Cacao
Guides
Ceratopogonidae
biting midges, no-see-ums, sand flies, punkies, midgies
Ceratopogonidae is a family of minute flies in the order Diptera, commonly known as biting midges, no-see-ums, or punkies. Adults range from 1–6 mm in length, with most species between 1–3 mm. The family contains over 5,000 described species distributed worldwide except Antarctica and the Arctic. While many species feed on the blood of vertebrates including humans and livestock, the majority feed on the hemolymph of other insects. Several species serve as important pollinators of tropical crops, notably cacao.
Forcipomyia
biting midges, no-see-ums, punkies
Forcipomyia is a large genus of biting midges comprising over 1,000 described species. The genus exhibits remarkable ecological diversity: species in the subgenus Lasiohelea are vertebrate blood-feeders, some species act as ectoparasites on larger insects, and others serve as the exclusive pollinators of cacao (Theobroma cacao), making them essential to chocolate production. This genus belongs to the family Ceratopogonidae and demonstrates one of the highest recorded wing-beat frequencies among insects.
Forcipomyia pluvialis
Forcipomyia pluvialis is a species of biting midge in the family Ceratopogonidae, described by Malloch in 1923. The genus Forcipomyia includes species that are important pollinators of cacao trees (Theobroma cacao), though it is not confirmed whether this specific species performs this ecological function. Like other ceratopogonids, adults are minute flies typically 1–6 mm in length. The specific epithet 'pluvialis' (Latin for 'rainy') suggests an association with wet or rainy conditions, though this has not been explicitly documented for this species.
Heilus
Heilus is a genus of weevils (Curculionidae: Molytinae: Molytini) established by Kuschel in 1955. The genus contains fourteen described South American species, with eleven species redescribed in a 2020 taxonomic review based primarily on Brazilian specimens. Species identification relies on integument texture and patterns of maculation. The type species is Heilus inaequalis (Boheman, 1836). Some species are associated with economically important plants, including avocado and cacao.
Selenothrips
red-banded thrips (for S. rubrocinctus)
Selenothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Thripidae, established by Heinrich Hugo Karny in 1911. The genus contains at least two described species: S. rubrocinctus (Giard, 1901), commonly known as the red-banded thrips or cacao thrips, and S. glabratus Priesner, 1927. S. rubrocinctus is a polyphagous pest with broad tropical and subtropical distribution, known to attack cacao, cashew, mango, avocado, and other crops. Research on this species has focused on its feeding behavior in relation to plant water-stress and amino acid availability.
Selenothrips rubrocinctus
redbanded thrips, cacao thrips, red-banded thrips
Selenothrips rubrocinctus is a small thrips species known as the redbanded thrips, recognized by the distinctive red banding on its dark body. It is a polyphagous pest with a near pan-tropical distribution, first described from the West Indies though possibly originating in northern South America. The species is economically significant as a pest of cacao, mango, cashew, and various ornamental trees, causing leaf silvering, distortion, and fruit damage through sap-feeding. Populations exhibit seasonal dynamics tied to host plant water stress and nutritional status, with peaks typically occurring during dry seasons.