Ctenolepisma longicaudatum

Escherich, 1905

gray silverfish, long-tailed silverfish, paper silverfish

Ctenolepisma longicaudatum is a silverfish first described from South Africa in 1905, now distributed worldwide in human dwellings. It has become a significant indoor pest in Europe since the early 2000s, particularly in newly constructed buildings with stable climates. The species damages cellulose-based materials including books, documents, and textiles, and can survive extended periods without food.

Ctenolepisma longicaudatum (Dryopteridaceae sp.), Arnhem, the Netherlands by Bj.schoenmakers. Used under a CC0 license.

Ctenolepisma longicaudatum 259702338 by Denis Mariasis. Used under a CC BY 4.0 license.

Ctenolepisma longicaudatum head by Olavi Kurina. Used under a CC BY 4.0 license.

Pronunciation

How to pronounce Ctenolepisma longicaudatum: //ˌktɛnoʊlɛˈpɪsmə lɒŋɪˈkɔːdəˌtəm//

These audio files are automatically generated. While they are not always 100% accurate, they are a good starting point.

Identification

Distinguished from related silverfish by three long caudal appendages (paired and central ), long , and body covered with giving a glimmering gray appearance. reach up to 18 mm. Feathered setae and specific bristle-comb patterns on abdominal tergites separate it from . Twelve stemmata form the . Nymphs lack scales in early instars; tarsal segment number increases through instars (2 segments in 1st instar, 3 in 3rd and beyond).

Images

Habitat

Strictly ; occurs exclusively in indoor environments. Found in domestic settings, public buildings (museums, archives, libraries, schools, supermarkets), warehouses, factories, and office buildings. Favors modern buildings with stable temperature and humidity conditions. Not recorded from natural outdoor .

Distribution

in human dwellings worldwide. First described from South Africa; now established across Europe with rapid expansion since 2000, including Scandinavia, United Kingdom, Ireland, Czechia, Estonia, and Switzerland. Present in North America, Australia (since 1905), New Zealand, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Atlantic islands (Azores). Native range unknown; all records are from human-associated environments.

Diet

feeder on cellulose-based materials including paper (especially sulphite pulp paper), book bindings, wallpaper paste, cardboard, and plant-based textiles such as cotton and rayon. Consumes dried plant material, bread crumbs, insect remains, and shed skins. Does not feed on wool, natural silk, fur, or paper with high mechanical pulp content. Can survive 250–300 days without food, and over 600 days on cellulose alone.

Life Cycle

Ametabolous development with no true . (1.15 × 0.83 mm) laid in crevices, 2–20 per batch; hatch in 20–49 days depending on temperature. Nymphs progress through at least 13 instars before reaching sexual maturity at 18 months to 3 years. continue molting 3–5 times per year throughout life. Lifespan up to 7–8 years. Temperature-dependent development: optimal range 8–25°C, lethal above 29°C prolonged exposure.

Behavior

and photonegative, hiding in crevices by day. Fast-moving when disturbed. Aggregates through arrestment response to endosymbiotic fungus Mycotypha microspora and bacterium Enterobacter cloacae in , not via . Can replenish body water from air at 60–100% relative humidity without drinking. Exhibits cryptic leading to underestimation of .

Ecological Role

Pest of cultural heritage materials in human-built environments. Potential mechanical for opportunistic bacteria (Staphylococcus, Acinetobacter, Bacillus, Kocuria) and fungi. Source of inhalant allergens; tropomyosin likely present as major allergen. to gregarine Garnhamia aciculata and Lepismatophila ctenolepismae. Preyed upon by spitting spider Scytodes thoracica.

Human Relevance

Significant pest in libraries, archives, museums, and domestic settings. Damages books, documents, photographs, watercolor paintings, and cellulose-based textiles. Economic impact potentially severe in cultural heritage institutions. Control requires over extended periods due to longevity and starvation resistance. Insecticidal baits (indoxacarb, clothianidin, fipronil) and sticky traps with protein effective; standard silverfish control strategies often fail.

Similar Taxa

Lepisma saccharinaCommon silverfish; smaller size, lacks feathered setae and distinct bristle-comb patterns on tergites. C. longicaudatum has relatively higher cellulase activity and prefers more stable indoor climates.
Ctenolepisma lineatumFour-lined silverfish; native to Europe, distinguished by four dark longitudinal lines on . C. longicaudatum lacks these lines and has longer caudal filaments relative to body size.
Thermobia domesticaFirebrat; prefers warmer, drier conditions near heat sources. Distinguished by darker coloration with mottled pattern and banded . C. longicaudatum favors moderate humidity and temperature.