Agricultural-pest-management
Guides
Microctonus
Microctonus is a genus of braconid parasitoid wasps in the subfamily Euphorinae. Species are endoparasitoids of adult beetles, primarily targeting weevils (Curculionidae) and flea beetles (Chrysomelidae). The genus contains approximately 31 species in North America and additional species globally, including several used as classical biological control agents. Notable biocontrol species include M. aethiopoides and M. hyperodae, introduced to New Zealand to control forage pests, and M. aethiops and M. vittatae, used in North American agricultural systems. Many species exhibit parthenogenetic reproduction, with M. hyperodae showing arrhenotokous parthenogenesis (males produced parthenogenetically).
Mirax
miracine wasps
Mirax is a genus of tiny parasitoid wasps in the subfamily Miracinae (Braconidae). Species are typically 1–2 mm in length and are koinobiont endoparasitoids of leaf-mining caterpillars. The genus has been documented in Australia, Puerto Rico, and other regions, with several species described through citizen science initiatives. Some species, such as Mirax insularis, have been studied for their potential as biological control agents of agricultural pests.
Myiopharus
Myiopharus is a New World genus of tachinid flies containing at least 15 species north of Mexico. Species in this genus are parasitoids of chrysomelid beetles, with documented hosts including the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) and the sunflower beetle (Zygogramma exclamationis). The genus belongs to the M. dorsalis species group, characterized by distinctive morphological features in females.
Myiopharus doryphorae
Myiopharus doryphorae is a tachinid fly native to North America and a specialized parasitoid of the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata). It develops internally within host larvae, with parasitism rates reaching 45–67% during peak season. The species has been extensively studied for biological control applications against this major agricultural pest.
Nabis
damsel bugs
Nabis is a genus of damsel bugs in the family Nabidae, comprising predatory true bugs found worldwide. Members are small, slender insects typically under 12 mm in length, recognized by their raptorial front legs adapted for capturing prey. They are primarily nocturnal predators that use a combination of ambush and active hunting strategies to subdue insects larger than themselves. The genus is economically significant as a biological control agent in agricultural systems, particularly in cotton and greenhouse crops.
Nabis americoferus
Common Damsel Bug
Nabis americoferus, the common damsel bug, is a small predatory true bug in the family Nabidae. It occurs across North America and Central America, with well-documented populations in eastern Ontario and agroecosystems of the United States. The species produces two generations per year in temperate regions, overwinters as adults in field margins, and colonizes crop fields in late spring. It is an economically important biological control agent, feeding on agricultural pests including aphids, leafminers, and mirid bugs.
Neochrysocharis formosa
Neochrysocharis formosa is a small parasitoid wasp in the family Eulophidae. It is a larval parasitoid of leafminers (Agromyzidae) and has been recorded as a parasitoid of Tuta absoluta (Gelechiidae) and Diprion pini (Diprionidae). The species exhibits host-feeding behavior and is widely used as a biological control agent in agricultural systems. Both thelytokous and arrhenotokous strains exist, with thelytokous strains showing superior biocontrol potential. Sex ratios are typically female-biased.
Neorileya
Neorileya is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Eurytomidae, subfamily Rileyinae. These micro-Hymenoptera are egg parasitoids of true bugs (Hemiptera), with documented hosts in Coreidae, Pentatomidae, and Reduviidae. The genus contains at least seven described species distributed across the New World from central California to Argentina. Neorileya species develop as endoparasitoids within host eggs, with some species causing significant mortality in agricultural pest populations.
Nephaspis
minute lady beetles
Nephaspis is a genus of minute lady beetles in the family Coccinellidae. Species within this genus are specialized predators of whiteflies, particularly Bemisia argentifolii, and have been extensively studied as biological control agents. The genus was established by Casey in 1899. Many species formerly placed in Nephaspis have been reclassified to Clitostethus. The best-studied species, N. oculatus, exhibits a Type II functional response to prey density and completes development from egg to adult in approximately 24 days at 26°C.
Nephaspis oculatus
eyed lady
Nephaspis oculatus is a small coccinellid beetle specialized as a predator of whitefly eggs. Under laboratory conditions at 26°C, development from egg to adult averages 22.7 days. The species exhibits highly specific feeding behavior, consuming only eggs of Bemisia argentifolii and rejecting nymphal and adult stages. Both larvae and adults are predatory, with consumption increasing through larval instars. The species has been evaluated for biological control potential against silverleaf whitefly in agricultural systems.
Odynerus dilectus
A potter wasp species in the subfamily Eumeninae, recorded from the United States and Alberta, Canada. Females construct distinctive turrets at nest entrances and provision nests with prey, primarily alfalfa weevil larvae in agricultural contexts, though small caterpillars have also been documented as prey. The species has been investigated as a potential biological control agent for alfalfa weevil (Hypera postica) in integrated pest management programs.
Oligota
Oligota is a genus of small rove beetles in the family Staphylinidae. Multiple species have been documented as predators of mites, particularly spider mites (Tetranychus urticae), and are studied for their potential use in biological control. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution with species recorded across North America, Europe, and Asia. Individual species show specialized predatory behaviors and habitat associations ranging from decaying organic matter to agricultural crop environments.
Oplomus
Oplomus is a genus of predatory stink bugs in the family Pentatomidae, subfamily Asopinae, containing approximately nine described species. The genus has been studied for biological control potential, particularly Oplomus dichrous as a predator of agricultural pests. Members are generalist predators with documented preferences for certain prey types.
Oplomus dichrous
Oplomus dichrous is a predatory stink bug in the family Pentatomidae. It has been investigated for its potential as a biological control agent against the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata), a major agricultural pest. The species occurs in Central and North America.
Orius vicinus
minute pirate bug
Orius vicinus is a predatory minute pirate bug (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) studied extensively for biological control potential. Under laboratory conditions at 26°C, it completes development from egg to adult in approximately 18–23 days, with females living 15–17 days and producing 31–61 eggs. The species exhibits Type II or Type III functional responses depending on prey stage, with adult prey generally preferred over eggs. It has been observed feeding on spider mites, whiteflies, thrips, and other small arthropods in agricultural settings. Unlike some congeners, O. vicinus does not enter reproductive diapause and continues oviposition through winter conditions.
Pediobius
Pediobius is a genus of minute chalcid wasps in the family Eulophidae, containing over 200 described species. The larvae are parasitoids of various arthropods, primarily insects. Several species have been employed in biological pest control programs, including Pediobius foveolatus against Mexican bean beetles and Pediobius cajanus against the Asian fly in pigeon pea crops.
Perillus bioculatus
two-spotted stink bug, double-eyed soldier bug
Perillus bioculatus is a predatory stink bug native to North America that has been introduced to Europe and Asia as a biological control agent. Both nymphs and adults are specialized predators of Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) eggs and larvae, using toxic venom and digestive enzymes to subdue and liquefy prey. The species has established expanding populations in southeastern Europe, with recent records from Serbia, Hungary, Romania, and Turkey. Research demonstrates its ability to locate prey by detecting volatile compounds released by beetle-damaged potato plants.
Phanerotoma
Phanerotoma is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae, subfamily Cheloninae, with at least 190 described species. Species within this genus are primarily larval or ovo-larval parasitoids of Lepidoptera, particularly moths in families Pyralidae, Gracillariidae, and Olethreutidae. Several species have been studied for their potential as biological control agents of agricultural pests, including stored product pests and crop pests on cowpea, citrus, pecan, and litchi. The genus exhibits host-specificity at the species level, with different Phanerotoma species attacking distinct host groups.
Pharoscymnus
Pharoscymnus is a genus of lady beetles in the family Coccinellidae, established by Bedel in 1906. The genus comprises approximately 11 described species and is widely distributed across Asian and Afrotropical regions. Several species have been introduced to other regions, including Europe and the Americas, for biological control of scale insects. Members of this genus are recognized as specialized predators of scale insects (Coccoidea), with documented utility in agricultural pest management.
Phygadeuon
Phygadeuon is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae with nearly cosmopolitan distribution. Species in this genus are primarily parasitoids of dipteran hosts, with documented associations including root maggot flies (Anthomyiidae) in agricultural systems. The genus has been recorded from Europe and North America, with some species occasionally utilized in biological control contexts.
Phytodietus
Phytodietus is a species-rich genus of ichneumonid wasps in the subfamily Tryphoninae, distributed across all zoogeographical regions. Members are koinobiont ectoparasitoids of semi-concealed Lepidoptera larvae, with documented associations primarily to Tortricidae and Pyralidae. The genus was recently recorded from Thailand for the first time, expanding Oriental region documentation. Several species have been investigated for biological control of agricultural pests.
Platygastrinae
Platygastrinae is a subfamily of minute parasitoid wasps in the family Platygastridae. Members are characterized by their extremely small size, often under 2 mm, and specialized parasitoid biology targeting gall midges (Cecidomyiidae). The subfamily includes approximately 50+ genera, with Synopeas, Leptacis, and Platygaster being among the most studied. Many species exhibit elongated metasomas, though the functional significance of this trait remains unknown. Several species have been documented as biological control agents for agricultural pests, including the recently confirmed parasitoid of soybean gall midge, Synopeas ruficoxum.
Podisus maculiventris
Spined Soldier Bug
Podisus maculiventris, the spined soldier bug, is a native North American predatory stink bug widely studied for biological control applications. It is a generalist predator of over 70 insect species, including agricultural pests such as the Colorado potato beetle, Mexican bean beetle, and brown marmorated stink bug. Unlike plant-feeding stink bugs, it actively hunts and kills prey using toxic venom and digestive enzymes. Adults overwinter and become active on warm winter days. The species has been extensively researched for augmentative release in agricultural systems, particularly against coleopteran and lepidopteran larvae.
Propylea
fourteen-spotted lady beetles
Propylea is a genus of small lady beetles (Coccinellidae) containing four recognized species. The most widely known member, Propylea quatuordecimpunctata, is native to the Palearctic region and has become invasive in North America. Propylea japonica is an important biological control agent in Chinese agroecosystems, where it preys on aphids, whiteflies, and other soft-bodied pests. Species in this genus exhibit complex behaviors including selective foraging, intraguild predation, and mating-related dietary shifts.
Propylea quatuordecimpunctata
14-spotted ladybird beetle, Fourteen-spotted Lady Beetle, P-14
A small lady beetle (3.5–4.5 mm) native to the Palearctic and introduced to North America as a biological control agent for aphids. Exhibits remarkable color polymorphism with over 100 documented pattern variations, ranging from cream-yellow to nearly black. A generalist predator of aphids and other soft-bodied insects, with demonstrated invasive capacity in North America.
Pterostichus melanarius
Rain Beetle
Pterostichus melanarius, commonly known as the rain beetle, is a ground beetle native to Europe that has become established in North America following introduction in the 1920s. Adults are 12–18 mm long, black with straight elytral striations, and exhibit wing dimorphism with both flight-capable (macropterous) and flightless (brachypterous) morphs. The species is a generalist predator of invertebrates, with documented preference for slugs including the invasive gray garden slug Deroceras reticulatum. It occupies diverse habitats including forests, meadows, urban areas, and agricultural fields, and has been widely studied for its potential as a biological control agent.
Raphignathoidea
Raphignathoidea is a superfamily of mites in the order Trombidiformes, comprising approximately 1,087 species across 62 genera and 12 families. The group exhibits diverse feeding strategies, including predation on small invertebrates, herbivory, and parasitism. Many species have commercial value in biological pest control. The superfamily occupies varied microhabitats from soil and leaf litter to aquatic environments and agricultural crops.
Rhyzobius forestieri
Forestier's lady beetle
Rhyzobius forestieri is a small lady beetle native to Australia, introduced to Europe and North America in the 1980s as a biological control agent for scale insects. The species has been evaluated for its efficacy in controlling Olive Scale (Saissetia oleae) and other scale pests, with variable success reported in different regions. It exhibits colour variation and wax production across all life stages, and displays specialized defensive and feeding behaviours. The species is now established in multiple continents outside its native range.
Scelioninae
Scelioninae is a large subfamily of parasitoid wasps in the family Scelionidae, containing over 3,000 described species across approximately 160 genera. These wasps are exclusively parasitoids, primarily attacking the eggs of insects, spiders, and other arthropods. They are generally idiobionts—parasitoids that prevent further host development after attack—and several genera have evolved winglessness or adaptations for aquatic environments, including underwater attack of insect eggs.
Scutellista
Scutellista is a genus of chalcid wasps in the family Eunotidae. Members are parasitoids of scale insects (Coccoidea), with several species used as biological control agents. The genus is characterized by a distinctive scutellum that projects as a roof over much of the gaster. Species occur across multiple continents including Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia.
Stethoconus
Stethoconus is a genus of predatory plant bugs in the family Miridae, subfamily Deraeocorinae. Species in this genus are obligate predators of lace bugs (Tingidae) and have been documented as biological control agents for agricultural pests. The genus has been recorded in Asia (Japan, Pakistan) and North America (Florida, USA), with individual species showing specific associations with particular tingid hosts.
Stethoconus praefectus
Stethoconus praefectus is a predatory plant bug in the family Miridae, subfamily Deraeocorinae, native to South and East Asia and established in the United States. It is an obligatory predator of lace bugs (Tingidae), with documented prey including agricultural pests such as the avocado lace bug (Pseudacysta perseae) and brinjal lace bugs (Urentius hystricellus, Corythauma ayyari). The species has been investigated and utilized as a biological control agent for lace bug infestations in crop systems.
Stethorus
Mite-eating Ladybirds, Spider Mite Destroyers
Stethorus is a genus of minute ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae) commonly known as spider mite destroyers. The genus contains more than 40 described species, though some sources cite at least 20. These beetles are highly specialized predators of spider mites (Tetranychidae) and are recognized as important natural enemies of agricultural pests such as the two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) and the European red mite (Panonychus ulmi). Their small size and cryptic coloration make them easily overlooked in field settings.
Synopeas
Synopeas is a genus of minute parasitoid wasps in family Platygastridae, comprising approximately 400 described species. Species in this genus are known to parasitize gall midges (Cecidomyiidae), with several species documented as biological control agents of agricultural pests including the soybean gall midge (Resseliella maxima) and swede midge (Contarinia nasturtii). Some species exhibit distinctive morphological features such as greatly elongated metasomas. The genus is understudied and considered part of a 'dark taxon' with high diversity but limited ecological and taxonomic documentation.
Tachyporus
Tachyporus is a genus of rove beetles (Staphylinidae) in the tribe Tachyporini, serving as the type genus for both its tribe and subfamily. The genus comprises approximately 35 species in North and Central America alone, with additional species in Europe and other regions. Species such as Tachyporus hypnorum have been extensively studied for their role as generalist predators in agricultural ecosystems, particularly in cereal fields where they contribute to aphid control.
Telenominae
Telenominae is a subfamily of parasitoid wasps in the family Scelionidae (formerly placed in Platygastridae). Members are solitary egg parasitoids, primarily attacking eggs of Hemiptera, particularly stink bugs (Pentatomidae) and related families in the superfamily Pentatomoidea. The subfamily includes genera such as Telenomus, Trissolcus, Phanuromyia, and Eumicrosoma. Several species, notably Trissolcus japonicus (the Samurai Wasp), are used or studied as biological control agents for agricultural pests.
Telenomus
Telenomus is a genus of minute egg parasitoid wasps in the subfamily Telenominae, family Scelionidae. First described by Alexander Henry Haliday in 1833, species in this genus develop as parasitoids within the eggs of other insects, primarily targeting Lepidoptera and Hemiptera. Several species, notably T. remus and T. podisi, are important biological control agents used in integrated pest management programs against agricultural pests including fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) and stink bugs (Euschistus spp.). The genus exhibits a cosmopolitan distribution with particular significance in tropical and subtropical agricultural systems.
Temelucha
Temelucha is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Ichneumonidae, comprising over 200 species with cosmopolitan distribution. Species in this genus are primary parasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, with documented hosts including the potato tuberworm (Phthorimaea operculella) and the pine shoot moth (Rhyacionia buoliana). Several species have been studied for their potential in biological control programs.
Tetrastichinae
Tetrastichinae is one of the largest subfamilies of Eulophidae, containing over 100 genera and nearly 3,000 species of minute chalcid wasps. Members exhibit exceptionally diverse biology: most are parasitoids attacking hosts across 10 insect orders and over 100 families, including nematodes, mites, and spider eggs. Some species are phytophagous (typically as inquilines in galls), gall formers, or inquilines. Endoparasitism predominates over ectoparasitism, with both solitary and gregarious forms known; gregarious species may produce over 2,000 individuals from a single host. Reproduction is often by thelytokous parthenogenesis, though arrhenotoky occurs in some taxa.
Therophilus
Therophilus is a genus of koinobiont, solitary, larval endoparasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae. Members are specialized parasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, with documented associations including pest species such as Maruca vitrata (legume pod borer), Grapholita molesta (oriental fruit moth), and Epiphyas postvittana (light brown apple moth). The genus is notable for its distinctive black, red-orange, and white coloration pattern, which appears to be part of a putative mimicry complex with other braconid wasps. Several species have been evaluated or deployed as biological control agents against agricultural pests.
Toxomerus marginatus
Margined Calligrapher, Margined Calligrapher Fly
Toxomerus marginatus is a common North American hoverfly (Syrphidae) measuring 5–6 mm. Adults are frequent flower visitors, while larvae are predatory on thrips, aphids, and small caterpillars. The species has been documented as the most numerous syrphid controlling aphids in California Central Coast lettuce fields. It exhibits strong attraction to methyl salicylate, a floral compound and herbivore-induced plant volatile.
Toxoneuron
Toxoneuron is a genus of koinobiont endoparasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae. The best-studied species, Toxoneuron nigriceps, is a specialist parasitoid of the tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens). Members of this genus develop internally within host larvae, with a distinctive post-egression feeding phase where larvae feed externally on host tissues before pupation. The genus exhibits sophisticated host manipulation mechanisms including polydnavirus-mediated immune suppression and teratocyte-derived physiological regulation.
Trathala
Trathala is a genus of ichneumonid wasps first described by Cameron in 1899. Species within this genus are larval-pupal parasitoids of lepidopteran hosts. Trathala flavoorbitalis has been studied as a biological control agent for agricultural pests including the brinjal shoot and fruit borer (Leucinodes orbonalis) and rice leaffolder. The genus exhibits host-stage selectivity, with successful development typically occurring in third to fifth instar host larvae.
Triaspis
Triaspis is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Braconidae. Species within this genus are biological control agents that parasitize weevil larvae and eggs, particularly those of agricultural pests. The genus includes species such as T. thoracicus, an egg-larval parasitoid of pea weevils, and T. aequoris, a larval parasitoid of sunflower seed weevils.
Trichogramma
Trichogramma wasps, egg parasitoid wasps
Trichogramma is a genus of minute polyphagous wasps that are endoparasitoids of insect eggs. With over 200 species worldwide, it is one of approximately 80 genera in the family Trichogrammatidae. These wasps are among the most extensively studied and widely used biological control agents globally, with more than a thousand published papers on their biology and applications. Trichogramma species have also gained attention in neuroscience research due to their extremely small brain size—fewer than 10,000 neurons—while still exhibiting complex behaviors.
biological-controlegg-parasitoidintegrated-pest-managementneuroscience-modelWolbachiamass-rearingagricultural-pest-managementChalcidoideaTrichogrammatidaeaugmentative-biological-controlinundative-releasesustainable-agriculturerice-pest-managementcotton-pest-managementorchard-pest-managementforest-pest-managementparthenogenesischemosensory-biologyminiaturizationbrain-evolutionTrichogrammatidae
trichogrammatid wasps, egg parasitoid wasps
Trichogrammatidae are a family of minute endoparasitoid wasps in the superfamily Chalcidoidea, containing over 840 species in approximately 80 genera with worldwide distribution. Adults of most species measure less than 1 mm in length, with some species of Megaphragma reaching less than 300 μm—among the smallest insects known. The family is distinguished by 3-segmented tarsi, paddle-shaped forewings fringed with marginal cilia, and a unique nervous system adaptation where adult neurons function without nuclei. Trichogrammatids are economically important as biological control agents, parasitizing eggs of Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera.
Trybliographa
Trybliographa is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Figitidae. The most studied species, T. rapae, is an important biological control agent of cabbage root fly (Delia radicum) larvae in agricultural systems across Europe and North America. Members of this genus are koinobiont endoparasitoids that locate hosts using chemical cues and visual cues, with documented plasticity in behavioral responses to environmental stimuli.
Typhlodromus occidentalis
Typhlodromus occidentalis is a phytoseiid mite species specialized as an oligophagous predator of spider mites, particularly the twospotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae). Laboratory studies indicate it has an obligate feeding requirement during the larval stage—all larvae die without prey. The species exhibits distinctive behavioral patterns including high larval walking activity compared to related species, but the lowest deutonymphal activity among studied phytoseiids. Formerly classified under the genera Metaseiulus and Galendromus, this species has been subject to taxonomic revision. Its life history traits differ from polyphagous phytoseiid species, with longer larval stages and shorter deutonymphal stages.
Tytthus
Tytthus is a genus of predatory plant bugs (Miridae) specialized in feeding on planthopper eggs. Species range from approximately 1 mm to 3.6 mm in length. The genus has undergone extensive taxonomic revision, having been placed in multiple tribes before current placement in Semiini. Several species have been used successfully in biological control programs against agricultural pests.
Winthemia rufopicta
Winthemia rufopicta is a polyphagous tachinid fly parasitoid known primarily for attacking larvae of Heliothis spp. (Noctuidae), particularly Heliothis zea and H. virescens, in agricultural systems. Adults emerge in spring with males preceding females by approximately one week. Females deposit eggs on host surfaces, with parasitism levels varying dramatically based on host behavior, size, and microhabitat. The species overwinters as diapausing maggots in shallow soil cells. Population dynamics are strongly tied to host availability, with spring declines and fall peaks in parasitism rates.