Biological-control
Guides
Coccinella undecimpunctata
eleven-spot ladybird, eleven-spotted lady beetle, eleven-spotted ladybird beetle
Coccinella undecimpunctata, commonly known as the eleven-spot ladybird or eleven-spotted lady beetle, is a small predatory beetle in the family Coccinellidae. It is endemic to the Palearctic region and has been introduced to Australia and New Zealand as a biological control agent. The species is distinguished by eleven black spots on its red or orange elytra, though one central spot creates the appearance of six spots per elytron. It is an effective predator of aphids and is used in integrated pest management programs.
Coccivora californica
Coccivora californica is a species of minute pirate bug in the family Anthocoridae, first described by McAtee and Malloch in 1925. The genus name 'Coccivora' indicates a diet centered on scale insects (Coccoidea). This species is native to North America and has been recorded from California.
Coccobius
Coccobius is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Aphelinidae, specialized as parasitoids of armored scale insects (Diaspididae). Species in this genus have been widely used as biological control agents against economically important scale pests on crops including citrus and pine. The genus exhibits weak dispersal ability, with documented dispersal rates of approximately 200 meters per year. Multiple species have been intentionally introduced across Asia, North America, and other regions for classical biological control programs.
Coccobius fulvus
Coccobius fulvus is a species of parasitic wasp in the family Aphelinidae, first described by Compere and Annecke in 1961. It belongs to a genus of chalcidoid wasps that are primarily parasitoids of scale insects (Coccoidea). The species has been recorded from France, Japan, and the conterminous United States. Like other members of Aphelinidae, it likely plays a role in biological control of pest scale insects.
Coccoidea
Scale Insects
Scale insects are small sap-sucking hemipterans comprising the superfamily Coccoidea, with approximately 8,000 described species across about 49 families. They exhibit extraordinary morphological diversity, ranging from minute forms beneath waxy covers to conspicuous species with elaborate wax secretions. Many are economically significant agricultural and horticultural pests, while others serve as sources of valuable products such as carmine dye and shellac. The group has been extensively studied for biological control, with numerous parasitoid wasp species developed as management agents.
Coccophagus
Coccophagus is a large genus of chalcid wasps in the family Aphelinidae, established by Westwood in 1833. Members are parasitoids primarily associated with scale insects (Coccoidea), playing significant roles in biological control programs. The genus is taxonomically well-established within the subfamily Coccophaginae and tribe Coccophagini. Species in this genus have been documented from multiple continents including North America, Asia, and South America.
Coccophagus lycimnia
Coccophagus lycimnia is a minute parasitoid wasp in the family Aphelinidae, widely used as a biological control agent against soft scale insects (Coccidae: Hemiptera). The species exhibits host-size dependent oviposition behavior, preferentially parasitizing second-instar scale insects while avoiding larger hosts due to defensive reactions. It has been documented attacking multiple economically important scale pests including Coccus hesperidum (brown soft scale), Parthenolecanium spp., Sphaerolecanium prunastri, and Parasaissetia nigra, with particular significance in citrus and agricultural systems.
Coccus viridis
green scale, green coffee scale, coffee green scale
Coccus viridis is a soft scale insect (Hemiptera: Coccidae) and major agricultural pest with a wide tropical and subtropical distribution. It reproduces parthenogenetically via thelytoky, with females producing 50-600 eggs that hatch within minutes to hours beneath the mother's body. The species completes its life cycle in 47-51 days at 25°C, with three nymphal instars before adulthood; first-instar nymphs actively disperse as 'crawlers' while older instars and adults become sessile. It is polyphagous, feeding on phloem sap of over 200 plant genera in 72 families, with primary economic damage to coffee, guava, and cacao crops.
Cochylis
Cochylis is a genus of leafroller moths in the family Tortricidae, subfamily Tortricinae. Species are distributed across the Holarctic, Oriental, and Neotropical regions. In the Palaearctic, members exhibit one or two generations annually with larval overwintering. Larvae are oligophagous, feeding primarily on Asteraceae. The genus has undergone taxonomic revision; in 2019, eight species were moved to the redefined genus Cochylichroa based on phylogenetic analysis.
Coelocephalapion
Coelocephalapion is a genus of small weevils in the family Brentidae (subfamily Apioninae) established by Wagner in 1914. Species in this genus exhibit diverse feeding strategies including florivory, seed predation, and gall induction. The genus is primarily Neotropical in distribution, with documented associations spanning multiple plant families including Leguminosae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, and Verbenaceae. Several species have been investigated as biological control agents for invasive plants.
Coelocephalapion aculeatum
Coelocephalapion aculeatum is a flower-feeding weevil in the family Brentidae (formerly Apionidae) that specializes on the invasive weed Mimosa pigra. Females exhibit selective oviposition behavior based on host inflorescence developmental stage and conspecific damage levels. Larval development occurs entirely within host flowers, with survival rates varying significantly according to inflorescence maturity. The species has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for M. pigra in regions where this plant is invasive.
Coelophora
Coelophora is a genus of ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae) established by Mulsant in 1850, containing approximately 14 described species distributed across Asia, Australia, and surrounding regions. Members of this genus are predominantly aphidophagous predators, with several species studied for their potential as biological control agents in agricultural systems. The genus exhibits notable colour pattern polymorphism, particularly in Coelophora inaequalis, where multiple elytral pattern morphs are controlled by alleles showing mosaic dominance. Some species have been transferred to other genera upon taxonomic revision, such as Coelophora circumusta moved to Phrynocaria.
Coelophora inaequalis
variable ladybird, common Australian lady beetle, common Australian ladybug, Variable Ladybird Beetle
Coelophora inaequalis is a small predatory ladybird beetle native to Australia, Oceania, and Southern Asia. Adults measure 3.70–5.20 mm and display highly variable elytral coloration, with yellow to orange backgrounds bearing four to five black spots that differ among individuals. The species has been introduced to Florida and Hawaii as a biological control agent against the yellow sugarcane aphid (Sipha flava). It is an effective aphid predator with documented prey including Aphis gossypii, Aphis craccivora, and Toxoptera citricida.
Coenosia
Tiger Flies
Coenosia is a large genus of predatory muscid flies comprising more than 350 species. Members are commonly known as tiger flies due to their active hunting behavior. They are documented from multiple continents including Europe, Asia, and North America. Some species serve as hosts for entomopathogenic fungi in the genus Strongwellsea, which exhibit unusual extended-host survival during infection.
Coenosia humilis
tiger fly
Coenosia humilis is a predatory muscid fly commonly known as the tiger fly. It is an active predator of small flying insects, particularly agromyzid leafminers, and has been studied as a biological control agent in agricultural systems. The species is native to Europe but has been recorded in multiple regions including Indonesia and the North Atlantic islands. It exhibits distinct daily activity patterns with peak hunting during morning and afternoon hours.
Coleomegilla
Coleomegilla is a genus of lady beetles in the family Coccinellidae native to the Americas. The genus contains at least five described species, with Coleomegilla maculata (the pink-spotted or twelve-spotted lady beetle) being the most studied and economically significant. Members of this genus are generalist predators used in biological control programs, with C. maculata being notable as the only North American lady beetle known to complete its life cycle on plant pollen alone. The genus is distinguished from other coccinellids by its elongated body form and distinctive pink or reddish coloration with black spotting.
Coleomegilla maculata
spotted pink lady beetle, spotted lady beetle, pink spotted lady beetle, twelve-spotted lady beetle
Coleomegilla maculata is a native North American coccinellid beetle widely used in biological control programs. Adults and larvae are primarily aphid predators, though this species is unusual among North American lady beetles in its facultative pollen-feeding habit—pollen may constitute up to 50% of adult diet. The species shows increasing abundance and westward range expansion while many native coccinellids are declining, possibly due to its dietary flexibility reducing competitive impacts from invasive species. Multiple subspecies exist, with C. m. fuscilabris distinguished by bright orange-red rather than pink coloration.
Coleomegilla maculata strenua
12-spotted lady beetle, pink-spotted lady beetle
Coleomegilla maculata strenua is a subspecies of the 12-spotted lady beetle, a native North American coccinellid. Adults display a distinctive pink to reddish coloration with six black spots on each elytron. This subspecies is part of a species complex known for unusual dietary habits among lady beetles, including substantial consumption of plant pollen alongside typical predatory feeding.
Coleophora klimeschiella
Russian thistle casebearer
Coleophora klimeschiella is a casebearer moth in the family Coleophoridae, native to Asia Minor and Central Asia. It has been introduced to North America as a biological control agent for invasive Russian thistle (Salsola species). The species was first described by Toll in 1952.
Coleophora parthenica
Russian Thistle Stem Miner Moth
Coleophora parthenica is a case-bearing moth introduced to western North America as a biological control agent for invasive Russian thistle (Salsola spp.). Native to arid regions of North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, it was intentionally released in California, Nevada, Utah, Idaho, Arizona, and Hawaii. The species has proven ineffective as a biocontrol agent due to natural enemy pressure and phenological asynchrony with its host plant. Adults are creamy-white, and larvae are orange, approximately 17 mm at maturity.
Collops
soft-winged flower beetles
Collops is a genus of soft-winged flower beetles in the family Melyridae, containing at least 20 described species. These beetles are recognized as beneficial predators in agricultural systems, where they feed on pest insects including aphids and plant bug eggs. The genus has been studied extensively for its role in biological control, particularly in cotton and alfalfa systems in the southwestern United States. Collops beetles are frequently found on flowering plants where they hunt prey and may also utilize extrafloral nectaries.
Collops cribrosus
Collops beetle
Collops cribrosus is a soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae, first described by LeConte in 1852. The species belongs to the genus Collops, which comprises predatory beetles frequently associated with flowering plants where they hunt small arthropod prey. Like other members of its genus, C. cribrosus is recognized as a beneficial insect in agricultural contexts, serving as a natural enemy of pest insects. The species has been documented in western North America, with confirmed records from British Columbia.
Collops flavicinctus
Collops flavicinctus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae, subfamily Malachiinae. Members of the genus Collops are recognized as beneficial predators in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton production. The species is documented from the southwestern United States with iNaturalist records from Utah. Like other Collops species, it likely contributes to biological control of pest insects through predation on eggs and small arthropods.
Collops granellus
Collops granellus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. Like other members of the genus Collops, it is a predatory beetle associated with flowering plants, where it feeds on small insects and other arthropods. The genus is well-known in agricultural contexts as a beneficial predator in cotton and other crop systems.
Collops hirtellus
Hairy Soft-winged Flower Beetle
Collops hirtellus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae, first described by LeConte in 1876. It is one of several Collops species recognized as beneficial predators in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton production. The species has been documented in western Canada and is part of a genus known for predatory feeding habits on pest insects.
Collops limbellus
collops beetle, soft-winged flower beetle
Collops limbellus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. It belongs to a genus of predatory beetles frequently encountered on flowers, where they feed on smaller arthropods. The species is documented from western North America, with observations spanning arid and semi-arid regions. Like other members of the genus Collops, it likely plays a role as a generalist predator in agricultural and natural systems.
Collops marginellus
Collops marginellus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. The genus Collops comprises predatory beetles commonly found on flowers, where they feed on other small insects. These beetles are recognized as beneficial insects in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton production, where they contribute to biological control of pest populations. The species is part of a genus whose members are frequently encountered on flowering plants in arid and semi-arid regions of western North America.
Collops necopinus
Collops necopinus is a soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. Like other members of the genus Collops, it is a predatory beetle that feeds on small arthropods. The species has been documented in the southwestern United States, including New Mexico, and is associated with flowering plants where it hunts prey. Collops beetles are recognized as beneficial natural enemies in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton production.
Collops nigriceps
Eastern Coastal Collops
Collops nigriceps is a soft-winged flower beetle (family Melyridae) with a documented preference for flowers of Gutierrezia sarothrae (broom snakeweed) in the southwestern United States. The species has been collected in northeastern New Mexico and has been observed in association with other flower-visiting beetles including cerambycids and cantharids. As a member of the genus Collops, it likely functions as a generalist predator in flower-based arthropod communities.
Collops nigritus
Collops nigritus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae, subfamily Malachiinae. The genus Collops comprises predatory beetles commonly found on flowers where they feed on other small insects. Members of this genus are recognized as important natural enemies in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton and other crops, where they contribute to biological control of pest populations. Collops nigritus specifically has been documented as occurring in the southwestern United States and is associated with flowering plants in arid and semi-arid habitats.
Collops parvus
Collops parvus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. The genus Collops comprises predatory beetles frequently found on flowers, where they feed on other insects. C. parvus is one of numerous small, often brightly colored species in this genus that serve as important natural enemies of pest insects in agricultural and natural ecosystems.
Collops quadrimaculatus
four-spotted collops
Collops quadrimaculatus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae, commonly known as the four-spotted collops. It is recognized as a beneficial predator in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton production. The species occurs across Central and North America, with documented populations in Canada (Ontario, Québec), the United States, and Mexico. Adults are active during the growing season and are frequently recorded in field observations.
Collops reflexus
Collops reflexus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. Like other members of the genus Collops, it is a predatory beetle found in association with flowering plants. The genus is recognized for its ecological role as a predator of pest insects in agricultural systems, including cotton. Collops reflexus has been documented in field observations on flowers of Gutierrezia sarothrae (broom snakeweed) in northeastern New Mexico, where it occurs alongside other flower-visiting beetles.
Collops subtropicus
Collops subtropicus is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. The genus Collops comprises small, predatory beetles commonly found on flowers, where they feed on pollen and prey on other small insects. Members of this genus are recognized as beneficial predators in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton and other crops.
Collops vicarius
Collops vicarius is a species of soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae. The genus Collops comprises predatory beetles commonly found on flowers, where they feed on other insects. C. vicarius is part of a group of beneficial predatory insects utilized in biological control programs in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton production. Species in this genus are recognized as important natural enemies of pest insects.
Collops vittatus
Striped Collops, melyrid beetle
Collops vittatus is a small predatory soft-winged flower beetle in the family Melyridae, measuring approximately 5 mm in length. The species exhibits considerable geographic variation in coloration and morphology across its North American range. It has been documented as a predator of agricultural pests, particularly the spotted alfalfa aphid. The species is found from Canada through the United States to Central America, with notable morphological differences between northeastern and southwestern populations.
Collyria
Collyria is a genus of ichneumonid wasps in the subfamily Collyriinae. Species within this genus are specialized parasitoids of stem sawflies (Cephidae), particularly those infesting cereal crops such as wheat. The genus includes species that have been investigated and employed as biological control agents against wheat stem sawfly pests in North America and Europe. Members exhibit phenological synchrony with their hosts, with adults typically emerging earlier than host sawflies, and demonstrate complex host discrimination behaviors including variable superparasitism rates.
Collyria coxator
Collyria coxator is an ichneumonid wasp that acts as a specialized parasitoid of stem sawflies (Cephidae). It has been studied as a biological control agent for the common stem sawfly Cephus pygmaeus, a pest of winter cereals. Its effectiveness as a population regulator varies with summer weather conditions.
Collyriinae
Collyriinae is a subfamily of ichneumonid wasps (Ichneumonidae, Hymenoptera) known primarily as parasitoids of stem-sawflies (Cephidae). The subfamily includes genera such as Collyria and Bicurta. Species within this group have been documented as parasitoids of economically important stem-boring sawflies, with potential applications in biological control. Host records indicate specialization on Cephidae, though detailed biological information remains limited for many taxa.
Colobaea
snail-killing flies
Colobaea is a genus of 15 valid species of snail-killing flies in the family Sciomyzidae. Larvae of all reared species kill and consume freshwater nonoperculate pulmonate snails, with varying degrees of specialization. The genus occurs in both Palearctic and Nearctic regions.
Colpa
Colpa is a genus of scoliid wasps comprising 24 recognized species distributed across six subgenera. Phylogenetic analysis has repositioned this genus from the tribe Campsomerini to a sister-group relationship with Scoliini, rendering Campsomerini non-monophyletic. This taxonomic revision has prompted proposals for either establishing a new tribe Colpini or transferring the genus to Scoliini. Species occur across multiple continents including North America, Africa, and Eurasia.
Colpa octomaculata hermione
Colpa octomaculata hermione is a subspecies of scoliid wasp, a group commonly known as mammoth wasps. The parent species Colpa octomaculata is native to North America. Scoliid wasps are large-bodied parasitoids whose larvae develop on scarabaeid beetle grubs. Recent phylogenetic research indicates the genus Colpa is sister to the tribe Scoliini, which renders the tribe Campsomerini non-monophyletic. This subspecies represents part of a taxonomic group that has historically lacked modern systematic treatment.
Colpotrochia
Colpotrochia is a genus of ichneumon wasps in the subfamily Metopiinae, containing at least 61 described species. These small wasps, averaging 6–10 mm in body length, are larval-pupal endoparasitoids of Lepidoptera. Females use a short ovipositor to lay eggs in caterpillars, with wasps emerging from the host pupa rather than the adult moth. The genus has been recorded from North America, Brazil, and Europe.
Colpotrochia fultoni
Colpotrochia fultoni is a species of ichneumon wasp in the subfamily Metopiinae, first described by Townes & Townes in 1959. Like other members of its genus, it is a parasitoid that develops inside caterpillar hosts. The species is part of a North American genus with four recognized species, all restricted to the eastern United States ranging from the Atlantic coast to just west of the Mississippi River.
Comperiella
Comperiella is a genus of parasitic wasps in the family Encyrtidae, containing approximately 10 species. Species in this genus are internal parasitoids of armored scale insects (Diaspididae), with documented hosts including Aonidiella aurantii, A. citrina, A. orientalis, Aspidiotus rigidus, and Chrysomphalus ficus. Several species have been employed or studied as biological control agents against agricultural pests, particularly in citrus and coconut production systems. The genus was established by Howard in 1906.
Comperiella bifasciata
Comperiella bifasciata is a tiny parasitic wasp in the family Encyrtidae used extensively in biological control of armored scale insects on citrus. Two distinct biological races exist: a Japanese type that parasitizes yellow scale (Aonidiella citrina) and a Chinese type that parasitizes California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii). Despite being morphologically identical and capable of hybridizing in laboratory conditions, these races maintain separate identities in the field through natural selection against less fit hybrids. The species was first introduced to California in 1908 from Japan, but failed to establish on red scale due to a misidentification of its original host; successful establishment on red scale occurred only after subsequent introductions from China between 1947 and 1949.
Compsilura
Compsilura is a genus of tachinid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) established by Bouché in 1834. The genus includes several species, with Compsilura concinnata being the most extensively studied due to its historical use as a biological control agent. Species in this genus are parasitoids of Lepidoptera larvae and have been introduced to multiple continents for pest management. The genus has been implicated in unintended ecological impacts, particularly C. concinnata's role in declines of native silk moth populations in North America.
Compsilura concinnata
European Tachinid Fly
Compsilura concinnata is a polyphagous tachinid fly native to Europe that was introduced to North America in 1906 as a biological control agent for the spongy moth (Lymantria dispar). It is an endoparasitoid of insect larvae, developing within the host midgut and eventually killing it. The species attacks over 200 host species across Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera, but has proven ineffective against its intended target while causing significant non-target impacts on native Lepidoptera, including giant silk moths and monarch butterflies.
Compsobracon
Compsobracon is a genus of braconid parasitoid wasps. One species, C. mirabilis, has been observed parasitizing wood-boring Lepidoptera larvae by inserting its ovipositor directly through woody branches to reach hosts concealed inside. The genus belongs to the diverse family Braconidae, which contains thousands of parasitoid species attacking various insect hosts.
Condica
Condica is a genus of noctuid moths erected by Francis Walker in 1856. The genus contains approximately 60 described species distributed across multiple continents, with documented records from Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, and Australia. Several species are recognized as agricultural pests, particularly of safflower, sunflower, and cotton crops. The genus is classified within the subfamily Condicinae of the family Noctuidae.