Halictus confusus

In Britain and Europe, reliably distinguished from Halictus tumulorum only by examination of male genitalia. Fresh females of H. confusus have wider pale banding on tergites 3 and 4 compared to H. tumulorum. Males of H. confusus have more yellow on the joints of the hind and middle legs than H. tumulorum.

In Britain, strongly associated with sandy habitats including sandy heaths and sand pits. In other parts of its range, appears more generalist in habitat choice. Nests in aggregations with horizontal entrance tunnels beneath mounds.

Widely distributed across Europe, Asia, and North America. In Great Britain, has a southerly distribution from Dorset east to Kent and north to Norfolk. In North America, ranges from Nova Scotia to North Dakota southward to Florida and Texas. Subspecies include: H. c. confusus (North America), H. c. alpinus (China, Poland, Spain, Switzerland), H. c. arapahonum (Midwest North America), H. c. pelagius (Russia), and H. c. perkinsi (western Europe except higher mountains, and China).

Active from spring through late summer. In North America, queens emerge in spring, switch from early woodland flowers to dandelions, then to wintercress as main pollen source. Nests close off in June; first worker brood emerges to forage on clover. Late summer brood produces reproductive females and males that overwinter after mating.

Polylectic, feeding on a wide variety of flowers. In North America, spring beauty (Claytonia virginica) and toothwort (Cardamine concatenata) used by emerging queens; dandelions and wintercress (Barbarea vulgaris) as main resources; clover used by worker broods; late summer flowers include Lespedeza lineata and Symphyotrichum ericoides.

Primitively eusocial with annual colonies. Queens found new nests each spring, constructing horizontal entrance tunnels beneath mounds. Colony has potential to develop into matriarchy with mother queen and daughter workers. Workers may become reproductively capable depending on colony size and size differential between queen and workers. First brood emerges as workers; final brood produces reproductive females and males. Females overwinter after mating.

Nests in aggregations with guarded entrances. Workers guard nest entrances and may be overcome by ant predators. Foraging adults are preyed upon by crab spiders and predatory bugs. Workers may tailgate returning foragers to enter nests, a behavior exploited by parasitic phorid flies.

Generalist pollinator. Serves as host for multiple parasites including conopid flies (adult females), phorid flies (nest parasites), and the parasitic beetle Ripiphorus walshi (larval parasite). Ants are main nest predators; crab spiders and predatory bugs prey on foraging adults.

Listed as Secure on NatureServe in North America; listed as Vulnerable in Belgium. No significant economic impact; generalist pollination services in natural and agricultural habitats.

• Halictus tumulorumExtremely similar appearance in Britain and Europe; requires examination of male genitalia for reliable separation. Females distinguished by width of pale banding on tergites 3 and 4; males by amount of yellow on leg joints.

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