea
Bark-gnawing, Checkered, and Soft-winged Flower Beetles
Cleroidea is a superfamily of beetles comprising over 10,000 species across approximately 24 families. Members are generally slender with soft, flexible elytra and typically bear hairy or scaly integuments. The superfamily exhibits diverse feeding strategies: predation (Cleridae, Trogossitinae), pollen/nectar consumption (melyrid lineage), and fungivory (many Trogossitidae and smaller families). Aposematic coloration occurs in some groups, particularly Cleridae and Malachiinae, mimicking unpalatable arthropods such as blister beetles, net-winged beetles, and stinging Hymenoptera.
Cleruchus
Cleruchus is a genus of fairyflies (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) containing minute egg parasitoids. Species in this genus exhibit notable wing dimorphism, with both macropterous and brachypterous individuals occurring within single species. They are associated with bracket fungi and parasitize eggs of beetles, particularly Ciidae. The genus is distributed across the Palaearctic region with records from Europe, Russia, and North America.
Clitostethus
dusky lady beetles
Clitostethus is a genus of minute lady beetles (Coccinellidae: Scymninae) comprising over 40 species. Members are recognized as specialized predators of whiteflies (Aleyrodidae). Several species have been evaluated as biological control agents against agricultural pests including Bemisia tabaci and Siphoninus phillyreae. The genus was established by Weise in 1885 and includes species formerly classified under Nephaspis.
Clitostethus arcuatus
Horseshoe Ladybird
Clitostethus arcuatus is a minute ladybird beetle in the subfamily Scymninae, measuring 1.3–1.5 mm as an adult. Native to Europe, it has been introduced or reported from Bermuda and is expanding its range northward in European Russia. It serves as an important biological control agent of whitefly pests, particularly the ash whitefly Siphoninus phillyreae, and has been evaluated for augmentation biocontrol programs.
Clostera
Clostera is a genus of moths in the family Notodontidae, subfamily Pygaerinae, containing approximately 30 described species distributed across the Holarctic and Oriental regions. Multiple species, including C. anachoreta, C. anastomosis, C. fulgurita, and C. cupreata, are recognized as significant defoliators of poplar (Populus) trees in forestry contexts across China, India, Europe, and Japan. The genus has been extensively studied for its economic impact and as a target for biological control and Bt toxin research.
Closterocerus
Closterocerus is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Eulophidae (Hymenoptera). Species within this genus are predominantly larval parasitoids of various insect hosts, including leafmining Lepidoptera, Chrysomelidae beetles, and gall-forming Eulophidae. Several species have been documented as effective biological control agents, particularly against invasive pests. The genus exhibits considerable diversity in host associations and geographic distribution across multiple continents.
Closterotomus
Closterotomus is a genus of plant bugs (Miridae) in the subfamily Mirinae, established by Fieber in 1858. The genus contains at least 34 species distributed across the Palearctic and North America. Several species are agricultural pests, notably C. trivialis on olive and citrus in Mediterranean regions and C. norvegicus (potato capsid) on lucerne, clover, and potato. Members are phytophagous, feeding primarily on flowers, buds, and unripe fruit.
Coccidae
soft scales, wax scales, tortoise scales
Coccidae is a family of scale insects in the superfamily Coccoidea, commonly known as soft scales, wax scales, or tortoise scales. The family contains over 1,100 species in 171 genera worldwide. Females are typically flat with elongated oval bodies and smooth integument often covered with wax; they may possess legs in some genera but not in others. Males may be winged or wingless. Coccidae are distinguished from armored scales (Diaspididae) by their soft, waxy covering rather than a hard, separable scale. Many species are economically important agricultural and horticultural pests.
Coccinella
ladybird, ladybug, lady beetle
Coccinella is a genus of lady beetles recognized by their convex, hemispherical bodies and typically red or orange elytra marked with black spots or bands. The genus contains approximately 94 species and occurs throughout the Northern Hemisphere, with greater diversity in Eurasia than North America. Several species, particularly C. septempunctata, are valued as biological control agents due to their predatory habits.
Coccinella californica
California Lady Beetle
Coccinella californica is a ladybird beetle endemic to coastal California. Adults measure 5.10–6.80 mm and are distinguished by predominantly red, usually spotless elytra and a mostly black thorax. The species plays a documented role in biological pest control in vineyard ecosystems.
Coccinella septempunctata
seven-spot ladybird, seven-spotted ladybug, seven-spotted lady beetle, C-7
Coccinella septempunctata is a predatory lady beetle native to Europe, Asia, and North Africa, now widely established in North America following intentional introduction for biological control. Adults measure 6.5–7.8 mm with distinctive red elytra bearing seven black spots. The species is among the most extensively studied coccinellids due to its importance in aphid biocontrol and its invasive success in new ranges. It completes up to five generations annually with a six-week development cycle from egg to adult.
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ation-molecularcascading-gene-expression-effects-downstreamother-traits-selective-advantage-pleiotropyfuture-research-taxonomic-expansion-recommendationScymninae-missing-family-subfamily-taxonomicChilocorinae-scale-feeders-missing-taxonomicPsylloborini-fungi-feeders-missing-taxonomicintriguing-future-research-possibilities-opportunityinvasive-species-ecological-role-insight-applicationbiological-control-agent-understanding-practicalLeslie-Mertz-northern-Michigan-residence-personalknowyourinsects.org-educational-resource-outreachsummer-field-biology-teaching-activity-educationalHelen-Roy-childhood-1976-memory-personalIsle-of-Wight-garden-ladybird-abundance-biogeographicimagination-capture-interest-spark-developmentaldoctoral-research-privilege-description-professionalCambridge-sabbatical-2004-harlequin-anticipation-predictiveecological-network-upset-prediction-correctness-validation80-90%-urban-dominance-current-status-quantitativeHesperomyces-virescens-native-two-spotted-prior-observation-historicalKatie-Murray-doctoral-student-discovery-contributionmarathon-mating-hour-duration-description-behavioralcontact-point-fruiting-body-location-evidence-morphologicaloverwintering-aggregation-months-duration-behavioralfield-cross-species-transmission-absence-assertion-ecologicalMurray-health-effects-investigation-ongoing-researchHaelewaters-Harvard-lineage-study-institutionalthree-separate-lineages-hypothesis-taxonomicScientific-Reports-publication-venue-academicDinocampus-coccinellae-seven-spot-targeting-expansion-ecologicalcocoon-between-legs-observation-detail-morphologicalevolutionary-action-research-excitement-expression-enthusiasmcitizen-science-online-mapping-project-methodologythousands-of-participants-contribution-scale-participatoryverified-record-quantity-reporting-pride-achievementScientific-Data-Nature-journal-publication-academicharlequin-spread-pattern-documentation-spatialnative-species-decline-correlation-data-ecologicalanecdotal-increase-personal-observation-note-qualitativeseven-spot-Dinocampus-tracking-expansion-plan-futuresuper-abundant-resource-wasp-prediction-ecologicalparasite-pathogen-invaded-system-evolution-opportunity-researchCoccinella transversoguttata
Transverse Lady Beetle, transverse ladybird
Coccinella transversoguttata is a predatory lady beetle native to North America, now also found in Europe and Asia including the Tibetan plateau. It is recognized by the transverse black band across the base of its elytra, formed by connected spots. The species serves as an important biological control agent against aphids and other agricultural pests, though its populations appear to be declining in some regions following the introduction of competing non-native lady beetles.