Biological-control
Guides
Condylorrhiza vestigialis
Alamo Moth, Brazilian Poplar Moth
A crambid moth native to the Americas, known as the Alamo Moth or Brazilian Poplar Moth. Larvae are specialized feeders on Populus species, making this species a significant pest of poplar and cottonwood plantations in Brazil. Adults exhibit well-documented calling behavior, with virgin females releasing sex pheromones during specific nighttime hours to attract males. The species has been extensively studied for biological control applications, particularly for baculovirus production.
Condylostylus
long-legged flies
Condylostylus is a large genus of predatory flies in the family Dolichopodidae, comprising over 250 species and representing the second largest genus in the subfamily Sciapodinae. The genus exhibits exceptional diversity in the Neotropical realm, where approximately 70% of species occur. Members are small to medium-sized dolichopodids, typically displaying metallic coloration and characteristic long-legged morphology. The genus includes species with documented potential as biological control agents in agricultural settings.
Coniopteryginae
dusty lacewings
Coniopteryginae is a subfamily of dusty lacewings in the family Coniopterygidae, characterized by their small size and distinctive powdery or waxy coating that gives them a moth-like appearance. Members of this subfamily are among the smallest lacewings, with reduced wing venation compared to other neuropterans. They are primarily predatory as both larvae and adults, feeding on small soft-bodied arthropods such as mites and scale insects. The subfamily is distinguished from the other coniopterygid subfamily, Aleuropteryginae, by several morphological features including wing structure and genitalia.
Coniopteryx
dusty-wings
Coniopteryx is a genus of dusty-wing lacewings in the family Coniopterygidae. Adults are tiny insects covered with a powdery white wax coating produced by specialized abdominal glands. The genus has cosmopolitan distribution and is active during winter months when most other insects are dormant. Larvae are important predators of spider mites, scale insects, and whiteflies.
Conura
Conura is a large genus of chalcidid wasps comprising over 300 described species, with approximately 295 species occurring in the New World. The genus is divided into three subgenera and 63 species groups based on morphological patterns. Species exhibit diverse life history strategies including primary parasitism of lepidopteran pupae and hyperparasitism through other parasitoid wasps.
Conura albifrons
Conura albifrons is a native North American hyperparasitoid wasp in the family Chalcididae. It has been documented attacking Diadromus pulchellus, an exotic ichneumonid parasitoid introduced for biological control of the leek moth (Acrolepiopsis assectella). This hyperparasitoid relationship represents a potential challenge to biological control programs, as native hyperparasitoids can reduce the effectiveness of introduced natural enemies. The species is recorded from multiple Canadian provinces including Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, and New Brunswick.
Copidosoma
copidosoma wasp
Copidosoma is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Encyrtidae, comprising over 200 species of polyembryonic parasitoids. These wasps deposit one or two eggs into host Lepidoptera eggs, which then proliferate into thousands of genetically identical embryos. A unique caste system produces two larval morphs: sterile soldiers that defend the host from competitors and reproductive larvae that consume the host and emerge as adults. The genus has been extensively studied for its extreme clonal reproduction and is widely used in biological control programs against agricultural pests.
Copidosoma floridanum
Copidosoma floridanum is a polyembryonic parasitoid wasp in the family Encyrtidae, notable for producing the largest recorded brood of any parasitoidal insect—up to 3,055 individuals from a single egg. Females oviposit into the eggs of plusiine moths, and the resulting embryos undergo clonal division to form genetically identical siblings. The brood develops into two distinct castes: reproductive larvae that emerge as adult wasps, and sterile soldier larvae that defend their siblings from competitors.
Corythucha arcuata
oak lace bug
Corythucha arcuata, the oak lace bug, is a small sap-sucking insect in the family Tingidae native to North America. First detected in Europe in 2000, it has become a major invasive pest across more than 20 EU countries, causing significant damage to oak forests. The species overwinters as adults and produces multiple overlapping generations per year, with development rates and generation number determined by thermal accumulation. In its invaded range, it lacks effective natural enemies, prompting investigation of classical biological control using the egg parasitoid Erythmelus klopomor from its native range.
Cosmocomoidea
Cosmocomoidea is a genus of fairyflies (Mymaridae) established by Howard in 1908. Species within this genus are solitary egg parasitoids primarily associated with sharpshooter leafhoppers (Cicadellidae: Cicadellinae), which are vectors of plant pathogens including Xylella fastidiosa. The genus has been documented from Asia (China, Taiwan, Japan, India), Europe (Denmark, Sweden), and South America, with C. annulicornis being the most extensively studied species due to its potential as a biological control agent.
Cosmocomoidea ashmeadi
Cosmocomoidea ashmeadi is a species of fairyfly in the family Mymaridae, described by Girault in 1915. The genus Cosmocomoidea was established to accommodate species previously placed in other mymarid genera. Members of this genus are egg parasitoids, typically attacking eggs of Hemiptera. The species is part of a group of minute wasps that are important biological control agents in various agricultural systems.
Cotesia
Cotesia is a genus of braconid wasps widely recognized for their role as parasitoids of caterpillars. Female wasps use an ovipositor to deposit eggs inside host caterpillars, and simultaneously inject polydnaviruses that suppress the host's immune system. Developing wasp larvae feed on host tissues, then emerge through the skin and spin white silk cocoons on the exterior of the caterpillar. Several species are employed in biological control programs against agricultural pests.
Cotesia congregata
Hornworm Parasitoid Wasp
Cotesia congregata is a gregarious endoparasitoid wasp and a model organism in insect physiology research. Females oviposit eggs into caterpillar hosts, primarily tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta) and tomato hornworm (Manduca quinquemaculata), simultaneously injecting a symbiotic polydnavirus (CcBV) and venom. The virus suppresses host immune defenses and disrupts development, allowing wasp larvae to complete their growth inside the living host. Mature larvae emerge through the host cuticle and spin white silk cocoons on the exterior surface. The wasp exhibits post-emergence learning of host plant cues, with a critical learning window of 0–4 hours after adult emergence.
Cotesia electrae
Cotesia electrae is a species of parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae. It belongs to a genus well-known for biological control of caterpillar pests. The species was described by Viereck in 1912 and is present in North America and Middle America. Very few observations of this species have been recorded.
Cotesia empretiae
Saddleback Caterpillar Parasitoid Wasp
Cotesia empretiae is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae that specializes in attacking caterpillars, particularly the saddleback caterpillar (Acharia stimulea). Females hunt actively on foliage, using their ovipositor to deposit eggs inside host caterpillars. The wasp larvae develop internally, eventually emerging through the host's skin to spin characteristic white silk cocoons on the exterior. Like other Cotesia species, this wasp transmits a polydnavirus during oviposition that suppresses the host's immune system, enabling successful parasitoid development.
Cotesia glomerata
white butterfly parasite, Cabbage White Parasitoid Wasp
Cotesia glomerata is a small gregarious parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae that specializes in attacking caterpillars of Pieris butterflies, particularly the large white (Pieris brassicae) and small white (Pieris rapae). Females deposit 16–52 eggs into a single host caterpillar, where the larvae develop internally for 15–20 days before emerging and spinning white silken cocoons in clusters on or near the host. The species exhibits complex behavioral adaptations including superparasitism, local mate competition with highly female-biased sex ratios, and protandry with males emerging before females. Originally described by Linnaeus in 1758, it has been widely introduced for biological control of cabbage pests and occurs across multiple continents.
Cotesia hemileucae
Cotesia hemileucae is a parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae that specializes in attacking caterpillars. It is a koinobiont endoparasitoid, meaning it develops inside a living host. The species is known to parasitize the saddleback caterpillar (Acharia stimulea), a stinging limacodid caterpillar. Like other Cotesia species, it employs polydnaviruses to suppress the host immune system, enabling its larvae to develop successfully.
Cotesia theclae
Cotesia theclae is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae that parasitizes caterpillars of lycaenid butterflies. The species was described by Riley in 1881 and has been documented as a parasitoid of larval Lycaena xanthoides, representing a new host record reported in 2007. Like other members of the genus Cotesia, it is presumed to use polydnaviruses to suppress host immune systems, though this specific mechanism has not been directly confirmed for C. theclae.
Crabronini
square-headed wasps
Crabronini is a tribe of solitary wasps in the family Crabronidae, comprising 48 genera and over 1,500 described species. Members are predominantly small to very small wasps characterized by square-shaped heads in most genera. The tribe exhibits diverse prey specialization, with most genera hunting flies (Diptera) while some, such as Anacrabro, target plant bugs (Hemiptera: Miridae). Nesting habits vary from ground burrows to cavities in rotting wood.
Crambus
sod webworm moth, crambid snout moth
Crambus is a genus of approximately 155 species of crambid moths distributed globally. Adults are small snout moths with elongated labial palps, while larvae are known as sod webworms—significant pests of turfgrass and pasture grasses. The genus exhibits considerable variation in life history strategies, with some species bivoltine and others univoltine. Larval feeding damage is most pronounced during drought conditions and in closely mown turf.
Cremastinae
Cremastinae is a worldwide subfamily of parasitoid wasps within Ichneumonidae. Members are koinobiont endoparasitoids, primarily attacking concealed larvae of Lepidoptera. Several genera, including Pristomerus, have been used in biological control programs. The subfamily exhibits high diversity in tropical regions, with numerous undescribed species.
Cremastobombycia
A genus of micromoths in the family Gracillariidae, subfamily Lithocolletinae. Species are leaf miners primarily associated with Asteraceae host plants. The genus was established by Braun in 1908 and includes at least nine described species distributed across the Americas, with recent discoveries extending its range to South American high-elevation Andean habitats. Several species have been investigated for biological control of invasive plants.
Cremastobombycia chromolaenae
Cremastobombycia chromolaenae is a leaf-mining moth in the family Gracillariidae, described in 2013 by Davis. The species is a natural enemy of Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed), an invasive plant in the Asteraceae family. Its larvae feed as leaf miners within the host plant tissue.
Cremnops
Pegasus wasps
Cremnops is a genus of braconid wasps in the subfamily Agathidinae, commonly called 'Pegasus wasps' due to their distinctive elongated, horse-like head shape. These relatively large braconids (6–10 mm) are known parasitoids of caterpillars in the families Pyralidae and Crambidae. The genus occurs in terrestrial habitats worldwide, with documented species in North America, Europe, Japan, and the Middle East. Thirty-three New World species have been revised, including five described in 2015.
Cremnops ashmeadi
Pegasus wasp
Cremnops ashmeadi is a species of braconid wasp in the subfamily Agathidinae, first described by Morrison in 1917. Like other members of the genus Cremnops, it is characterized by an elongated, equine-like head that superficially resembles the mythological winged horse Pegasus, leading to the common name 'Pegasus wasps' for this genus. Species of Cremnops are parasitoids of caterpillars, specifically targeting larvae in the families Pyralidae and Crambidae. The genus occurs in terrestrial habitats worldwide, with C. ashmeadi known from North America.
Cremnops comstocki
Pegasus wasp
Cremnops comstocki is a species of braconid wasp in the subfamily Agathidinae. Like other members of the genus Cremnops, it is known to be a parasitoid of caterpillars in the families Pyralidae and Crambidae. The species was described by Morrison in 1917 and occurs in North America. Members of this genus are sometimes called 'Pegasus wasps' due to their distinctive elongated, horse-like head shape.
Cremnops crassifemur
Cremnops crassifemur is a braconid wasp in the subfamily Agathidinae, first described by Muesebeck in 1927. Like other members of its genus, it is a parasitoid wasp that attacks caterpillars. Species in this genus are relatively large compared to many other braconids and possess distinctive morphological features.
Cremnops desertor
Cremnops desertor is a braconid wasp in the subfamily Agathidinae, originally described by Linnaeus in 1758. The species has a broad distribution spanning Europe, North America, and Southern Asia. Like other members of its genus, it is a parasitoid wasp with a distinctive elongated, equine-like head shape.
Cremnops haematodes
Cremnops haematodes is a species of braconid wasp in the subfamily Agathidinae, first described by Brullé in 1846. It was previously known under the synonym C. nigrosternum (Morrison, 1917) until a 2015 revision synonymized the two names. Like other members of its genus, it is a parasitoid wasp targeting caterpillars, particularly those in the families Pyralidae and Crambidae. The species occurs in the Caribbean and North America.
Creophilus
hairy rove beetle
Creophilus is a genus of large rove beetles (Staphylinidae) containing some of the largest species in the family, reaching up to 30 mm in length. The genus includes approximately 12 described species distributed globally, with C. maxillosus being the most widely studied due to its forensic significance. Species in this genus are strongly associated with carrion habitats where they function as predators of fly larvae. The genus was revised in 2011, with two new species described and several synonymizations.
Creophilus maxillosus
hairy rove beetle
Creophilus maxillosus, commonly known as the hairy rove beetle, is a large predatory rove beetle in the family Staphylinidae. Adults measure 12–18 mm and are characterized by shiny black coloration with distinctive golden setae on the head, pronotum, and posterior abdominal segments. The species is strongly associated with carrion and decomposition environments, where it functions as both a scavenger and active predator of fly larvae. It has forensic significance for estimating post-mortem intervals, though its widespread distribution and transient nature limit its utility as a geographic indicator. The beetle possesses chemical defense glands that secrete irritant compounds when threatened.
Cricotopus
non-biting midges
Cricotopus is a large and diverse genus of non-biting midges in the family Chironomidae, subfamily Orthocladiinae. Species occupy a wide range of freshwater and estuarine habitats globally, from pristine glacial streams to degraded urban waterways. Some species are specialized stem miners of aquatic plants, including C. lebetis which targets invasive hydrilla. The genus includes species with documented mutualistic relationships with cyanobacteria (Nostoc), as well as species used in biomonitoring and ecotoxicological research.
Crioceris
asparagus beetle
Crioceris is a genus of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) commonly known as asparagus beetles. The genus includes both widespread agricultural pests and rare species restricted to specialized habitats. Several species are associated with Asparagus host plants, with C. asparagi and C. duodecimpunctata being notable invasive pests. Other species such as C. quinquepunctata and C. quatuordecimpunctata are rare and occupy steppe-like habitats in Eurasia. The genus has been subject to molecular barcoding studies to distinguish closely related species.
Crocidosema
Crocidosema is a genus of tortrix moths in the family Tortricidae, tribe Eucosmini, subfamily Olethreutinae. The genus contains approximately 29 described species, distributed primarily in the Southern Hemisphere with particular abundance in the Neotropics. Some species occur in other regions, including the Hawaiian Islands. The genus includes both agricultural pests and species used in biological control.
Crocidosema aporema
bean shoot moth
Crocidosema aporema is a Neotropical tortricid moth and significant agricultural pest of legumes, particularly soybean, in the southern cone of South America. The species originated in Central America and has spread throughout South America, where it causes economic damage by larval feeding on vegetative plant parts, flowers, and developing seeds. Adults are nocturnal, with females exhibiting characteristic calling behavior during the scotophase to attract mates. The species is monoandrous and has been subject to increasing study due to its pest status and the need for integrated pest management strategies.
Crossopriza lyoni
Tailed Cellar Spider, Tailed Daddy Longlegs Spider, Box Spider
Crossopriza lyoni is a cosmopolitan cellar spider (Pholcidae) characterized by extremely long, fragile legs and a distinctive box-shaped abdomen. Females reach 3–7 mm in body length, males 2.5–6 mm, with leg spans up to 6 cm. The species is synanthropic, thriving in human dwellings worldwide, particularly in tropical to subtropical regions. It constructs extensive, irregular cobweb-like webs and is often regarded as both a household pest and beneficial predator of mosquitoes and other arthropods. Native range unknown; now pantropical through human-mediated introduction.
Cryptina
Cryptina is a subtribe of ichneumon wasps within the family Ichneumonidae. Members are parasitoid wasps that attack the larvae of various moth families. The subtribe includes genera such as Mesostenus, which are characterized by bold color patterns and elongated ovipositors in females.
Cryptinae
cryptine wasps, geline wasps
Cryptinae is a large subfamily of ichneumon wasps comprising approximately 273 genera across two tribes (Aptesini and Cryptini). Members are characterized by distinctive morphological features including a five-sided areolet, short sternaulus, and convex clypeus creating a puffy facial appearance. The subfamily has undergone extensive taxonomic revision, with the name Cryptinae stabilized by ICZN Opinion 1715 in 1994. Species are distributed worldwide and function as parasitoids, primarily attacking concealed hosts such as caterpillars and other insects in protected substrates.
Cryptochetidae
Cryptochetidae is a small family of minute flies (2–4 mm) in the order Diptera. Adults are typically metallic blue-black with a stout build, broad high head, and clear wings. The family is distinguished by reduced or absent aristae on the antennae, a trait reflected in its name meaning 'hidden bristles'. Larvae are endoparasitoids of scale insects (Coccidae), with some species used in biological control. Approximately 20–30 species are known across three genera, primarily distributed in tropical regions.
Cryptochetum
Cryptochetum is a genus of parasitoid flies in the family Cryptochetidae, containing more than 30 described species. These flies are specialized parasites of scale insects (Hemiptera), with at least one species, C. jorgepastori, documented as emerging from mealybugs on palms. The genus has been recorded across multiple regions, including a first record from Jordan in 2022.
Cryptochetum iceryae
cottony cushion scale parasite, cottony cushion scale parasitoid
Cryptochetum iceryae is a parasitic fly in the family Cryptochetidae, native to Australia. It was deliberately introduced to California in the 1880s as a biological control agent against the cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi), a major pest of citrus crops. The species has since been introduced to Israel and South America for similar purposes. In 2019, it was discovered in the United Kingdom for the first time, identified in the wildlife garden at the Natural History Museum in London.
biological-controlparasitoidagricultural-pest-managementDipteraCryptochetidaeclassical-biological-controlcitrus-pestinvasive-species-managementAustralia-native1880s-introductionCaliforniaIsraelSouth-AmericaUnited-Kingdom-2019-discoveryNatural-History-Museum-Londonscale-insect-parasiteendoparasitoidIcerya-purchasicottony-cushion-scalesuccessful-biocontrolintegrated-pest-managementvedalia-beetle-complementWilliston-1888Lestophonus-iceryaeCryptococcus
Cryptococcus is a genus of basidiomycete fungi in the family Cryptococcaceae, encompassing both yeast and filamentous forms. The genus includes medically significant species such as C. neoformans and C. gattii, which cause cryptococcosis, a potentially fatal systemic mycosis particularly affecting immunocompromised individuals. Species exhibit dimorphism, existing as encapsulated yeasts in environmental and clinical settings, with sexual reproduction producing basidiospores via club-shaped basidia. The polysaccharide capsule, particularly glucuronoxylomannan (GXM), serves as the primary virulence factor in pathogenic species.
Cryptognatha
Cryptognatha is a genus of lady beetles (family Coccinellidae) established by Mulsant in 1850. The genus contains at least 40 described species, with members distributed across tropical and subtropical regions. At least one species, Cryptognatha nodiceps, has been studied as a potential biological control agent against scale insects.
Cryptognatha nodiceps
coconut scale predator, sugarcane scale predator
Cryptognatha nodiceps is a small lady beetle introduced to multiple tropical and subtropical regions as a biological control agent targeting scale insects. Native to Trinidad and Tobago, it has established populations across the Caribbean, Florida, and various Pacific and Indian Ocean islands. Both larvae and adults are specialized predators of armored and soft scales, particularly the coconut scale (Aspidiotus destructor). The species has been deliberately released in numerous countries to manage coconut scale outbreaks in coconut-growing regions.
Cryptolaemus
Cryptolaemus is a genus of predatory lady beetles (Coccinellidae) native to eastern Australia, New Guinea, and Indonesia. The genus contains approximately 40 species, with Cryptolaemus montrouzieri being the most widely known and commercially important. Both larvae and adults prey primarily upon mealybugs and other scale insects. C. montrouzieri has been introduced globally as a biological control agent and is commonly known as the mealybug destroyer.
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
Mealybug Destroyer, Mealybug Ladybird
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri is a small ladybird beetle native to eastern Australia, widely used as a biological control agent against mealybugs and scale insects in agricultural and horticultural systems globally. Adults are approximately 6 mm long with dark brown elytra and orange-brown head, pronotum, and appendages. Larvae reach 14–15 mm and are covered in white waxy filaments that provide aggressive mimicry of their mealybug prey, potentially protecting them from ant aggression. The species has been introduced to numerous regions including California (1891), Europe, and New Zealand for classical biological control of citrus mealybug and related pests.
Cryptomeigenia
Cryptomeigenia is a genus of tachinid flies comprising 17 described species. Members are parasitoids of adult scarab beetles, with documented host specificity to Phyllophaga rufotestacea in at least one studied population. The genus was established by Brauer & Bergenstamm in 1891 and is classified within the tribe Blondeliini.
Cryptoxilos
Cryptoxilos is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Euphorinae, established by Henry Lorenz Viereck in 1911 with C. dichromorphus as the type species. The genus contains eight described species distributed across multiple continents. Members are known to parasitize adult bark beetles (Scolytinae, Coleoptera), with documented associations including Chaetoptelius mundulus in New Zealand and Hypothenemus species in Fiji.
Ctenarytaina
eucalyptus psyllids, blue gum psyllids
Ctenarytaina is a genus of jumping plant lice (psyllids) in the family Aphalaridae, native to Australia and associated primarily with Myrtaceae. The genus includes economically significant pest species that have been introduced to multiple continents, particularly Ctenarytaina eucalypti, which threatens eucalyptus forestry and ornamental foliage industries. Several species have established adventive populations outside their native ranges, with documented impacts in Ireland, Chile, Colombia, and other regions. The genus exhibits strong host plant associations, with most species being monophagous or narrowly oligophagous on Eucalyptus, Syzygium, and other Myrtaceae.
Ctenarytaina eucalypti
Bluegum psyllid, Eucalyptus psyllid
Ctenarytaina eucalypti is a small psyllid (jumping plant louse) native to Australia that has become an invasive pest of Eucalyptus trees worldwide. It feeds on phloem sap, causing damage to young foliage and producing honeydew that promotes sooty mold growth. The species has established populations in Europe, North America, South America, and elsewhere, often threatening ornamental and commercial Eucalyptus plantations. Its life cycle includes multiple overlapping generations per year with complex overwintering strategies involving eggs and nymphs in temperate climates.