Pheromone

Guides

Pyroderces
cosmet moths
Pyroderces is a genus of small moths in the family Cosmopterigidae, subfamily Cosmopteriginae. The genus includes species with diverse ecological roles: some, such as Pyroderces rileyi, are agricultural pests of banana and other crops, while others have been identified as potential supplementary pollinators of oil palm in Malaysia. The genus was established by Herrich-Schäffer in 1853. Taxonomic boundaries remain fluid, with some authors including the genus Anatrachyntis within Pyroderces.
agricultural-pest pollinator oil-palm banana Cosmopterigidae tropical-agriculture pheromone integrated-pest-management
Scolytus mali
larger shothole borer, apple bark beetle, large fruit bark beetle
Scolytus mali is a bark beetle native to Europe that has become invasive in North America. It is commonly known as the larger shothole borer or apple bark beetle, reflecting its association with fruit trees. The species exhibits brief maturation feeding on living but weakened apple trees before aggregating for breeding in response to female-produced pheromones. Both sexes possess a well-developed gular-prosternal stridulatory apparatus and produce characteristic double chirps through head movement, with distinct acoustic differences between stress and attraction signals.
bark-beetle pest invasive acoustic-communication pheromone fruit-tree-pest
Scyphophorus
agave weevils, sisal weevils
Scyphophorus is a genus of snout and bark beetles in the subfamily Dryophthorinae, comprising approximately seven described species. The genus is best known for Scyphophorus acupunctatus, commonly called the agave weevil or sisal weevil, which is a major pest of agave crops worldwide. Species in this genus are native to the Americas but have been introduced to multiple continents through global plant trade. The genus is characterized by its association with plants in the families Asparagaceae (Agavoideae) and Asparagaceae (Nolinoideae, formerly Dracaenaceae).
pest invasive agriculture pheromone agave tequila mezcal sisal weevil Curculionidae
Scyphophorus acupunctatus
agave weevil, sisal weevil, picudo del agave
Scyphophorus acupunctatus is a specialized weevil native to Central and North America that has become a globally significant pest of agaves and related plants. Adults bore into agave stalks and rosettes, creating entry points for pathogenic bacteria and fungi that ultimately kill the host plant. The species has established invasive populations across Europe, Africa, Asia, Oceania, and South America, facilitated by the international trade of ornamental agaves. Its economic impact is particularly severe on Agave tequilana, threatening the tequila industry, and on wild agave populations important for mezcal production and ecosystem stability.
pest invasive agricultural curculionidae agave tequila mezcales biological-control pheromone climate-change
Sesiidae
Clearwing Moths
Sesiidae, known as clearwing moths, is a family of diurnal moths in the order Lepidoptera comprising 165 genera and over 1,500 species. The family is distinguished by Batesian mimicry of Hymenoptera, with transparent wing areas created by reduced scaling, elongated bodies, and wasp-like coloration and flight behavior. Most species are tropical, though significant diversity occurs in the Holarctic region including over 100 European species. Larvae are concealed borers in wood, stems, or roots, with some species causing serious economic damage to fruit trees, timber, and crops.
diurnal mimicry Batesian-mimicry Hymenoptera-mimicry transparent-wings borer pest pheromone
Sinella curviseta
Sinella curviseta is a slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae, widely used as a model organism in soil ecology and ecotoxicology. The species produces curvisetone, a male-specific tricyclic nor-diterpenoid with an unprecedented carbon skeleton, which peaks before oviposition and may function in reproductive communication. It is among the most abundant soil arthropods in many temperate ecosystems.
model-organism fungivore soil-arthropod chemical-ecology pheromone
Sphenophorus venatus
hunting billbug
Sphenophorus venatus, commonly known as the hunting billbug, is a weevil species in the family Dryophthoridae. It is native to North and Central America, with established populations in parts of Europe including Spain and Corsica. The species is a documented pest of turfgrasses and forage crops, with different subspecies showing host preferences: S. v. vestitus affects zoysiagrass, while S. v. confluens has been recorded as a pest of orchardgrass. Adults and larvae feed on grasses, with larvae causing damage by boring into stems and roots. The species uses volatile organic compounds from host plants and conspecifics for dispersal and host-finding, with males attracted to Cynodon dactylon and females attracted to male conspecifics.
billbug weevil turfgrass-pest Dryophthoridae Sphenophorus hunting-billbug grass-pest pheromone volatile-organic-compounds cuticular-hydrocarbons integrated-pest-management subspecies-vestitus subspecies-confluens zoysiagrass orchardgrass bermudagrass North-America introduced-species Europe molecular-identification COI ITS2
Sphenophorus venatus venatus
hunting billbug
Sphenophorus venatus venatus is a subspecies of hunting billbug, a weevil in the family Dryophthoridae. It is widely distributed across North America and has been documented in Middle America, Spain, and Corsica. This subspecies is associated with grass habitats, particularly Cynodon dactylon (bermudagrass), and exhibits chemically-mediated host and mate recognition behaviors. Males are attracted to host-plant volatiles and conspecific cues, while females respond to male conspecifics. The species uses both volatile and contact chemical cues for orientation and recognition.
billbug weevil turfgrass-pest chemical-ecology pheromone cuticular-hydrocarbons Dryophthoridae Cynodon-dactylon host-recognition mate-recognition North-America
Spoladea
beet webworm, Hawaiian beet webworm, amaranth leaf-webber
Spoladea is a genus of Crambidae moths containing two described species, with S. recurvalis being a significant agricultural pest of amaranth, spinach, and sugar beet across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. The genus was established by Guenée in 1854. S. recurvalis has achieved nearly cosmopolitan distribution through human-mediated dispersal and is subject to intensive study for molecular mechanisms of pheromone production, flight behavior, and host plant interactions to support integrated pest management.
agricultural-pest amaranth-pest biological-control transcriptome pheromone flight-behavior expanding-range citizen-science
Stictocephala stimulea
Stictocephala stimulea is a treehopper species in the family Membracidae, first described by Van Duzee in 1914. Treehoppers in this genus are characterized by their enlarged, often ornate pronotum that extends over the body like a helmet or thorn. The specific epithet 'stimulea' suggests possible resemblance to or association with stinging organisms, though this refers to appearance rather than actual sting. Like other membracids, this species likely feeds on plant phloem sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts.
Membracidae treehopper Auchenorrhyncha Cicadomorpha Stictocephala Ceresini Smiliinae Hemiptera sap-feeder pronotum helmet thorn-mimicry plant-feeding-insect phloem-feeder cryptic-coloration camouflage Van-Duzee-1914 Nearctic North-America Florida North-Carolina South-Dakota understudied-species data-deficient taxonomy entomology insect arthropod true-bug auchenorrhynchan cicadomorph leafhopper-relative plant-hopper ornate-pronotum pronotal-extension dorsal-helmet insect-morphology insect-systematics biodiversity natural-history conservation insect-ecology insect-behavior insect-development insect-distribution biogeography species-description type-specimen original-description historical-taxonomy museum-specimen collection-record occurrence-data GBIF iNaturalist citizen-science observation-record range-map distribution-data geographic-range endemic native-species regional-fauna local-biodiversity habitat-specificity host-plant feeding-guild phytophagous herbivore plant-insect-interaction coevolution mimicry defense crypsis evolutionary-adaptation morphological-adaptation exoskeleton-modification structural-coloration insect-identification field-guide diagnostic-character taxonomic-key species-complex cryptic-species morphological-variation geographic-variation phenotypic-plasticity life-history reproduction oviposition nymph instar metamorphosis hemimetabolous incomplete-metamorphosis population-dynamics community-ecology food-web trophic-level primary-consumer ecosystem-function nutrient-cycling energy-flow biological-control pest-status agricultural-relevance forestry urban-ecology invasive-potential climate-change habitat-loss conservation-status data-gap research-need taxonomic-revision phylogenetics molecular-systematics DNA-barcoding integrative-taxonomy natural-history-collection specimen-digitization open-data FAIR-data biodiversity-informatics biological-database taxonomic-authority nomenclature zoological-nomenclature International-Code-of-Zoological-Nomenclature type-locality type-specimen-deposition author-citation original-combination current-combination synonymy homonymy nomenclatural-act taxonomic-history classification-system phylogenetic-classification evolutionary-relationships monophyly clade lineage stem-group crown-group divergence-time molecular-clock fossil-record paleontology extant extinct living-fossil evolutionary-history biogeographic-history dispersal vicariance range-expansion range-contraction refugium glacial-relict postglacial-colonization anthropogenic-impact human-disturbance land-use-change urbanization agricultural-intensification pesticide-use habitat-fragmentation connectivity corridor protected-area conservation-planning systematic-conservation-planning priority-area hotspot endemic-area center-of-origin center-of-diversity evolutionary-significant-unit management-unit population metapopulation source-sink-dynamics demography vital-rates survival fecundity generation-time population-growth-rate carrying-capacity density-dependence regulation limiting-factor environmental-stochasticity demographic-stochasticity genetic-stochasticity inbreeding-depression outbreeding-depression genetic-diversity heterozygosity allelic-richness effective-population-size genetic-drift gene-flow migration isolation-by-distance isolation-by-resistance landscape-genetics population-genomics phylogeography historical-demography coalescent-theory approximate-Bayesian-computation species-distribution-model ecological-niche-model habitat-suitability bioclimatic-envelope climate-envelope niche-conservatism niche-evolution realized-niche fundamental-niche biotic-interaction competition predation parasitism mutualism commensalism amensalism facilitation apparent-competition indirect-interaction trophic-cascade top-down-control bottom-up-control mesopredator-release keystone-species ecosystem-engineer foundation-species dominant-species characteristic-species indicator-species umbrella-species flagship-species surrogate-species focal-species target-species pest-species invasive-species naturalized-species alien-species non-native-species introduced-species cryptogenic-species range-shift poleward-shift elevational-shift phenological-shift temporal-mismatch trophic-mismatch phenology seasonality voltinism univoltine bivoltine multivoltine partial-generation prolonged-diapause aestivation hibernation overwintering overwintering-strategy cold-hardiness freeze-tolerance freeze-avoidance supercooling cryoprotectant thermal-biology thermoregulation behavioral-thermoregulation microclimate-selection habitat-selection oviposition-site-selection host-selection mate-choice sexual-selection sperm-competition cryptic-female-choice reproductive-isolation prezygotic-isolation postzygotic-isolation speciation allopatric-speciation sympatric-speciation parapatric-speciation peripatric-speciation reinforcement hybridization introgression hybrid-zone cline ecotone contact-zone secondary-contact exogenous-selection endogenous-selection ecological-speciation mutation-order-speciation sexual-conflict sexual-dimorphism sexual-size-dimorphism sexual-dichromatism polymorphism color-polymorphism morph phase gregarious-phase solitary-phase density-dependent-polyphenism reaction-norm genotype-environment-interaction plasticity canalization genetic-assimilation acclimation acclimatization hardening stress-response heat-shock-protein oxidative-stress hypoxia desiccation starvation immune-response innate-immunity humoral-immunity cellular-immunity encapsulation nodulation phagocytosis melanization antimicrobial-peptide phenoloxidase prophenoloxidase lysozyme defensin cecropin diptericin attacin immune-gene immune-pathway Toll-pathway Imd-pathway JAK-STAT-pathway NF-κB relish dorsal immune-memory specific-immunity transgenerational-immune-priming gut-microbiome symbiosis obligate-symbiont facultative-symbiont primary-symbiont secondary-symbiont vertical-transmission horizontal-transmission mixed-mode-transmission nutritional-symbiosis defensive-symbiosis digestive-symbiosis detoxification metabolism biosynthesis vitamin-synthesis amino-acid-synthesis steroid-synthesis cuticle-synthesis chitin-synthesis molting ecdysis ecdysteroid juvenile-hormone insulin-signaling TOR-signaling nutrient-sensing energy-storage lipid-metabolism carbohydrate-metabolism protein-metabolism flight-metabolism respiration tracheal-system spiracle gas-exchange water-balance osmoregulation excretion Malpighian-tubule hindgut rectum cryptonephridial-system ion-transport water-reabsorption nitrogenous-waste uric-acid urea ammonia detoxification-enzyme cytochrome-P450 glutathione-S-transferase carboxylesterase mixed-function-oxidase resistance insecticide-resistance acaricide-resistance herbicide-resistance antibiotic-resistance resistance-management resistance-evolution resistance-mechanism target-site-resistance metabolic-resistance behavioral-resistance cuticular-resistance resistance-allele resistance-gene fitness-cost fitness-benefit pleiotropy trade-off life-history-trade-off allocation resource-allocation energy-allocation time-allocation foraging optimal-foraging central-place-foraging patch-use marginal-value-theorem predator-avoidance antipredator-defense masquerade Batesian-mimicry Müllerian-mimicry automimicry intraspecific-mimicry intersexual-mimicry aggressive-mimicry social-parasitism brood-parasitism kleptoparasitism defense-behavior thanatosis death-feigning startle-display deimatic-display eyespot deflection-mark autotomy reflex-bleeding regurgitation defensive-secretion venom toxin allomone kairomone synomone semiochemical pheromone sex-pheromone aggregation-pheromone alarm-pheromone trail-pheromone territorial-pheromone recognition-pheromone signature-mixture cuticular-hydrocarbon volatile-organic-compound olfaction gustation mechanoreception thermoreception hygroreception photoreception vision compound-eye ommatidium rhabdom visual-pigment opsin color-vision polarization-vision motion-detection optomotor-response phototaxis photoperiodism circadian-rhythm biological-clock entrainment zeitgeber circannual-rhythm photoperiod day-length critical-day-length critical-photoperiod diapause-induction diapause-termination diapause-maintenance diapause-development endocrine-control neuroendocrine corpus-allatum corpus-cardiacum prothoracic-gland ecdysiotropin ecdysiostatin allatostatin allatotropin neuropeptide hormone hormone-receptor signal-transduction gene-expression transcription-factor regulatory-gene structural-gene gene-network gene-regulatory-network developmental-gene Hox-gene homeobox segment-polarity-gene gap-gene pair-rule-gene maternal-effect-gene zygotic-gene embryonic-development embryogenesis cleavage blastoderm gastrulation segmentation tagmosis appendage-development imaginal-disc holometabolous complete-metamorphosis larva pupa adult apolysis teneral sclerotization tanning cuticle exoskeleton epicuticle procuticle exocuticle endocuticle resilin sclerotin chitin protein lipid wax cement-layer wax-layer surface-lipid waterproofing anti-wetting anti-fouling self-cleaning structural-color pigmentary-color ommin pteridine carotenoid melanin papiliochrome flavonoid anthocyanin betalain iridescence photonic-crystal diffraction-grating thin-film-interference multilayer-reflector scattering Tyndall-scattering Rayleigh-scattering Mie-scattering non-iridescent-structural-color biochrome biofluorescence bioluminescence luciferin luciferase photoprotein bioluminescent-system counter-illumination burglar-alarm lure communication mate-recognition predator-deterrence aposematism warning-coloration honest-signal dishonest-signal signal-evolution signal-design receiver-psychology sensory-bias sensory-exploitation sensory-trap amplifier attenuator signal-efficacy signal-honesty handicap-principle index-signal conventional-signal assessment-signal territorial-signal dominance-signal submissive-signal aggressive-signal courtship-signal copulatory-signal postcopulatory-signal antagonistic-coevolution chase-away-selection sensory-drive reproductive-character-displacement genetic-exchange admixture hybrid-fitness hybrid-breakdown hybrid-vigor heterosis genetic-load mutational-meltdown founder-effect bottleneck population-expansion invasion-genetics propagule-pressure introduction-effort establishment spread lag-phase exponential-growth logistic-growth Allee-effect demographic-Allee-effect component-Allee-effect strong-Allee-effect weak-Allee-effect critical-population-size minimum-viable-population extinction-risk population-viability-analysis stochastic-model deterministic-model individual-based-model agent-based-model spatially-explicit-model metapopulation-model source-sink-model integrated-population-model state-space-model hierarchical-model Bayesian-model machine-learning artificial-intelligence computer-vision image-recognition automated-identification deep-learning neural-network convolutional-neural-network transfer-learning data-augmentation training-set validation-set test-set accuracy precision recall F1-score confusion-matrix receiver-operating-characteristic area-under-curve model-selection model-validation cross-validation bootstrapping permutation-test null-model randomization-test Monte-Carlo-simulation Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo Gibbs-sampling Metropolis-Hastings-algorithm Bayesian-inference prior-distribution posterior-distribution likelihood-function evidence model-comparison Bayes-factor information-criterion Akaike-information-criterion corrected-AIC Bayesian-information-criterion deviance-information-criterion Watanabe-Akaike-information-criterion cross-validation-information-criterion stacking model-averaging ensemble-model prediction forecasting scenario-analysis sensitivity-analysis uncertainty-analysis propagation-of-uncertainty error-budget confidence-interval credible-interval prediction-interval tolerance-interval statistical-power sample-size effect-size significance-test hypothesis-testing null-hypothesis alternative-hypothesis type-I-error type-II-error false-positive false-negative multiple-comparison Bonferroni-correction false-discovery-rate q-value p-value significance-level alpha-level beta-level statistical-test parametric-test nonparametric-test robust-test exact-test asymptotic-test bootstrap-test jackknife resampling subsampling leave-one-out k-fold stratified-sampling balanced-sampling imbalanced-data class-imbalance oversampling undersampling synthetic-minority-oversampling SMOTE ADASYN cost-sensitive-learning ensemble-method bagging boosting random-forest gradient-boosting XGBoost LightGBM CatBoost support-vector-machine kernel-method radial-basis-function polynomial-kernel linear-kernel sigmoid-kernel decision-tree classification-tree regression-tree pruning cost-complexity-pruning minimum-description-length rule-based-classifier association-rule frequent-pattern apriori-algorithm FP-growth sequential-pattern temporal-pattern spatial-pattern spatiotemporal-pattern time-series-analysis trend-analysis seasonal-decomposition autoregressive-model moving-average-model ARIMA SARIMA exponential-smoothing state-space-model Kalman-filter particle-filter hidden-Markov-model dynamic-Bayesian-network recurrent-neural-network long-short-term-memory gated-recurrent-unit transformer attention-mechanism self-attention multi-head-attention encoder decoder encoder-decoder-architecture sequence-to-sequence-model generative-model generative-adversarial-network variational-autoencoder normalizing-flow diffusion-model energy-based-model Boltzmann-machine restricted-Boltzmann-machine deep-belief-network autoencoder denoising-autoencoder sparse-autoencoder contractive-autoencoder variational-inference expectation-maximization maximum-likelihood maximum-a-posteriori maximum-entropy Occam's-razor parsimony model-complexity overfitting underfitting bias-variance-tradeoff regularization L1-regularization L2-regularization elastic-net dropout early-stopping batch-normalization layer-normalization group-normalization instance-normalization weight-decay mixup cutout cutmix random-erasing autoaugment fast-autoaugment population-based-augmentation neural-architecture-search automated-machine-learning hyperparameter-optimization grid-search random-search Bayesian-optimization sequential-model-based-optimization multi-fidelity-optimization knowledge-distillation teacher-student-model model-compression quantization knowledge-transfer domain-adaptation few-shot-learning zero-shot-learning one-shot-learning meta-learning learning-to-learn metric-learning siamese-network triplet-loss contrastive-learning self-supervised-learning unsupervised-learning semi-supervised-learning weakly-supervised-learning active-learning online-learning incremental-learning continual-learning lifelong-learning curriculum-learning multi-task-learning multi-modal-learning cross-modal-learning representation-learning feature-learning embedding-learning manifold-learning dimensionality-reduction principal-component-analysis t-SNE UMAP word-embedding sentence-embedding document-embedding knowledge-graph-embedding graph-neural-network graph-convolutional-network graph-attention-network message-passing-neural-network relational-graph-convolutional-network inductive-learning transductive-learning homophily heterophily graph-isomorphism Weisfeiler-Lehman-test subgraph-isomorphism graph-matching network-alignment network-embedding node-embedding edge-embedding graph-classification node-classification link-prediction graph-generation graph-synthesis molecular-generation de-novo-design inverse-design retrosynthesis reaction-prediction property-prediction quantitative-structure-activity-relationship QSAR quantitative-structure-property-relationship QSPR molecular-descriptor fingerprint Morgan-fingerprint extended-connectivity-fingerprint circular-fingerprint atom-pair-fingerprint topological-torsion-fingerprint pharmacophore shape-similarity electrostatic-similarity docking scoring-function binding-affinity-prediction protein-ligand-interaction protein-protein-interaction protein-structure-prediction AlphaFold protein-folding contact-prediction distance-prediction angle-prediction torsion-prediction secondary-structure-prediction tertiary-structure-prediction quaternary-structure-prediction protein-design protein-engineering directed-evolution rational-design computational-design de-novo-protein-design enzyme-design catalytic-antibody ribozyme aptamer DNAzyme synthetic-biology genetic-circuit metabolic-engineering metabolic-flux-analysis flux-balance-analysis genome-scale-metabolic-model dynamic-metabolic-model kinetic-modeling stoichiometric-modeling constraint-based-modeling optimization linear-programming mixed-integer-linear-programming quadratic-programming nonlinear-programming dynamic-programming stochastic-programming robust-optimization multi-objective-optimization Pareto-optimality evolutionary-algorithm genetic-algorithm genetic-programming differential-evolution particle-swarm-optimization ant-colony-optimization simulated-annealing tabu-search variable-neighborhood-search iterated-local-search greedy-randomized-adaptive-search scatter-search path-relinking memetic-algorithm hyper-heuristic metaheuristic local-search neighborhood-search hill-climbing random-walk randomized-search Monte-Carlo-tree-search upper-confidence-bound Thompson-sampling multi-armed-bandit contextual-bandit reinforcement-learning policy-gradient actor-critic Q-learning deep-Q-network policy-iteration value-iteration temporal-difference-learning SARSA expected-SARSA double-Q-learning dueling-Q-network prioritized-experience-replay distributed-reinforcement-learning impala A3C asynchronous-advantage-actor-critic PPO proximal-policy-optimization TRPO trust-region-policy-optimization DDPG deep-deterministic-policy-gradient TD3 twin-delayed-deep-deterministic-policy-gradient SAC soft-actor-critic model-based-reinforcement-learning model-predictive-control guided-policy-search imitation-learning inverse-reinforcement-learning apprenticeship-learning behavior-cloning dataset-aggregation DAgger generative-adversarial-imitation-learning third-person-imitation-learning one-shot-imitation-learning meta-reinforcement-learning hierarchical-reinforcement-learning option skill subgoal intrinsic-motivation curiosity-driven-exploration empowerment information-gain prediction-error novelty-seeking diversity-seeking multi-agent-reinforcement-learning mean-field fictitious-play correlated-equilibrium Nash-equilibrium game-theory mechanism-design auction-theory incentive-design social-choice-theory voting-theory fair-division matching-theory market-design algorithmic-game-theory computational-social-choice computational-complexity NP-completeness NP-hardness approximation-algorithm approximation-ratio inapproximability fixed-parameter-tractability parameterized-complexity kernelization treewidth graph-minor forbidden-minor-characterization well-quasi-ordering Robertson-Seymour-theorem graph-structure-theorem bidimensionality-theory meta-theorem Courcelle's-theorem automata-theory finite-automaton pushdown-automaton Turing-machine computability decidability halting-problem Rice's-theorem Gödel's-incompleteness-theorems lambda-calculus combinatory-logic type-theory proof-theory model-theory set-theory forcing large-cardinal axiom-of-choice continuum-hypothesis independence-result consistency-strength reverse-mathematics constructive-mathematics intuitionistic-logic modal-logic temporal-logic epistemic-logic deontic-logic description-logic ontology knowledge-representation semantic-web linked-data RDF SPARQL OWL knowledge-graph entity-linking relation-extraction event-extraction coreference-resolution named-entity-recognition part-of-speech-tagging dependency-parsing constituency-parsing semantic-parsing natural-language-inference textual-entailment natural-language-generation machine-translation summarization question-answering dialogue-system conversational-AI chatbot virtual-assistant speech-recognition speech-synthesis speaker-recognition emotion-recognition sentiment-analysis opinion-mining aspect-based-sentiment-analysis target-dependent-sentiment-analysis stance-detection rumor-detection fake-news-detection fact-checking claim-verification evidence-retrieval argument-mining persuasion-detection deception-detection personality-prediction mental-health-detection suicide-prevention crisis-intervention social-media-mining network-analysis community-detection influence-maximization information-diffusion cascade-modeling epidemic-modeling SEIR-model SIR-model agent-based-epidemic-model compartmental-model network-epidemic-model metapopulation-epidemic-model spatial-epidemic-model stochastic-epidemic-model branching-process renewal-equation generation-interval serial-interval incubation-period latent-period infectious-period basic-reproduction-number effective-reproduction-number herd-immunity-threshold vaccination-coverage vaccine-efficacy vaccine-effectiveness breakthrough-infection waning-immunity immune-escape variant-of-concern variant-of-interest variant-under-monitoring phylogenetic-analysis molecular-clock-analysis phylodynamics viral-evolution antigenic-drift antigenic-shift zoonotic-spillover reservoir-host intermediate-host amplifying-host dead-end-host vector-borne-disease mosquito-borne-disease tick-borne-disease flea-borne-disease lice-borne-disease midge-borne-disease sandfly-borne-disease tsetse-borne-disease blackfly-borne-disease triatomine-borne-disease kissing-bug Chagas-disease trypanosomiasis leishmaniasis malaria dengue yellow-fever Zika-virus chikungunya West-Nile-virus Japanese-encephalitis tick-borne-encephalitis Lyme-disease Rocky-Mountain-spotted-fever ehlichiosis anaplasmosis babesiosis tularemia plague murine-typhus epidemic-typhus endemic-typhus scrub-typhus Q-fever trench-fever bartonellosis cat-scratch-disease rat-bite-fever leptospirosis brucellosis anthrax melioidosis glanders tularaemia francisellosis coxiellosis rickettsiosis orientia-infection ehrlichiosis neoehrlichiosis neorickettsiosis anaplasmataceae rickettsiaceae coxiellaceae bartonellaceae brucellaceae francisellaceae pasteurellaceae legionellaceae chlamydiaceae mycoplasmataceae ureaplasmataceae spiroplasmataceae achaenoplasmataceae entomoplasmataceae haloplasmataceae tenericutes mollicutes bacteroidetes fusobacteria spirochaetes synergistetes deferribacteres thermotogae aquificae caldiserica caldithrix deferrisoma desulfurobacterium thermovibrio thermocrinis hydrogenobacter sulfurihydrogenibium persephonella hydrogenobaculum hydrothermus thermothrix sulfuricurvum sulfurimonas sulfurovum thiovulum thiomicrospira pseudomonas vibrio aeromonas photobacterium aliivibrio gracilibacillus halobacillus halomonas chromohalobacter cobetia salinicola kushneria halotalea halovibrio salinivibrio thioalkalivibrio thiohalophilus ectothiorhodospira halorhodospira thiorhodospira halochromatium thioflavicoccus marichromatium thiocapsa lamprocystis thiodictyon thiopedia amoebobacter thiocystis chromatium allo-chromatium thermochromatium rhabdochromatium thiobaca thiohalocapsa halocapsa thiolamprovum thioploca thiomargarita beggiatoa methylococcus methylomonas methylomicrobium methylosinus methylocystis methylocella methylocapsa methylacidiphilum verrucomicrobia planctomycetes chlamydiae lentisphaerae kiritimatiellaeota calditrichaeota fervidibacteria
Strategus
Ox Beetles
Strategus is a genus of rhinoceros beetles in the family Scarabaeidae, commonly known as ox beetles. The genus is widespread in the Americas, ranging from Kansas southward through South America. Species in this genus are notable for their large size and prominent horns, particularly in males. Some species, such as S. aloeus, are significant agricultural pests of oil palm plantations in Latin America, where they reproduce in decomposing organic matter from replanting operations.
rhinoceros-beetle ox-beetle pest oil-palm semiochemical pheromone Dynastinae Scarabaeidae Coleoptera agricultural-pest integrated-pest-management
Synanthedon rileyana
horsenettle borer, Riley's clearwing moth
Synanthedon rileyana is a clearwing moth in the family Sesiidae, notable for its effective wasp mimicry. Adults are diurnal and active from late spring through early autumn. The species is distinguished from similar clearwing moths by complete yellow banding on all abdominal segments and a red discal cell on the forewing. Larvae are borers in horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), a weedy plant common to sandy agricultural areas.
clearwing-moth sesiidae wasp-mimic borer solanum diurnal pheromone agricultural-weed multiple-generations
Tetropium
spruce longhorn beetles
Tetropium is a genus of long-horned beetles (Cerambycidae) containing at least 20 described species, sometimes classified in its own monotypic tribe Tetropiini. Several species are significant forest pests, particularly of spruce (Picea) trees. The genus includes economically important species such as T. fuscum (brown spruce longhorn beetle), an invasive pest in Atlantic Canada, and T. castaneum. Adults are attracted to synthetic pheromones and host tree volatiles, making them amenable to detection and monitoring using baited traps.
forest-pest invasive-species spruce pheromone fuscumol phloeophagous wood-borer integrated-pest-management biological-invasion
Tetropium cinnamopterum
Eastern Larch Borer
Tetropium cinnamopterum is a native North American cerambycid beetle in the tribe Tetropiini. Adults are distinguished from the closely related T. parvulum by eye shape, scutellar structure, external genitalia, and pronotal puncture number; larvae are distinguished by urogomphi morphology. The species has been recorded from various conifer hosts, with larvae developing in conifer wood. It is transcontinental in Canada and occurs sympatrically with invasive T. fuscum in Atlantic Canada, where cross-attraction to the aggregation pheromone fuscumol may occur. Both sexes respond to (S)-fuscumol synergized by host monoterpenes and ethanol.
Cerambycidae Tetropiini conifer woodboring pheromone fuscumol native North-America Canada sympatric cross-attraction vector Ophiostoma fungi beetle-fungus-symbiosis invasive-species-interaction Tetropium-fuscum chemical-ecology forest-pest longhorn-beetle
Tetropium fuscum
Brown Spruce Longhorn Beetle
Tetropium fuscum is a wood-boring cerambycid beetle native to Europe and Northern Asia, established as an invasive species in Atlantic Canada since at least 1990. The species is a documented pest of spruce trees (Picea spp.), with larvae developing in the phloem of host trees. Adult males produce an aggregation pheromone called fuscumol that attracts both sexes, particularly when combined with host tree volatiles. In its introduced Canadian range, it has been observed infesting stressed and moribund red spruce, with larval galleries sometimes girdling stems and causing tree mortality.
cerambycidae spondylidinae longhorn-beetle wood-borer forest-pest invasive-species pheromone fuscumol spruce-pest phloeophagous
Thymelicus lineola
Essex Skipper, European Skipper
Thymelicus lineola is a small skipper butterfly native to Europe and introduced to North America prior to 1910. In Europe it is known as the Essex Skipper; in North America it is called the European Skipper. The species has spread extensively across eastern Canada and the northern United States, with populations established as far west as British Columbia. It is univoltine with five larval instars. Adults are active in summer and exhibit thermoregulatory basking behavior. Males use perching and patrolling strategies to locate mates and release pheromones from androconial scent scales during courtship.
skipper grass-feeder introduced-species pest thermoregulation pheromone parasitoid-host genome-sequenced
Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis
Evergreen Bagworm Moth, Eastern Bagworm, Common Bagworm, Common Basket Worm, North American Bagworm
Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis, the evergreen bagworm moth, is a polyphagous pest species in the family Psychidae. Larvae construct distinctive silken bags decorated with plant fragments, which they carry throughout their development. Males emerge as winged adults with nearly scale-free, transparent wings—reflected in the genus name derived from Greek thyris (window) and ptera (wing). Females remain wingless and never leave their bags, releasing sex pheromones to attract mates. The species exhibits remarkable sexual dimorphism in both morphology and behavior, with males and females showing differential stratification on host trees and distinct pupation heights.
bagworm Psychidae pest ornamental-pest sexual-dimorphism pheromone ballooning polyphagy IPM
Toxotrypana
papaya fruit fly
Toxotrypana is an obsolete genus of tephritid fruit flies now synonymized with Anastrepha. The genus was historically recognized for species associated with papaya and related Caricaceae, with Toxotrypana curvicauda (now Anastrepha curvicauda) being the most studied species. These flies are significant agricultural pests in tropical and subtropical regions where papaya is cultivated.
obsolete-taxon synonym agricultural-pest fruit-fly papaya pheromone Caricaceae
Toxotrypana curvicauda
papaya fruit fly
Toxotrypana curvicauda, commonly known as the papaya fruit fly, is a tephritid fruit fly native to the Americas and now established in Florida and other parts of the southern United States. Males are highly territorial, defending papaya fruit surfaces through aerial combat using specialized midleg armature. Females are attracted to male-produced sex pheromones and oviposit directly into papaya fruits, where larvae develop within the seeds. The species is a significant agricultural pest of papaya (Carica papaya) and has been recorded on alternative hosts including Jacaratia mexicana and Morrenia odorata.
agricultural-pest fruit-fly papaya territorial-behavior sexual-selection pheromone Tephritidae Florida invasive-species seed-feeder
Trypodendron
Trypodendron is a genus of ambrosia beetles in the family Curculionidae, subfamily Scolytinae. Species in this genus are fungus-farmers that cultivate symbiotic fungi in galleries excavated within wood. Several species, including T. lineatum, T. domesticum, T. signatum, and T. laeve, are economically significant pests of timber. The genus is characterized by specialized pheromone-mediated aggregation behavior and obligate nutritional mutualisms with specific fungal partners.
ambrosia-beetle fungus-farming forest-pest timber-pest pheromone mutualism Scolytinae
Vitula serratilineella
Beehive Honey Moth, driedfruit moth, bumble bee wax moth
Vitula serratilineella, commonly known as the beehive honey moth or driedfruit moth, is a wax moth species native to western North America. It is a significant pest of beekeeping operations, infesting honey bee products and wax. The species was described by Ragonot in 1887 and has been the subject of pheromone-based monitoring research. Females produce a specific three-component pheromone blend that has been successfully used in field trapping programs.
pest apiculture pheromone western-North-America stored-product-pest wax-moth
Xenos peckii
Xenos peckii is a highly specialized endoparasitic insect in the order Strepsiptera, commonly known as twisted-wing parasites. It is an obligate parasite of paper wasps, specifically Polistes fuscatus, with development occurring entirely within the host's abdominal cavity. The species exhibits extreme sexual dimorphism: males are free-flying adults with reduced wings and unusual eyes containing green- and UV-sensitive photoreceptors, while females are neotenic, lacking wings, legs, and eyes, and remain permanently embedded within the host. Males locate females through a species-specific sex pheromone, (3R,5S,9R,7E,11E)-3,5,9,11-tetramethyl-7,11-tridecadienal, which females actively release by inflating and extruding their cephalothorax through the host's cuticle. The species has been documented across temperate North America and possesses unique cellular mechanisms for meiotic spindle formation that have been studied ultrastructurally.
Strepsiptera endoparasite Polistes sexual-dimorphism pheromone UV-vision meiosis xenosurveillance